8th std project

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ENGLISH I

Teacher's influence in our life,

Going to school did not only change my knowledge degree, it changed something in me which was apparently born at the

same time when I was born. It is the thought that surly exists in every one kilo meter square mass of the earth and perhap

in other planets where life is possible there. This thought is, You have to be careful, there are some others who are

greater than you. This meaningless thought has been discouraging me since I was born.Now, you might wonder why I

choose this topic and what the main topic that I am writing about is. It is nothing else but value and influence of teacher on

other human beings life. Teacher made me understand myself, the princess of my own world. Teacher gave me the feeli

of being worthy to myself and possibly to others . Teacher taught me the important lesson of my life which is, No one is

greater than you, if you do your best even your master. For this lesson is the best, I have realized how much my teacher

have had influence and importance in my life.Actually, it is my habit whenever I try to describe someone who is dear to m

I cannot say or write in words; I cannot think which kind of adjective is best which suits her, but I hope when I express this

weakness to others, the others could realize how much I adore her, how much I like her and how much I am dedicated to

her.Another point, what will be the situation of a person who does not have a teacher. Do you think he/she could survive;

yes probably, but what kind of life style will she/he have? Not the same as normal human being. One more question, can

we live in the darkness with a simple light of moon or other weak light. There is an explicit answer of NO. It means that ou

life is just like a dark space without having teacher. I want to say that my life is a solar system, I am one of the dark planetand my teacher is the sun which gives me the light to find my lost way.Now, I am going to make my essay more personal

therefore I am going to write about my honorable, intelligent teachers that I have had in my entire life. At the first point, it

has to be said that my parents are my first teachers. They entered me to the world of humanity, kindness, love, and respe

and possibly magic. By their unlimited love, they put a big piece of magnetic inside my heart, that is why now I am in a

position where the others are; I have the feelings of love and respect and I can seek others love as well. They simply mad

me a real person with all completed senses from a small human-shaped body without any feelings of understanding. The

second teacher was my sister, the one who made me start the real world of this life. She taught me the basics of every

subject which is really important for building a vigorous, stout personality.Then I started to go to school where there I foun

those all teachers whom I really needed in order to start building my personality. These teachers however, had suffered a

lot; they gave us the power and courage to make a real sustained future. From their hard works I realized that our life

shows different faces at different times; sometime it becomes worse than death and sometime it becomes better thanbeing in heaven, but after all we never have to give up. We have to try once more because it is our responsibility to water

our life garden. As though, my teachers were struggling a lot to teach us in a way which will not be so boring for us

because they could understand our situation, the situation of a female coming out and study after five years of confinemen

during war in her house.Moreover, by coming to AUW, I have got the feeling to finish building my personality. I think I

have got sufficient stuffs by which I can realize and understand every situation in my surroundings and in all over the wor

AUW teachers are not only teachers, for me each one of them is like an open book which its first page gives us the clue t

reach the entire books topic. This first page starts by saying that, very nice, dont worry, you will be fine, you can do it, y

should be proud of yourself, I can see lots of improvements in you.

This is what courage means,

This what humanity means,

And this what oneness means. It is nothing just a bridge between human to human, not by any other material, just by

senses of love and courage. I can say that I am really impressed by my teachers in here.

There are two kinds of people in the world. One group is those who work to get and earn money, they have no sense of

humanity or assistance. The other group is those people who work to earn a lot of money but to spend it in a right, positive

way. I have realized that my teachers have never thought about the money that they get as a salary; instead, they are just

teaching us like we are the source of all outcomes. They do not care which region, which country or which religion we are

but just they are trying to improve us. They are giving us whatever they have. These teachers which I had in my entire life

changed my life from one way to another way and made me a kind of person who cannot express her feelings by saying

but who wants to express her feelings by working hard and doing the reality.Finally, I want to say that by the help of all my

teachers, now I have all my weaknesses tight in my hands and they are ready to be released and get lost in the new

changed world of knowledge, humanity and courage in my life.


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The Inchcape Rock by Robert SoutheyInchcape Rock is a popular poem by Robert Southey about the Inchcape Rock Legend, a reef which

situated in the North Sea, close to the coastal region of Angus in Scotland. The Inchcape Rock is

known for its infamy as causation for shipwreck. This poem by Robert Southey revolves around the

famous folktale of an Abbot, a monk who placed a bell on the reef to issue warning to seamen and

seafarers about the impending danger during storms. According to the folktale, whenever the bell use

to ring, the seafarers used to bless the Abbots wisdom and thank him for saving them from danger.

But a sea robber named Ralph cut down the bell to earn money and treasures from the ships that

fatally crashed against the rock. However, a day came when Ralphs vessel too encounters a storm

and crashes against the rock. This is when he hears death bells ringing.

The poem Inchcape Rock is a ballad. It is a lengthy poem consisting of seventeen stanzas. The poet

begins the poem with a calm tone describing the sea. To describe the calm state of the sea, the poet

has used expression like No stir in the air, no stir in the sea. The sea was calm and quiet and ships

were sailing peacefully. No wind troubled the ships and her keel was firmly set in the ocean.The second stanza describes the Inchcape Rock on which the waves are gently moving without

making any impact on the Inchcape Bell. The waves are rising and falling without moving the Inchcap

Bell.

The third stanza talks about the wise Abbot of Aberbrothok who had placed the bell on the Rock to

prevent ships from getting shipwrecked during storms and gales. The bell was placed on a buoy.

When a storm occurred, the buoy would float and in turn ring the bell which would provide a warning

for seamen.

