9.0 practice effects on motor learning & memory.pdf

8/10/2019 9.0 Practice Effects on Motor Learning & Memory.pdf

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9.0 Practice Effects onMotor Learning & Memory

Vickers Ch 9 -12

Carter - selected pagesVickers Ch 5, 7

Omit Ch 4

Effect of Practice

Design, Feedback &

Instruction on

Motor Learning &

Performance

Outline! The Paradox in Motor Learning Research Defined

! Shea & Morgan - variable and/or random practice vs blockedor constant practice

! Evidence from the laboratory, applied class setting, elite

athletes

! Reasons why variable and/or random practice is more

effective than blocked or constant

! The contextual interference effect

! Elaboration hypothesis

! Forgetting hypothesis

! Random-variable practice improves attention,short andlong term memory processes (Carter pp. 154 - 167)

! Limitations (psychological refractory period, Stroop,

! Limitations of random-variable practice

! Children, Stroke, Alzheimer's Disease

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Sunday, November 16, 2014


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The Paradox (or Reversal)In Motor LearningResearch Defined

4

The Paradox of Modern Motor

Learning Research

Recent research (since 1990) shows that:

! Traditional behavioural methods of training motorskills leads to high levels of performance in the shortterm, but performers trained exclusively under theseconditions break down in the long term, esp. underconditions of high pressure and stress.

! If you want to ensure long term learning of motorskills, research now shows that cognitive decisiontrainingneeds to be incorporated into how practice,

feedback and instruction are provided

The Paradox in Motor Learning

! The paradox applies to three areas of research:

! Practice design- the design of drills and activities

affects short and long term learning, retention and

transfer? (Ch 9/10)

! Providing feedback- the type of feedback affects

short and long term learning, retention and

transfer? (Ch 11)

! Providing instruction- The type of instruction

affects short and long term learning, retention and

transfer? (Ch 12)

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Reviews(Christina &Bjork, 1992;Schmidt &

Bjork, 1992;

Lee et al,1994; Vickers,

1994)

BehaviouralTraining

Practice Design

Blocked or ConstantPracticeLow variability

Cognitive DecisionTraining

Practice Design

Variable practiceRandom practiceHigh variability

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Early in the season Later in the season

Training process of

instruction, practiceand feedback

Reversal

Overview of Motor Learning Research

Behavioural

training

Decision

training

Percent

Improvement

Cognitive

training

!"#$ & '"()*+ ,-"().**/01"Are you a behavioural trainer or acognitive-behavioural decision trainer?

! In terms of practice, feedback and instruction skills,what makes a great teacher or coach?

! What are your personal beliefs/assumptionsaboutwhat it takes to be an excellent coach, teacher,therapist, athlete?

! Respond True or Falseto the following questions.

Answer: Add # of False Statements

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First Evidence OfParadox or Reversal

Contextual Interference Effects

Variable or Random Practice

vs

Blocked or Constant Practice

Contextual Interference Defined! Introducing variable elements of the task being

learned into drills and activities

! First discovered in teaching English (Battig,1966); andmathematics (Cuddy & Jacoby, 1982)

! Blocked vs random practice: Is it better to teach oneelement to perfection, or design learning activities that arerandom?

! Eg. learning multiplication table! Using blocked practice (5x2; 5x3; 5x4, etc)! Using random practice (3x8; 4x5; 9x2,etc)

! Results:!

First Motor Skill Evidence: Shea & Morgan, 1979Perform 4 arm movements: simple to complex

Retention defined: Same skill or tactic performedlater on in same conditions

Sec

Variable

Barrier KnockDown Task

Start

Stop

Stop

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Shea & Morgan, 1979 Transfer ResultsA new barrier knock down task was performed

Transfer defined:A new skill or tactic is performed later on that is made up ofcomponents of skills or tactics practiced earlier; performance context may also be

more difficult. eg. in competition

Sec

Variable

Blocked or Constant Practice

Defined Today

! The same class of skills or motor program isrepeatedover and over on many consecutiveoccasions

