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Subject Index

Author Index is available for downloading at www.cambridge.org/9780521845670.

abortiondomestic terrorism and, 596politically-based violence over,

596–597abuse. See adolescent dating abuse;

adult female abuse; alcohol,drug abuse; child abuse; elderabuse; physical abuse

acquaintance violence, 11active genotype-environmental

correlations, 267Actor-Partner Interdependence

Model (APIM), 734Add Health. See National

Longitudinal Study ofAdolescent Health

Additive-Causal model, of peerrejection, 364–365

ADHD. See attention deficithyperactivity disorder

Adjective Checklist, 77adolescence

antisocial behavior and, 50physical abuse prevention during,

163resting heart rate during, 112violence impact on, 306

adolescent aggression, 619. See alsoadolescent violence;adolescents

attraction theory and, 455–456dominance theory and, 455–456

adolescent dating abuse, 431,436–442

alcohol and, 438competencies, skills and, 437corporal punishment and,

440–441date rape and, 442demographic characteristics,

434–436family environment and, 439family structure and, 441family violence and, 439–441gender stereotyping of, 439measurement of, 432methodological issues, 432–433norms perceptions and, 438–439other family factors, 441other problem behaviors and,

437–438over time perpetuation of,

433–434parental supervision and, 441peer environment and, 439perpetration, 434–436prevalence estimates, 432–433prevention programs, 438problem extent, 432–434program evaluation, 442–444psychological attributes, 437reactive aggression and, 442research directions, 444–445self-esteem and, 440

sex-stratified prevalenceestimates of, 435

social ecological models of,436–437

adolescent intimate partnerviolence exposure, 676

neighborhood socio-economicstatus and, 677–678

adolescent violencecontagion models of, 703–704patterns of, 13–15trauma symptoms, 310

adolescent-limited antisocialbehavior, 50, 57–59

adolescent-limited delinquency, 59adolescents

autonomy and, 58conflict management by, 437in juvenile courts, 505social networks of, 693socialization of, 538television impact on, 559–561

Adolescents Training Program,773–774

adoption, 228adult courts, violent adolescents in,

201adult female abuse, 673adult intimate partner violence,

children’s exposure to, 672adult psychopaths, SC response of,

117

793

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84567-0 - The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior and AggressionEdited by Daniel J. Flannery, Alexander T. Vazsonyi and Irwin D. WaldmanIndexMore information

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794 subject index

adult violencechildhood predictors of, 21–22,

27, 29, 62life-course persistent

development and, 60–62adult-onset antisocial behavior,

55–56adults, autonomic reactivity, trait

aggression in, 118–121affect regulation, 291–292, 297affective aggression, 619African Union, 767African-Americans, 28

homicide victimization rates,706–707

agehomicide and, 697violence, 525

aggression. See also adolescentaggression; aggressive behavior;childhood aggression;early-onset persistentaggression; effectiveaggression; homophobicaggression; impulsiveaggression; indirect aggression;justified aggression; overtaggression; parent aggression;parent to child physicalaggression; physical aggression;proactive aggression; reactiveaggression; relationalaggression; sexual aggression;social aggression;social-relational aggression;trait aggression; verbalaggression; workplaceaggression; youth aggression

5HTT polymorphism and, 86adult normative beliefs about,

560in animals, 91arousal reduction and, 123autonomic activity and, 113–114behavioral indices of, 121–122candidate genes for, 85–87CBT approaches to, 607–610comparative genetics of, 105cortical abnormalities associated

with, 194as criminal behavior, 555description, 619as dysfunctionaleffective, 329electrocortical activation and,

126emotional arousal and, 123–124emotional priming of, 1245HTT-LPR and, 865-hydroxyindoleatic acid and, 86gender and, 85, 245–246, 790

group differences in, 731–732indices of, 292indirect forms of, 246justified, 329MHPG and, 177multiple intervention points formulti-trait multi-method study

of, 732–734neurobiology of, 112, 620operationalization of, 77–78peer influence theories, 454–457as peer rejection consequence,

363–365predatory vs. non-predatory, 619predictors of, 564proactive vs. reactive, 363as problem-solving strategy, 328psychopharmacological agents

enhancing, 624–628reactive vs. proactive, 85relational vs. overt, 85self-control techniques forsocial networks and, 457in sports, 540televised violence and, 642threat and, 296video games and, 331–332, 561violence vs., 361–362women and, 558in workplace, 296

Aggression: A Social LearningApproach (Bandura), 638

aggression interdependency,modeling, 734–737

aggression, laboratory-induced,autonomic reactivity during,121–125

aggression medication, FDAapproval of, 618–619

Aggression Questionnaire (AQ),120

aggression studiesconstruct validity, 78–82CT, 128diffusion tensor imaging, 135fMRI, 136innovations in, 254MRI, 134–135PET, 128, 130–134SPECT, 128–130

aggressive behavior. See alsopersistent aggressive behavior

autonomic nervous system and,112–125

cognitive neo-associationistmodel of, 121

dementia and, 129dopaminergic mechanisms in,

129–130, 177genetic predisposition to, 62,

324

HR and, 122likelihood of, 14non-linear development trends,

329operant approaches to, 603peer rejection and, 362–363,

365–366priming, 296proximal causes of, 329simple imitation of, 549–550subtypes of, 361, 378

aggressive boys, mothers and, 335aggressive children. See also

aggressive-antisocial children;childhood aggression

childhood-limited, 53–55Confluence model, 368

aggressive patients, reduced graymatter volume in, 135

aggressive peers, Confluencemodel, 368

aggressive-antisocial behavior, peerrejection and, 366–367

aggressive-antisocial childrenclinical approaches to, 375–376nondeviant peers and, 375–376

aggressive-antisocial peersaffiliation with, 368–370gangs, 368

aggressogenic experience, 322, 324,329

Agnew’s general stain theory, 519Akers, Ronald, 638alcohol, alcohol consumption. See

also hazardous drinkers; nonhazardous drinkers

brain systems and, 655disinhibition hypothesis,

655–656dopamine impact by, 655ECF impact by, 655GABA impact by, 625, 654homicide and, 650inhibition conflict and, 656IPV and, 652neurotransmitter impact by,