When the Rock was full of water by the strong waves during high tide, the bell would ring and warn th

sailors against the Rock. The rock is termed as perilous meaning dangerous by Southey. Then they

used to thank the Abbot of Aberbrothok for his idea of placing a bell to prevent shipwrecks.

The fifth stanza is cheerful in tone. It is about a joyful day where the sun was shining brightly and sea

birds were circling above, screaming. Their chirping brought joy to all.

The sixth stanza speaks about the buoy which looked like a dark, visible speck on the green ocean.

Sir Ralph walked up to his deck and saw the dark speck.

Stanza seven is about the Ralphs excitement experiencing the pleasant day in the spring season. He

sang and whistled. He was extremely happy. However, he had a wicked plan in his mind which made

him so glad. We find Ralph looking at the Inchcape Rock with his eyes fixed on it in the eighth stanzaHe asks his sailors to take him to the Rock. In his mind he has already planned to destroy the good

work of the Abbot of Aberbrothok.

In the ninth stanza, we find the men had already lowered the boat and they are reaching Inchcape

Rock. The Rover is all set to execute his wicked plan. Finally, they reach Inchcape Rock to plague th

Abbot Of Aberbrothok. The wicked Ralph bends down and cuts off the bell from the Inchcape Rock.

In the next stanza we find the bell sinking down making a sound. There were bubbles bursting all

around. Ralph says with disregard that no more will anyone thank the Abbot.

In the eleventh stanza, we find the rover becomes rich by looting the wealth and treasures from the


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shipwrecked ships. He directed his ship towards the shore of Scotland. The ships that came near the

Inchcape Rock did not hear the warning bell anymore, as it was cut down. Therefore, the ships

suffered shipwrecks and they were looted by Sir Ralph.

The twelfth stanza is about a day where the sun could not be seen. The atmosphere was hazy and

strong winds blew the whole day and by evening the storm was clear. The atmosphere somewhat

signifies that something was going to happen.The Rover is seen standing on the deck in the thirteenth stanza. It is dark that he is not able to see th

land. He says and hopes that the weather will be pleasant at night.

One of his sailors says that he can hear the roaring of the waves. It seems that the shore is

somewhere near about. Another of his sailor wished he could hear the sound of the Inchcape Bell as

he was not aware of where they were. This stanza is about the sailors of Ralph who are a little

remorseful about cutting down the Inchcape Bell. But it was already to late and we soon find them

meeting their fates.

Finally in the fifteenth stanza, the ship of the Rover too crashes against the Inchcape Rock. The ship

struck with ashivering shock. The shivering shock given to the vessel was by none other than the

perilous Inchcape Rock. They call upon Christ, the son of God that they have met their horrible fate,

the Inchcape Rock.

In the sixteenth stanza, Ralph is seen cursing himself in despair and tearing up his hair in frustration.

Meanwhile, the waves have started to engulf the ship and it starts to sink beneath the high tide.

In the last stanza of the poem, Inchcape Rock, Ralph the Rover can hear a dreadful sound of a

ringing bell which resembles the sound of the Inchcape Bell but is actually the death knell, rung by th

Devil Himself. The ringing of the bell was once a blessing to the seamen, but in the final stanza we fin

the sound had been termed as dreadful and it has turned into a curse for the Rover. The Rover finalpays for his own deeds.


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Laws of Motion Important

Isaac Newton first published his three laws of motion in 1687, and physics students have been learnin

about them in class ever since. Im sure more than a few of them have wondered: Why are they

teaching me this stuff? This is an important question that is, unfortunately, not usually addressed inphysics classes. I can think of four main reasons:

They work!

They represent mankinds first great success at describing diverse aspects of nature with simpl

mathematical formulas.

They form the most intuitively appealing physical theory.

They lay the groundwork for later physics developments.

Now Ill explain what I mean.

Newtons Laws Work

I have something I need to get off my chest: Newtons laws of motion are not correct. They are based

on a flawed interpretation of nature that has been superseded by special relativity, quantum

mechanics, and field theory. Newtons laws fail miserably inside molecules and in distant outer space

in fact, they fail to even explain some important features of classical electromagnetism. However,

theres a catch: all these other theories reduce to Newtons laws in the realm of everyday life. For a

wide variety of situations, Newtons laws work just fine. This is why physicists didnt discover any

problems with them for over two hundred years! Newtons laws can predict the motion and

interactions of objects well enough to:

Build and navigate spaceships (Newtons laws got us to the moon!)

Simulate car crashes

Measure the mass of the Earth and other solar system bodies

Explain how airplanes generate lift

Improve your athletic abilities

This list could go on forever, but I think you get the point. Nearly everything you experience in daily

life that involves motion can be explained by Newtons laws in veryaccurate ways, and nearly

everything you use in daily life was designed with Newtons laws in mind.

Newtons Laws Are A Triumph For Humanity
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Newtons laws were not the first mathematical description of the universe. People have actually been

using math to predict the movement of the planets since Claudius Ptolemaeus developedhis model in

the second century AD. This system was eventually replaced with theCopernican system and even

later byKeplers laws.

However, these systems all had numerous and/or arbitrary sets of rules. They worked, but made very

little sense. Newtons laws of motion (along with his law of universal gravitation, which gave the

appropriate form of the force to use in the Second Law) were able to explain planetary motion with

fewer concepts; furthermore, those same three laws applied to things on Earth as well.

The Importance of Newton's Laws

Newton's laws are extremely important not just in mechanics but in the whole of physics. When tryin

to understand a physical process, we often understand it by looking at the forces acting and working

out the equations of motion. This is true of the motion of the planets to the flow of electrons in an

electric or magnetic field.