! Goal is to groove the skilland achieve a state ofautomatic, mindlessperformance

! Examples:! Basketball - 50 free throws in a row! Golf - driving range - hit 100 balls with driver

! Recommendation: Should be used with beginnersuntil the basics of the skill are acquired. Problem isoveruse

! Once the basic skill is acquired

Variable Practice Defined Today(Smart Variations)

! A singleclass of skills or motor program is selected andvariations practiced that simulate important conditionsencountered in play or competition

! A class of skills is normally defined using abiomechanical principal or sport technique

! Example:! Badminton forehand strokes - clear, drop, smash -

same motor program used for all 3 strokes, withvariations of location, speed, deception, reaction time,etc

! Recommendation:Once the basics are learned, shouldbe main form of practice used

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move to variable and random practice


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Random Practice Defined Today(Smart Combinations)

! Different motor programsare combined that simulateimportant conditions found in competition

! Most often skills are combined tactically

! Eg. Badminton singles tactics: high serve > longclear > drop > net shot - with correct footwork to 2-4corners of the court

! When variable and random practice are used

performance levels are usually lower at first, thenimprove and greater gains in the long term

! Takes patience and understanding of underlying neuralprocesses

! Recommendation:

Variable Practice - First Applied Study

(Goode & Magill, 1986)

! Novices (university students)

! Task: Badminton 3 serves: long, short, drive

! To right court only during training /left court for

retention test

! Number of practices: 3x per week

! Blocked Group: same serve each day

! Variable Group: 3 serves each day

! long

! short

! drive

! Dependent variable: Accuracy of serves to targetareas on the court (retention and transfer)

Transfer TestServe from left court

Retention Test:Serve from right court

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Progress from variable to random practice asap


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Results Goode & Magill

Blocked - squares

Variable - circles

Results Goode & MagillBlocked - squaresVariable - circles

First Study - Elite Athletes: Baseball(Hall, Domingues & Cavazos, 1994)

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Measuring Cognitive Effort! Total pitches hit: 11 practices (do not count the

pretest) x 3 pitches x 15 each = 495 extra hits

! Blocked group: 11 practices x 3 types of pitches x~3 pitches with high levels of cognitive effort = 99pitches in total

! Percent 99/495 = ~ 20% total cognitive effort

! Variable: 11 practices x 3 types of pitches x ~ 12

with high levels of cognitive effort = 398! Percent = 398/495 = ~ 80% cognitive effort

! RESULT: Variable group had

Theoretical Reasons Why

Variable and/or Random Practice

Is More Effective Than Blocked

or Constant Practice

Increased Cognitive Effort

" the mental work underlying optimum levelsof decision making ....anticipation,

regulation and interpretation of motor

performance (Lee, Swinnen & Serrien,

1994, 328-329).

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4x the cognitive practice than the blocked yet the

total number of pitches hit was the same for both groups


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Elaboration Hypothesis

Shea & Zimny (1983)

! When individuals change from one task to another, asin random-variable practice, they have a greateropportunity to learn the distinctive elements ofeach task

! Creates denser neural networks, more effective

synaptic connections! In blocked practice, this occurs to a lesser degree or

not at all (automaticity takes over of simpler skills)

! Also called the

The Forgetting Hypothesis(also called Retrieval Practice)

Lee & Magill (1985). The spacing of movements during

variable-random practice requires the rapid retrievalfrom long term memory of specific skills

! Variable-random practice improves the ability to

access critical information in memory quickly

! Creates better retrieval links to correct solutions

! Richer more extensive neural networks laid down

linking long and short term memory

Random-Variable Practice

Enhances Memory Formation

Five (5) Types of Memory 1) Episodic 2) Semantic 3) Procedural 4) Implicit vs explicit 5) Working or short term memory (STM)

Carter

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distinctive and more meaning full hypothesis