LIQUID-SOLID SEPARATION

Liquid-solid separation involves the separation of two phases, solid and liquid, from a suspension. It is used in ma

processes for the: 1. recovery of valuable solid component (the liquid being discarded); 2. liquid recovery (the soli

being discarded); 3. recovery of both solid and liquid; or 4. recovery of neither phase (e.g., when a liquid is bei

cleaned prior to discharge, as in the prevention of water pollution).

Any separation system design must consider all stages of pre-treatment, solids concentration, solids separation, a

post-treatment. This encompasses a wide range of equipment and processes, summarized inTable 1.Pre-treatme

is used primarily with difficult-to-filter slurries, enabling them to be filtered more easily. It usually involv

changing the nature of the suspended solids by either chemical or physical means, or by adding a solid (filter aid)

the suspension to act as a bulking agent to increase the permeability of the cake formed during subsequent filtratio

In solids concentration, part of the liquid may be removed by (gravity or centrifugal) thickening or hydrocycloni

to reduce liquid volume throughput load on the filter.

A number of new 'assisted separation' techniques are making their way into the list of technical alternativesthe

utilize magnetic, electrical or sonic force fields (or combinations) to provide more effective separation.Solids separation involves a filter, types of which are classified in many different ways. For present purposes

division into those in which cakes are formed and those in which the particles are captured in the depth of t

medium is adequate. Cake filters can be further divided into pressure, vacuum, centrifugal and gravity operations

Post-treatment processes involve making improvements to the quality of the solid or liquid products. In the case

the filtrate, these operations are often referred to as polishing processes, and may involve micro or ultrafilters

remove finer substances. Further purification may involve removal of ionic and macromolecular species by, f

example, reverse osmosis, ion exchange or electrodialysis. The relative position of these separation processes in t

spectrum of the size of "particle" to be removed from the liquid is shown inFigure 1.Cake post-treatment process
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include washing soluble impurities from the cake voids and removal of excess liquid from the voids. Thermal dryi

is often the final stage of liquid removal.

Solid/Liquid Separation in the Flowsheet

Solid/liquid separation is all too often designed as a 'stands alone' unit in a plant flowsheet. The performance o

solid/liquid separation device is sensitive to the history of the feed solution and, in particular, to the propert

imparted to the suspension by its method of manufacture, e.g., on the shape, size and size distribution of tparticles, which result from the operating conditions in the precipitator or crystallizer. A change in parti

production conditions can affect the best choice of filter for a particular purpose. The economics and viability

producing the product is often affected by the amount of liquid removed in the post-treatment processes. F

example, if the cake is to be transported, briquetted or pelletized, cake moisture content will need to be within

specified range; or if a bone dry product is required the thermal load on the dryers can be reduced by correct cho

and operation of filter.

It is important, therefore, to consider simultaneously and in some detail those processes which are to feed suspensi

to the solid/liquid separations plant, and the subsequent processing of the solid or liquid products.

PHYSICS

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The refracting telescope

The telescope is a device for producing a magnified image of distant objects. It is likely

that the first telescope was invented in Holland in about 1608. In 1610, Galileo built such

an instrument, shown here on the right, and used it to make important astronomical

discoveries, such as the moons of Jupiter and the rings of Saturn.

One of the tubes, still to be found on smaller modern astronomical telescopes, is called

the "seeker" (or "finder") , and is used to aim the telescope in the right direction

Very large refracting telescopes have been built, such as the 40-inch Yerkes telescope.


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For many years, the South African Astronomical Observatory used the Victoria telescope

(shown here on the left) as its main instrument.

It has been superseded by SALT, the South African Large Telescope, which is areflecting

telescope.

The principle of therefracting telescopeis quite simple, and in it most basic design, such

instruments are made up of two converging lenses, a long focal lengthOBJECTIVEand a

short-focal length EYEPIECE.

Parallel rays (shown in red in the above diagram) enter the objective lens (why are they

parallel?), and form a real, inverted, and diminished image (red arrow) in the focal plane

of that lens, at a distance F1from that lens. The eyepiece is at a distance such that its

principal focal plane (at a distance F2from the front of that lens) overlaps the focal

distance F1of the objective. Note that the focal length of the objective, F1, is longer than

the focal length of the eyepiece, F2.

The rays (shown in blue in the above diagram) are now refracted by the eyepiece, andform a magnified, inverted virtual image (blue arrow), which is seen by the observer.

Normally, the eyepiece is adjusted in such a way that the principal focal planes of the two

lenses coincide (F1+ F2= the length of the telescope). The image is then formed at infinity

The microscope
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A microscope is an instrument designed to produce magnified imaged of small objects.

The simplest is simply a single converging lens with a short focal length, which generates a

virtual, magnified image of an object placed within its principal focus. Here, however, we

are concerned with the so-calledCOMPOUND MICROSCOPE

, which consists of a tube, inwhich two converging lenses (or two assemblies of lenses, each acting as a converging

lens), the EYEPIECEand the OBJECTIVEare mounted. The specimen to be examined is

placed on a glass slide, fixed to a STAGE, which is very close to the objective, which has a

short focal length. Light from a lamp is reflected onto a mirror, passes through

a CONDENSER(which forms a beam of parallel rays, and hence through the stage and the

specimen.


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Most of the better microscopes have several objective lens assemblies, mounted on a

turret, thus enabling the viewer to use objectives of different focal lengths, as the

situation demands it. Such a microscope is shown above, on the left.

The viewer looks through the eyepiece, which also has a short focal length.

The object is located at a distance between F1(the focal length of the objective) and 2F1. I

forms a real image between the focal plane (at F2) of the objective and the objective itself

This real image is magnified by the eyepiece, and is viewed as a virtual image.

Magnification of 1000 times or more the normal size of the object are readily obtained

with better class instruments.

The camera

A diagram of a (very!) simple camera is shown on the right, showing the principle of its

operation.

Light from a distant object is refracted through the objective. The diaphragm adjusts theamount of light which is allowed into the camera (the so-called "f-stops"), and an

adjustable shutter isolates the inside of the camera from light until the picture is taken.

When the picture is taken, the shutter opens for a predetermined length of time (for

example, 1/250th of a second), allowing the image to form on the film, which is then said

to be EXPOSED.

Digital cameras do not use film; instead, the image is formed onto an image sensor that

turns the light into electric signals. Note that the principle of image formation by a the

camera is basically the same as that of image formation in the human eye
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4. The slide or film projector

A slide or film projector is a device which sends a beam of light onto a slide or a film,

forming a greatly magnified, real, inverted image onto a screen. The basic principle of its

construction is shown above. A lamp acts as a powerful source of light. In order to

increase its efficiency, a concave mirror is placed on one side, reflecting some of the light

which would otherwise be lost. The light passes through a condenser lens, whose purpose

is to form a uniform beam of light.

The light then passes through a slide, which acts as object. Rays coming from the slide

then pass through a projection lens (normally a combination of lenses), and then onto the

screen. Focussing the image is achieved by moving the lens forward or backwards. Thelamp gives off a lot of heat, and projectors are fitted with a fan to cool the lamp/mirror

assembly.

CHEMISTRY

Marie CurieMarie Curie, neMaria Sklodowska, was born in Warsaw on November 7, 1867, the daughter of a

secondary-school teacher. She received a general education in local schools and some scientific

training from her father. She became involved in a students' revolutionary organization and found it

prudent to leave Warsaw, then in the part of Poland dominated by Russia, for Cracow, which at that

time was under Austrian rule. In 1891, she went to Paris to continue her studies at the Sorbonne

where she obtained Licenciateships in Physics and the Mathematical Sciences. She met Pierre Curie

Professor in the School of Physics in 1894 and in the following year they were married. She

succeeded her husband as Head of the Physics Laboratory at the Sorbonne, gained her Doctor of

Science degree in 1903, and following the tragic death of Pierre Curie in 1906, she took his place as


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Professor of General Physics in the Faculty of Sciences, the first time a woman had held this position

She was also appointed Director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of

Paris, founded in 1914. Her early researches, together with her husband, were often performed unde

difficult conditions, laboratory arrangements were poor and both had to undertake much teaching to

earn a livelihood. The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 inspired the Curies in thei

brilliant researches and analyses which led to the isolation of polonium, named after the country of

Marie's birth, and radium. Mme. Curie developed methods for the separation of radium fromradioactive residues in sufficient quantities to allow for its characterization and the careful study of its

properties, therapeutic properties in particular.

Mme. Curie throughout her life actively promoted the use of radium to alleviate suffering and during

World War I, assisted by her daughter, Irene, she personally devoted herself to this remedial work.

She retained her enthusiasm for science throughout her life and did much to establish a radioactivity

laboratory in her native city - in 1929 President Hoover of the United States presented her with a gift o

$ 50,000, donated by American friends of science, to purchase radium for use in the laboratory in

Warsaw.

Work on radioactivity

The Curies became research workers at the School of Chemistry and Physics inParis and there they began their pioneering work into invisible rays given off by

uranium - a new phenomenon which had recently been discovered by ProfessorBecquerel.

He had shown that the rays were able to pass through solid matter, fog and

photographic film and caused air to conduct electricity.

Marie also noticed that samples of a mineral called pitchblende, which contains

uranium ore, were a great deal more radioactive than the pure element uranium.Further work convinced her the very large readings she was getting could not becaused by uranium alone - there was something else in the pitchblende. Since

nobody had ever found it before, it could only be present in tiny quantities, and it

seemed to be very radioactive. Marie was convinced she had found a newchemical element - other scientists doubted her results.

Pierre and Marie Curie set about working to search for the unknown element. The

ground up samples of pitchblende, dissolved them in acid, and began to separatethe different elements present, using the standard analytical chemistry technique

of the time. Eventually, they extracted a black powder 330 times more radioactiv

than uranium, which they calledpolonium.Polonium was a new chemical element,atomic number 84.

When the Curies investigated further, they found that the liquid left behind after

they had extracted polonium was still extremely radioactive. They realised thatpitchblende contained another new element, far more radioactive than polonium,

but present in even smaller quantities.
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In 1898, the Curies published strong evidence supporting the existence of the newelement - which they calledradium- but they still had no sample of it. Pitchblend

is an expensive mineral, because it contains valuable uranium, and Marie neededa lot of it.

She got in touch with a factory in Austria that removed the uranium from

pitchblende for industrial use and bought several tonnes of the worthless wasteproduct, which was even more radioactive than the original pitchblende, and wasmuch cheaper. Marie set about processing the pitchblende to extract the tiny

quantities of radium. This involved working on a much larger scale than before,with 20 kg batches of the mineral - grinding, dissolving, filtering, precipitating,

collecting, redissolving, crystallising and recrystallising.

The work was heavy and physically demanding - and involved dangers the Curiesdid not appreciate. During this time they began to feel sick and physicallyexhausted; today we can attribute their ill-health to the early symptoms of

radiation sickness. At the time they persevered in ignorance of the risks, oftenwith raw and inflamed hands because they were continually handling highly

radioactive material.