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1) Episodic Memory

Episodic defined:reconstruction of pastexperiences,sensations, successes,

failures, highs, lows,strategies, drills

Experienced from onesown point of view

Eg. Drill in racquetsports - Ability to seeopponent beforereturning the shot

Effects of Blocked vsVariable Practice

Athlete does

not

vary shot

Feeder does

not move

1) Basic FH Drop Drill

Blocked Practice Most common method of

training

Stationary feeder (coach) sets

shuttle high to athlete

Athlete returns with a drop to

feeder

Continuous OH drops

(blocked practice)

Easily learn to make 100+

shots using blocked practice,

BUT

- no retention after 3 months- no transfer to games

Vickers, p 186-187

Athlete

returns

with a

differentdrop

Feeder moves

to new location

Badminton

With Variable Practice

1. Feeder lifts shuttle high to the

athlete

2. During flight of shuttle feedermoves to a new location

3. Athlete must see feeder

before

Hitting to feeder Hitting away from feeder

4. Improves detection of

opponents; execute more

effective shots

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Memry established to see opponent before returning the s


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2) Semantic MemoryDefined: Factual

knowledge that stands

alone

Contains information that isnon-personal;

Together with episodicmemories also calleddeclarativeknowledge

Stored primarily in thefrontal and temporal lobes

Eg. Rules, History of Sport,Nutrition, Exercise,Physiology, Biomechanics

Eg. Dan Proulx, TeamCanada Cyling Coach

Using Random Variable Practice & Questions to

Teach Declarative Knowledge

Dan Proulx cyclingcoach

Elite 14-16 yr.olds

Now Team CanadaOlympic Coach

Duringexercise,asks high level ofquestions aboutbalance, bumping,focus of attention -both declarative &proceduralknowledge of sporttrained at same time,plus develop fitness

3) Procedural Memory

Defined - automatic motorskills; motor programs -how to walk, run, ride abike, swim, drive a car, play

a sport, play an instrument

Learned movements storedin neural networks inmidbrain, basal ganglia andcerebellum

Only when some aspectsof a skill becomeautomatic can the athletedo more

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or declarative


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4) Implicit vs Explicit MemoriesImplicit - memories that cannot be retrieved consciously but areactivated by a particular skill or action

Eg. my xerox number in HPL (20 years) cannot tell you whatit is, but when I look down at the keypad, my hand(s) knowwhat it is

The quiet eye is implicit prior to training; athletes do not knowthey have one (or not); after QE training becomes explicit

Explicit memory - memories that can be consciously retrieved and

reported Once an athlete views his/her QE on video, they can report

on the 5 characteristics

locationis easy to report durationis next Offset is challenging in some tasks (golf) onset relative to final movement most difficult

5) Short Term Memory (STM)

Defined:information held in mindas active neural traffic, until it isforgotten or encoded in LTM

Limit: 7 plus or minus 2 items(Miller, G. A.1956)

Question: Is 7 2 due to

A capacityproblem (memoryspan limit, ie longest list one canremember; longest seq of skills -fig. skate routines; # gates on arace course,

or to

Semantics- how meaningful issomething?

Motor Learning InvolvesChanges in Long TermMemory

Carter pp. 158-159

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Memory Central: Hippocampus & Amygdala

!Hippocampus-

! Encodes and retrieveslongterms memories

! Sends processed memories tothe part of the brain where theywere first created, eg. lines,colors, edges to occipital cortex;

decisions & strategies to frontalcortex, etc

!Amygdala

!

!"#$# &'() *#$+ ,#+'$-#. /$# ,01#

Hippocampus: Selects transient

memories for permanent

storage as long term

memories (eg. learning to

hit a curve vs fastball in

baseball) Encoding- When signal

is persistent enough, new

connections are forged Enterorhinal cortex

central to

Forming Memories (p.156)

Potentiation- the

synchronous firing of

neurons makes it more likely

they will fire again

1. Input

2 Circuit formation

3 Increasing activity

Long term

potentiation- When a

pattern of neurons becomes

permanently sensitized to

each other

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tastas all incoming stimuli to prodct appropriate reactions and emotions

long term memory process

Neurons that fire together wire together


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Quiet Eye

More On Perception

1) Perception- Explains how we process sensory

information (vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste) in very

short periods of time, usually less than 100 ms

(1000 ms in 1 second).

Considered subconscious (lack of awareness); we have

no recollection of this information, nor can we recall it

when asked.

With effort, an object shifts from perception to

awareness. Try these exercises

41

2) Attention- Explains how we select information

for more extensive processing in reactions timesthat range from 120 to 220 ms for simple tasks,

depending on the sensory system: vision (slowest),

hearing (2nd slowest), touch (fastest). RT can be

very long on complex tasks like golf. QE and RT are

related.

Anticipationis

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Attention & Anticipation Defined

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a form of early attention, the ability to predict in advance what is going to, critical i performing all motor skills


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Perception & AttentionExercises

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Can you find 5 horses in this picture?

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Artist: Bev

Doolittle

How many faces do you see inthis picture?

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Accurate motor perception is especially difficultAli versus Liston (1985) - Which hand landed the

knockout? Left or Right?

University of Calgary Vickers quieteyesolutions.com

Primary & Secondary Attention in

Motor SkillsAttention is a limited resource.

Difficult to attend at a high level to more than one thing at a time.Selective attention is required

Driving

Car

Secondary

attention -

takes

remaining

Primary

attention -

driving a

car - takes

most

resources

Driving Talking/looking

at a special

friend

Attention is

diverted

easily to more

interesting

topics

Primary & Secondary Attention

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Attentional capacity can easily be

exceeded

Cat runs across

the road

Attention changes with

training

Novices have to devoteall their attention to howto perform a skill; littleattentional capacity leftfor anything else

Experts are able toattend externally towhat is happening in theenvironment because

more and more of theirmotor skills becomeautomatic

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Novices-how skill isperformed

Expert - what isthe opponent

doing

How SkillIs Performed

Automaticcontrol shifts

to other areas ofthe brain

Limbic and

cerebellum

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Children aged6.2 to10 - cannotattend to threetasks at once

Children aged10.1 to 14 are ableto skate and IDshapes better thanstickhandle and ID

shapesAdolescents14.1-19.6 are ableto attend to allthree tasks at highspeed

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Where MemoriesAre Stored

Occipital lobe - edges,speed, direction, color,depth of objects & eventsstored (eg. Baseballpitches)

Frontal lobe - workingmemory, strategies, goals,decisions, higher levels of

thinking and planningPutamen - automatic

procedural skills (motorskills)

Cerebellum -

Limitations of Attentionand/or Memory

The Psychological RefractoryPeriod (PRP)

! An inherent bottleneck in ourattention system

! Functions when 2 stimuli (S1

& S2) enter the system withan intra-stimulus interval60-80 ms (100 ms max)

! Has to be timed just right. 40ms too fast - 100 ms tooslow.

! Creates a delay in theresponse of opponent of200-300 ms

! Why? Only one motorprogram can beprogrammed and executedat a time

(Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004/2008)

S1 & S2 Personexecuting fake

Personbeingfaked

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Conditioned memories, events linked by time


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Psychological Refractory Period

" There is a bottle neck in attention that can affectRT and MT - a delay in response when 2 stimuli (S1and S2) are processed close to one another

" if we detect the 2ndstimulus while processing the1ststimulus we are unable to process the second

until we finish processing the first. Slows MT

" Although S1 and S2 may only be 60-80 ms apart adelay occurs in MT 200-300 ms in responding.

THE STROOP TASK

Most attentional processes occur in serial order (oneevent after another)

But under certain conditions attention can occur inparallel

Evidence for parallel processing - STROOP TASK -Evidence of parallel processing

2 or more stimuli are perceived at once and undercertain conditions are in conflict

Exercise: As quickly as possible, call out the COLORof the following

!

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Stroop Effect - Why?

! Parallel streams of information were processed bythe brain at the same time

! If information is meaningful, then top-downprocessing adds to conflict

!

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Your visual system saw green, but your ability to read the wrd yellow created a conflict

During stoop - RT is slower and errors are greater


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What happened??

" Some in class experienced conflict, but others

did not? Why?

" The wordvert means green in French.

"

Why Stroop?