In 1902 Marie eventually isolated radium (as radium chloride), determining itsatomic weight as 225.93. The journey to the discovery had been long and

arduous.

The effects of radioactivity

The effects on healthThe harmful effects of radioactivity on health depend on a variety of factors such as typeof radiation, chemical characterization of the radioactive element, length of exposure,affected organs, etc.

Radioactive radiation, also known asionizing radiation,causes damage toDNA,whichthe organism may or may not be able to repair.

What effects contamination will have depend on how quickly the organism can eliminatethe substance, and on the half-life of the element. Iodine settles in the thyroid but it has

a short half-life (7 days). Cesium, which has a half-life of around thirty years, is quickly

evacuated. On the other hand, strontium, once ingested, settles in the bones.The effects are proportional to the dose received:

Below 100 mSv, no harmful effect has been demonstrated to have taken place;

Between 100 mSv and 500 mSv, the risk of developing cancer increases more or lessproportionally with the dose. These are random, long-term effects;

Above 500 mSv, acute radiation occurs, although this rarely happens. This type ofradiation, the severity of which increases with the dose, has an almost immediate effect(between several days and a few weeks) and is inevitable.
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BIOLOGY

The Circulation of Blood

The human circulatory system is really a two-part system whose purpose is to bringoxygen-bearing blood to all the tissues of the body. When the heart contracts it pushes theblood out into two major loops or cycles. In the systemic loop, the blood circulates into thbodys systems, bringing oxygen to all its organs, structures and tissues and collectingcarbon dioxide waste. In the pulmonary loop, the blood circulates to and from the lungs,to release the carbon dioxide and pick up new oxygen. The systemic cycle is controlled bythe left side of the heart, the pulmonary cycle by the right side of the heart. Lets look atwhat happens during each cycle:

The systemic loop begins when the oxygen-rich blood coming from the lungs enters theupper left chamber of the heart, the left atrium. As the chamber fills, it presses open

themitral valveand the blood flows down into the left ventricle. When the ventriclescontract during a heartbeat, the blood on the left side is forced into the aorta. This largestartery of the body is an inch wide. The blood leaving the aorta brings oxygen to all thebodys cells through the network of ever smaller arteries and capillaries. The used bloodfrom the body returns to the heart through the network of veins. All of the blood from thebody is eventually collected into the two largest veins: the superior vena cava, whichreceives blood from the upper body, and the inferior vena cava, which receives blood frothe lower body region. Both venae cavae empty the blood into the right atrium of the hear

From here the blood begins its journey through the pulmonary cycle. From the rightatrium the blood descends into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. When theventricle contracts, the blood is pushed into the pulmonary artery that branches into twomain parts: one going to the left lung, one to the right lung. The fresh, oxygen-rich bloodreturns to the left atrium of the heart through the pulmonary veins.

Although the circulatory system is made up of two cycles, both happen at the same time.The contraction of the heart muscle starts in the two atria, which push the blood into theventricles. Then the walls of the ventricles squeeze together and force the blood out into

the arteries: the aorta to the body and the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Afterwards, theheart muscle relaxes, allowing blood to flow in from the veins and fill the atria again. Inhealthy people the normal (resting) heart rate is about 72 beats per minute, but it can gomuch higher during strenuous exercise. Scientists have estimated that it takes about 30seconds for a given portion of the blood to complete the entire cycle: from lungs to heart tbody, back to the heart and out to the lungs.

Systemic Circulation

At the start of the blood circulatory cycle theheartpumps oxygenated blood out of the left ventricle,

through the Aorta (the largest artery in the body). The aorta divides into smallerarteries,then
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arterioles and finally into microscopic capillaries, found deep within muscles and organs. Here theOxygen (and other nutrients) passes through the thin capillary walls, into the tissues where it can beused to produce the energy muscles require to contract. A waste product of energy production(metabolism) is Carbon dioxide and in order to be removed, it too passes across the walls of thecapillaries, into the blood stream. The blood continues back towards the heart, through venules andthen veins, into the right atrium.

Pulmonary Circulation

Once blood returns to the heart it is then pumped from the right ventricle through the Pulmonaryarteries to the lungs, where the waste carbon dioxide can be expelled and more Oxygen collected.The Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood back to the left atrium of the heart, where the cyclestarts again.

HeartThe heartis a vitalmuscularorgan in humans and many other animals, which functions to pumpblood around the

body through theblood vessels of thecirculatory system.[1]

In doing so, the blood is able to provide the bodywithoxygen andnutrients,as well as removingmetabolic waste.The heart is located in the chest; specifically in

themediastinum,the middle compartment of thethorax.

The heart is divided into four mainchambers:the upper left and rightatria,and the lower left and

rightventricles.[2]Commonly the right atrium and ventricle together are referred to as the right heartand their left

counterparts as the left heart.[3]Between the right and left heart is a dividing wall ofmuscle theseptum.The portion

the septum separating the ventricles, theventricular septum is thicker than that which separates the atriatheatrial

septum.The flow of blood is controlled byheart valves,which can be found roughly level in a roughly horizontal

plane referred to as the valve plane.[citation needed]The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, called thepericardiumwhich

also contains lubricatingfluid.The outer wall of the heart is made up of three layers, theepicardium,themyocardium (which is the actual muscle of the heart), and theendocardium.[4]

LungThe lungis the essentialrespiration organ in many air-breathinganimals,including mosttetrapods,a fewfish and a

fewsnails.Inmammalsand the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side

of theheart.Their principal function is to transportoxygen from theatmosphere into thebloodstream,and to

releasecarbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. A large surface area is needed for this exchange

of gases which is accomplished by the mosaic of specializedcells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walle

air sacs calledalveoli.