Color vertand wordvert were processedsimultaneously

by two different

parts of brain

- Wordcomprehension

(Wernickes area)

- Color vision

(Occipital area)

- Prior to speaking(Brocas area)

Lift without a Hippocampus

The Story of HM & Dr. Brenda Milner

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It illustrates why we need distributed long term memory

those who speak french would have experienced the conflict the french word for green (verbal part of brain)

and the color red would have been processed in parallel


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All of HMs hippocampus was removed

Centre of memory formation Connection to frontal cortex removed - no learning or memory of

new events/people/movements

Some connections to cerebellum remained - allowed learningsimple movements (he worked in hospital gift shop)

CliveWearing

Brilliant conductor, composer and pianist

Virus destroyed all of his hippocampus at a young age

Complete amnesia - both anterograde (inability to createnew memories) and retrograde (no memory of past)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmzU47i2xgw&feature=related

Bias and Selective Attention:Attention Blindness

Our cognitive abilities are greatlyinfluenced by what our attention is biasedtoward: Exercise

Selective Attention Test

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo&feature=related

Original visual search research by UlrichNeisser (1960s)

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Inattention Or Change Blindness - ourattention system is often controlled by

internal biases or processes" We can be look right at something and not

see it

" TV show Oblivious

" A person viewing a visual scene fails to

detect large changes in the scene due toprior knowledge, assumptions,expectations

" Top-down...

" Can you detect the changes in these

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Bottom-up versus top-downprocessing

Bottom-up processing - A form of attention thatproceeds in a single direction from sensory

input, through perceptual analysis, towards

motor output, without involving feedback

information flowing backwards from higher

centers to lower centers (Corbetta & Shulman,

2002, p. 201).

Salient cues, such as..

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bias to detect specific pre detrmined information processing

Bottom up processing is less likely to occur during change or

blindness


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During change blindness top-downprocessing occurs more than bottom-

Top-down processing - The flow of informationis from the higher to lower centers, conveying

knowledge derived from previous experience

rather than sensory stimulation (Corbetta &

Shulman, 2002, p. 201).

Top-down processing is affected by ourmemories, our goals and expectations, and theamount of knowledge and experience we have in

a given situation.

Top-down processing often occurs rapidly andhas qualities linked to awareness, insight, and

the degree of experience the person has in a

Summary: Why Random & Variable

Training Works Better Than Blocked! There are more opportunities to learn how to attend to

critical cues

! Simulates pressure, stress and unpredictable conditions

! Greater cognitive effort is expended by the performers

! Memory retrieval is enhanced; neural plasticity promoted

! Less tendency to learn irrelevant/harmful /artificial/useless movements

! Provides more opportunities for performers to figure outwhat is required on their own; develop rapid retrievalskills

! More shared problem solving opportunities

! Overall - maximizes training of decision making skillsduring physical training

Limitations of Variable and/orRandom Practice

Children

Stroke Patients

Alzheimer's Patients

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Random variable processes helps athlees see things they norm

don't see

Builds better long term memory skills in a variety of conditions

More opportunities to learn to attend to critical cues and avoid m

limitations

Promotes independence - provides more opportunities for perfor

figure out what is required on their own

More shared problem solving opportunities with coaches and tea

greater confidence in one another

Overall - neural plasticity is promoted


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Random/Variable Practice: Is it Recommendedfor Young Children & Beginners?

" NO

" Wrisberg & Mead (1983)

" Coincident or anticipationtiming task

" 6-8 years olds

" 2 Constant or blocked groups" Slow light speed" Fast light speed

" 2 Varied or Random groups" One group had 4 speeds

presented in random order" One group had 6 reps of

one speed; 6 reps of otherspeed

! Results - Best performanceby the group that had 6 repsof one speed, then 6 reps ofsecond speed, etc.

! Conclusion:

Is Random Variable PracticeEffective For Stroke Patients?

Random/Variable Practice for StrokePatients?

! YES

! Hanlon (1996)

! 24 stroke patients withhemiparesis (paralysis ofone limb from stroke)

! Damage to left parietal areascauses paralysis of right

arm, and vice versa

! Task: open cabinet door,grasp a coffee cup handle

and place cup on thecounter and release

! Success Goal = 3 successful

! All patients - attempted task 10xper day until successful

! Random group - 1/3 of grouppracticed pointing, touching &grasping tasks

! Control group - practiced neither

! RESULTS: No difference ingroups during training, but therandom group better inretention

!

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children and most novies require blocked training before variable or random training

/ completed more than 10 trials

Yes random variable practice is good for stroke patients

Helps heal the brain


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ApplicationsIs Variable and Random PracticeGood for Alzheimers Patients?

What is Alzheimers disease?" NO

" Plaque builds up in the brainand destroys synapticconnections. Cause unknown.Severe memory loss

" Build up of a protein (betaamyloid) destroys brain tissue

" Early onset can occur, butmore prevalent in over 70 age;

Random/Variable Practice: Is ItRecommended for Alzheimer Patients?

! Dick et al (1998) - provided blocked or random practicefor patients

! No beneficial effects found for random practice;blocked practice best.

! Why? Cognitive impairment prevented the beneficialeffects of random practice

! Random practice facilitates the development of newneural connections and networks.

! Conclusion:

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Variable and random practice do not work as well in populations with permanent or regressive neural impairment, compared to normal population


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Practice Scheduling

! Is it better to schedule short practices overa longer period of time (ex. 1 hr per day for12 weeks)

OR! long practices over a shorter period of time

(ex. 2 hrs per day for 6 weeks)

! How is learning, retention & transferaffected?

! Which do learners prefer?

Baddeley & Longman, 1978Design of StudyParticipants: Postal workers in UK

operating sorting machines

Task: Typing - goal: 80 wpm/with no errors! What training scheduleis best for

reaching 80 wpm?

! 60 hrs of practice scheduled initially! Plus additional hours added if 80 wpm

not reached in 60 hrs

4 Groups" All groups received 60 hours of initial training, followed by extra

hours until each group averaged 80 wpm

" Group 1 - 1 hr per day x 5 days/wk x 12 wks= 60 hrs(mostweeks/less time per day)

" Group 2 - 1 hr x 2/day x 5 days x 6 wks= 60 hrs(mediumweeks/twice per day)

" Group 3 - 2 hrs x 1/day x 5 days x 6 wks= 60 hrs(mediumweeks/once per day)

" Group 4 - 2 hrs x 2/day x 5 days x 3 wks= 60 hrs(fewestweeks/most time per day)

" Hypotheses (Predictions)

"

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Results Baddeley & Longman

90

80

70

60

50

40

Hours of practice retention

(months)

Correct keystrokes

per minute

40 806050 70 1 3 9

2 per day for 2 hrs x 3

I per day for 1 hr x 12 wks


2 per day for 1 hr x 6 wks

Goal

Data analyzed when min 40 wpm (or more attained)

Results Baddeley & Longman

90

80

70

60

50

40

Hours of practice retention

(months)

orrect keystrokes

per minute

40 806050 70 1 3 9


I per day for 1 hr x 12


2 per day for 1 hr x 6

Goal

Data analyzed when 50 wpm (or more attained)

Retention test

procedures

After training,told not to use a typewriter for3 months

7 did and wereeliminated

Retention rateswere deemedquite good -

high of 70 wpm

and low of 50.

Baddeley & LongmanConclusions

! Fewest total training hours to reach 80 wpm?

! Group 1- 12 wks x 1 hr per day x 5 days/wk = took

60 hrs! Most training hrs to reach 80 wpm?

! Group 4- 3 wk, 2x2 = 80 hrs - blocked in fewestweeks in training

! Least satisfied typists?

! Group 1 - 12 weeks

! Most satisfied typists?

! Group 4 - 3 weeks

! Advice -

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Original FigureBaddeley & Longman, 1978

From original paper: Progress plotted after 40 wpmachieved; note faster earlier progress of 1 x 1 group

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9.0 practice effects on motor learning & memory.pdf

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