To understand the anatomy of the lungs, the passage of air through the nose and mouth to the alveoli must be

studied. The progression of air through either the mouth or the nose, travels through

thenasopharynx,oropharynx,larynx,and thetrachea (windpipe). The air passes down the trachea, which divides

into two mainbronchi;these branch to the left and right lungs where they progressively subdivide into a system of

bronchi andbronchioles until the alveoli are reached. These many alveoli are where the gas exchange of carbon

dioxide and oxygen takes place.[2]
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HISTORY/civics 1

The Great Mughal Emperors of India 1526 - 1707

B

bur

Bbur,( Arabic: Tiger)also spelled Bbaror Bber, original name ahral-DnMuammad (born Feb. 15,1483, principality of Fergana [now in Uzbekistan]died Dec. 26, 1530,Agra[India]), emperor (152630) and foundeof theMughal dynastyofIndia.A descendant of the Mongol conquerorChinggis (Genghis) Khan and also of theTurkic conquerorTimur(Tamerlane), Bbur was a military adventurer, a soldier of distinction, and a poet and diaristgenius, as well as a statesman.

Victories in IndiaSetting out in November 1525, Bbur met Ibrhm atPanipat,50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi, on April 21, 1526.

Bbursarmy was estimated at no more than 12,000, but they were seasoned followers, adept at cavalry tactics, an

were aided by new artillery acquired from the Ottoman Turks. Ibrhms army was said to number 100,000 with 100

elephants, but its tactics were antiquated and it was dissentious. Bbur won the battle by coolness under fire, his us

of artillery, and effective Turkish wheeling tactics on a divided, dispirited enemy. Ibrhm was killed in battle. With h

usual speed, Bbur occupied Delhi three days later andreached Agra on May 4. His first action there was to lay out

a garden, now known as the Ram Bagh, by the Yamuna (Jumna) River.

HumayunNasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun(Persian: ;OS 7 March 1508 ADOS 17 January 1556 AD

was the secondMughal Emperor who ruled over territory in what is nowAfghanistan,Pakistan,and parts of

northernIndia from 15311540 and again from 15551556. Like his father,Babur,he lost his kingdom early, but

withPersianaid, with additional territory. At the time of his death in 1556, theMughal empire spanned almost one

million square kilometers.

Humayun succeeded his father in 1531, as ruler of the Mughal territories in India. Aged only 23 Humayun was an

inexperienced ruler when he came to power. His half-brotherKamran Mirza inheritedKabul andLahore,the more

northern parts of their father's empire. Mirza was to become a bitter rival of Humayun.

Humayun lostMughal territories to thePashtun noble,Sher Shah Suri,and, with Persian(Safavid)aid, regained the

15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia was accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and signale

an important change in Mughal court culture. TheCentral Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed b

the influences ofPersian art,architecture,language andliterature.There are many stone carvings and thousands

ofPersian manuscripts inIndia dating from the time of Humayun.

TheMughal Emperor Humayun, gathered a vast army and attempted the challenging task of retaking the throneinDelhi.Humayun placed the army under the able leadership ofBairam Khan.This was a wise move givenHumayun's own record of military ineptitude, and turned out to be prescient, as Bairam was to prove himself a greatactician.
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Death and legacy

On 27 January 1556, Humayun, with his arms full of books, was descending the staircase from his library whenthemuezzin announced theAdhan (the call to prayer). It was his habit, wherever he heard the summons, to bow hiknee in holy reverence. Kneeling, he caught his foot in his robe but some say that he was pushed while he was tryito do that, tumbled down several steps and hit his temple on a rugged stone edge. He died three days later. Theysay 'he tumbled in life and finally tumbled out of it too.'His body was laid to rest inPurana Quilainitially, howev

because of attack by Hindu kingHemu on Delhi and capture of Purana Qila, Humayun's body was exhumed byfleeing army and transferred to Kalanaur in Punjab where Akbar was coronated.

AkbarAkbar(IPA:[kbr];14 October 154227 October 1605), also known asAkbar the GreatorAkbar

I,[6][7]

wasMughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the third and one of the greatest rulers of the Mughal

Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father,Humayun,under a regent,Bairam Khan,who helped the young

emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India. A strong personality and a successful general, Akbar

gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of theIndian Subcontinent north of theGodavari river. H

power and influence, however, extended over the entire country because of Mughal military, political, cultural, andeconomic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration

throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. In

order to preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him th

support of his non-Muslim subjects. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic state identity, Akbar strived to unite far-flun

lands of his realm through loyalty, expressed through aPersianised culture, to himself as an emperor who had near

divine status. Akbar was born on 14 October 1542 (the fourth day ofRajab,949AH), at the Rajput Fortress

ofUmerkot inSindh (in modern day Pakistan), where Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife,Hamida

Banu Begum,daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, aPersian,[6]

were taking refuge. After the capture

ofKabul byHumayun,Badruddin's circumcision ceremony was held and his date of birth and name were changed tothrow off evil sorcerers

[8]and he was renamed Jalal-ud-din Muhammad by Humayun, a name which he had heard i

his dream atLahore.On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill with an attack ofdysentery,from which he never recovered.

He is believed to have died on or about 27 October 1605, after which his body was buried at a mausoleum

inSikandra, Agra.[158]

Seventy-six years later, in 1691, a group of austereHindu rebels known as theJats,rebelling against theMughal

Empire robbed thegold,silver and finecarpets within the tomb, desecrated Akbar's mausoleum.[159][160]

JahangirNur-ud-din Mohammad Salim, known by his imperial name Jahangir(30 August 15697 November 1627), was

the fourthMughal Emperor who ruled from 1605 until his death in 1627.

Jahangir was the eldest surviving son of Mughal EmperorAkbar and was declared successor to his father from an

early age. Impatient for power, however, he revolted in 1599 while Akbar was engaged in theDeccan.Jahangir wa

defeated, but ultimately succeeded his father as Emperor in 1605 due to the immense support and efforts of the

ladies in Akbar's harem likeRuqaiya Sultan Begum,Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmotherMaryam Makani.

The ladies wielded considerable influence over Akbar and favoured Jahangir as his successor.[1]The first year of

Jahangir's reign saw a rebellion organized by his eldest sonKhusrau Mirza.The rebellion was soon put down;
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Khusrau was brought before his father in chains. After subduing and executing nearly 2000 members of the rebellio

Jahangir blinded his renegade son.

Jahangir built on his father's foundations of excellent administration, and his reign was characterized by politicalstability, a strong economy and impressive cultural achievements. The imperial frontiers continued to move forwardinBengal,Mewar,Ahmadnagar and the Deccan. The only major reversal to the expansion came in 1622whenShahanshah Abbas,theSafavid Emperor ofPersia,capturedKandahar while Jahangir was battling his

rebellious son,Khusrau inHindustan.The rebellion of Khurram absorbed Jahangir's attention, so in the spring of1623 he negotiated a diplomatic end to the conflict. Much of India was politically pacified; Jahangir's dealings withtheHindu rulers ofRajputana were particularly successful, and he settled the conflicts inherited from his father. TheHindu rulers all acceptedMughalsupremacy and in return were given high ranks in theMughal aristocracy.

Death

He was trying to restore it by visiting Kashmir andKabul.He went from Kabul to Kashmir but returned to Lahore on

account of a severe cold.[9]

Jahangir died on the way back from Kashmir near Sarai Saadabad in 1627. To preserve his body, the entrails were

removed and buried in the Chingus Fort, Kashmir. The body was then transferred to Lahore to be buried i nShahdar

Bagh,a suburb ofLahore,Punjab.He was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram who took the title ofShah

Jahan.Jahangir's elegantmausoleum is located in the Shahdara locale of Lahore and is a popular tourist attraction

in Lahore.

AurangzebAbul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Mohammad bin Aurangzeb, (4 November 16183 March 1707) commonly known a

Aurangzeband by his imperial title Alamgir("world-seizer or universe-seizer") was the sixthMughal Emperor and

ruled over most of theIndian subcontinent.His reign lasted for 49 years from 1658 until his death in 1707. Aurangz

was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent. He was among thewealthiest of the Mughal rulers with an annual yearly tribute of 38,624,680 (in 1690).

[citation needed]He was a pious

Muslim, and his policies partly abandoned the legacy ofAkbar's secularism,which remains a very controversial

aspect of his reign. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than 3.2 million

square kilometres and he ruled over a population estimated as being in the range of 100150 million subjects. He

was a strong and effective ruler, but with his death the great period of theMughal dynasty came to an end, and

central control of the sub-continent declined rapidly. On 15 December 1634, Aurangzeb was given his first comman

comprising 10,000 horse and 4000troopers.He was allowed to use the red tent, which was an imperial

prerogative.[citation needed]

Subsequently, Aurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent toBundelkhand with the intent of subduing therebelliousBundela leader, Jujhar Singh, who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and

was refusing to atone for his actions.[3]By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and

took the advice of his generals as theMughal Army gathered and commenced the Siege of Orchha in 1635. [citation

needed]The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power.

Death and legacy

By 1689, almost all ofSouthern India was a part of the Mughal Empire and after the conquest of Golconda,

Aurangzeb may have been the richest and most powerful man alive.[citation needed]Mughal victories in the south

expanded the Mughal Empire to 3.2 million square kilometres, with a population estimated as being between 100
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million and 150 million. But this supremacy was short-lived.[90]Jos Gommans, Professor of Colonial and Global

History at theUniversity of Leiden,[91]says that "... the highpoint of imperial centralisation under emperor Aurangzeb

coincided with the start of the imperial downfall."[92]

Aurangzeb's vast imperial campaigns against rebellion-affected areas of the Mughal Empire caused his opponents

exaggerate the "importance" of their rebellions. The results of his campaigns were made worse by the incompetenc

of his regional Nawabs.

Muslim views regarding Aurangzeb vary. Most Muslim historians believe that Aurangzeb was the last powerful ruler

of an empire inevitably on the verge of decline. The major rebellions organized by the Sikhs and the Marathas had

deep roots in the remote regions of the Mughal Empire.

Shah JahanShahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan, Shah Jahan(Hindustani: , ; 5 January 159222 January

1666) was the fifthMughal Emperor ofIndia.He is also known as Shah Jahan I. He ruled from 1628 until 1658.

Born Prince Khurram, he was the son of EmperorJahangir and his Hindu Rajput wife,Taj Bibi Bilqis Makani (13 Ma157318 April 1619). While young, Khurram was the favourite of his legendary grandfather, the third Mughal

emperorAkbar.

He was chosen as successor to the throne after the death of his father in 1627. He was considered one of the

greatest Mughals. His rule has been called the Golden Age and one of the most prosperous ages of Indian

civilization. Like Akbar, he was eager to expand his vast empire. In 1658, he fell ill and was confined by his

sonAurangzeb inAgra Fort until his death in 1666.

Unlike his father and his grandfather, Shah Jahan was a piousMuslim.Upon his accession, he adopted new policie

which steadfastly reversed Akbar's generally liberal treatment of non-Muslims. In 1633, his sixth regnal year, Shah

Jahan began to imposeShariaprovisions against construction or repair of churches and temples and subsequently

ordered the demolitions of newly built Hindu temples. He celebrated Islamic festivals with great pomp and grandeur

and with an enthusiasm unfamiliar to his predecessors. Long-dormant royal interest in the Holy Cities also revived

during his reign.[2]However, during the reign of Shah Jahan, the Annual Car Festivalof theJagannath

Temple ofPuri was specially patronized.[3]

The period of his reign was the golden age ofMughal architecture.Shah Jahan erected many splendid monuments

the most famous of which is theTaj Mahal at Agra, built in 16321654 as a tomb for his beloved wifeMumtaz Maha

When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658,Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) assumed the role of regent in his

father's stead, which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers. Upon learning of his assumption of the regency,his younger brothers,Shuja,Viceroy of Bengal, andMurad Baksh,Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence

and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches.Aurangzeb,the third son, and ablest of the brothers, gathered

a well trained army and became its chief commander. He faced Dara's army near Agra and defeated him during

theBattle of Samugarh.Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompeten

to rule and put him underhouse arrest inAgra Fort.
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HISTORY/civics 2

PlanetThe termplanetis ancient, with ties tohistory,science,mythology,andreligion.The planets were originally seen by

many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries ofdeities.As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception ofthe planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, theInternational Astronomical

Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolutiondefining planets within theSolar System.This definition is controversial

because it excludes many objects ofplanetary mass based on where or what they orbit. Although eight of the

planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain "planets" under the modern definition, some celestial bodies, such

asCeres,Pallas,Juno,Vesta (each an object in the Solar asteroid belt), andPluto(the first-discovered trans-

Neptunian object), that were once considered planets by the scientific community are no longer viewed as such.

The planets were thought byPtolemy to orbitEarth indeferent and epicycle motions. Although the idea that

theplanets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times, it was not until the 17th century that this view was

supported by evidence from the firsttelescopic astronomical observations, performed byGalileo Galilei.By careful

analysis of the observation data,Johannes Kepler found the planets' orbits were not circular butelliptical.As

observational tools improved,astronomers saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some

shared such features asice caps andseasons.Since the dawn of theSpace Age,close observation byspace

probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such asvolcanism,hurricanes,tectonics,an

evenhydrology.Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-densitygas giants and smaller,

rockyterrestrials.Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing distance

from theSun,they are the four terrestrials,Mercury,Venus,Earth, andMars,then the four gas

giants,Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,andNeptune.Six of the planets are orbited by one or morenatural satellites.

More than a thousand planets around other stars ("extrasolar planets"or "exoplanets") have been discovered in

theMilky Way:as of 14 August 2014, 1815 known extrasolar planets in 1130planetary systems (including

466multiple planetary systems), ranging in size from Earth to gas giants larger than Jupiter.[3]On December 20,

2011, theKepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the firstEarth-sized extrasolar planets,Kepler-

20e[4]andKepler-20f,[5]orbiting aSun-like star,Kepler-20.[6][7][8]A 2012 study, analyzinggravitational

microlensing data, estimates anaverage of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.[9]Around one

in five Sun-like[b]stars is thought to have an Earth-sized [c]planet in its habitable[d]zone.

Solar SystemThe Solar System[a]comprises theSun and the objects thatorbit it, whether they orbit it directly or by orbiting othe

objects that orbit it directly.[b]Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets[c]that form

theplanetary system around it, while the remainder are significantly smaller objects, such asdwarf planets andsma

Solar System bodies (SSSBs) such ascomets andasteroids.[d]The Solar Systemformed 4.6 billion years ago from

the gravitational collapse of a giantmolecular cloud.The vast majority of the system'smass is in the Sun, with mos

of the remaining mass contained inJupiter.The four smaller inner planets,Mercury,Venus,Earth andMars,also

called theterrestrial planets,are primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets, called thegas giants

are substantially more massive than the terrestrials. The two largest,Jupiter andSaturn,are composed mainly of

hydrogen and helium; the two outermost planets,Uranus andNeptune,are composed largely of substances with
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ikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_gianthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_gianthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System#cite_note-footnoteB-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Solar_System_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Solar_System_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-1in5habitable-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-1in5earthsized-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-1in5sunlike-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_meanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_microlensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_microlensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-NYT-20111220-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-NASA-20111220-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-NASA-20111220-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_analoghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-Kepler20f-20111220-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-20fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-Kepler20e-20111220-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-20ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-20ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_(spacecraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#cite_note-Encyclopaedia-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiplanetary_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet#Exoplanetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_gianthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_probehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_probehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_caphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferent_and_epicyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Vestahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_Junohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Pallashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planemohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAU_definition_of_planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History


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relatively high melting points (compared with hydrogen and helium), calledices,such as water, ammonia

andmethane,and are often referred to separately as "ice giants". All planets have almost circular orbits that lie with

a nearly flat disc called theecliptic plane.The Solar System also contains regions populated bysmaller

objects.[d]Theasteroid belt,which lies between Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the

terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie theKuiper belt andscattered disc,linked populatio

oftrans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices. Within these populations are several dozen to more than ten

thousand objects that may be large enough to have been rounded by their own gravity .[10]Such objects are referred

to asdwarf planets.Identified dwarf planets include the asteroidCeres and the tran

8th std project

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