654–655pharmacological effects,

654–655serotonin impact by, 655substance abuse, violent behavior

and, 649–650alcohol, drug abuse, 31, 189, 204,

534, 624–625, 649–650. Seealso substance abuse

adolescent dating abuse and,438

by ethnicity, 648GABA and, 625, 654prescription drug dependence,

657






subject index 795

SAMHSA report, 648violence and, 536youth violence and, 14, 31

alcohol-homicide link, 650ALF. See Animal Liberation Frontalienation, 295–297

NEM and, 296alpha agonists, 622altruistic fear, 576–577. See also

fear; fear of crimemen vs. women, 576–577personal fear vs., 576women and, 576–577

American Association for theAdvancement of Science,505

American culture, crime, violencein, 579

American PsychologicalAssociation, 5, 606

amphetamines, 626, 649substance abuse, violent behavior

and, 652amygdala, 171, 178

dysfunction in, 134research on, 200

analyseseffect size determination, 82–83model-fitting, 83

analytical methods,semi-parametric vs.clinical-cutoffs, 63

androgens, anabolic steroids, 627angel dust. See phencyclidineanger, violence and, 521Anger Control Training, 352–353anger management, CBT forAnimal Liberation Front (ALF),

596animals. See also mice, mice studies;

rhesus macaques studiesaggression in, 91

anterior cingulate cortex,dysfunction in, 133–134

anterior EEG symmetry, 126anti-convulsants, 622–623anti-depressants, 620–623anti-hypertensive agents, 622

beta-blockers, 622antisocial behavior, 52

adolescent-limited, 50, 57–59adult, 112adult onset, 55–56ASPD, 203–204autonomic nervous system and,

112–125candidate genes for, 85–87CD, 202–203childhood ADHD and, 86childhood predictors of, 51childhood to adulthood, 64

childhood vs. adolescent onset,50

of criminals, delinquents,200–201

across development, 191developmental delay and, 331developmental taxonomy of, 49dispositional/biological factors,

life experience and, 324early vs. late onset of, 62family history of, 192family influences on, 78genetics of, 53historical research on, 190IED, 201–202intergenerational transmission of,

27life-course persistent vs.

adolescence-limited, 49male abstainers from, 59mid-life, 62nature vs. nurture and, 215,

218–221onset age of, 262P-E interaction and, 231–233persistence of, 62–67physiological hyperarousal and,

113prototypes, 50–51psychopathy, 198–200puberty and, 50research needed, 53resting autonomic activity and,

112–113SES and, 269short-term, 37SIP and, 323social processes origins of, 49twin, adoption studies of, 77youth violence and, 361

antisocial behavior development,social cognitive processes and,322–337

antisocial disordersneuropsychological studies of,

197–205with violence potential, 204–205

antisocial models, social mimicry of,57–59

antisocial personality, psychopathyvs., 116

Antisocial Personality Disorder(APD), 290

antisocial personality disorder(ASP), 189

cocaine and, 626neuropsychological studies on,

203–204psychopathy and, 190

antisocial personality disorder(ASPD)

antisocial behavior and, 203–204neuropsychological studies on,

203–204psychopathy and, 190

antisocial potential (AP), 35–38long-term, 35–37

antisocial propensity, 261cognitive ability and, 261,

265–266, 271components, 263–266, 271–272disposition dimensions, 263–264genetic, environmental influences

on, 266–269mediation hypothesis and,

268–269antisocial-aggressive individuals,

cognitive functioning in, 127anxiety

conduct problems and, 273–274youth violence and, 27

AP. See antisocial potentialAPD. See Antisocial Personality

DisorderAPIM. See Actor-Partner

Interdependence ModelAQ. See Aggression Questionnaireargenine vasopressin (AVP), mice

studies, 95armed struggle, 8arousal. See also low arousal

as aggression predictor, 564excitation transfer and, 550–551individual difference perspective,

553poor conditioning theories of,

553psychopathy and, 553sensation-seeking theory, 553short-term effects of, 553social-cognitive information

process model and, 553–554by violent film, 551

arousal reduction, aggression and,123

arousal-transfer effects, 551ASP. See antisocial personality

disorderASPD. See antisocial personality

disorderassessment, 188–190, 419–420

additional methods, 248clinical syndromes, 189–190neuropsychological, 188–189observations, 247of peer networks, 454peer reports, 248of physical aggression, 246–248of relational aggression, 246–248teacher reports, 247–248of working memory, 195

asymmetrical threat, 597






796 subject index

attachment theory, 535family violence and, 413

attention deficit hyperactivitydisorder (ADHD), 272, 307

antisocial behavior and, 86bullying and, 308CD and, 202–203CD/ODD and, 203dopamine genes and, 86HR and, 114risky behavior and, 272–273stimulants and, 622substance abuse and, 272–273

attenuated culture, 641attraction theory, adolescent

aggression and, 455–456Aum Shrikio, 593Australians Dispositions Project,

273autonomic activity

aggression/violence and,113–114

history of violence and, 118–119autonomic arousal, 25autonomic nervous system

in adults with psychopathy,116–118

antisocial/aggressive behaviorsand, 112–125

child/adolescent conduct and,112–116

autonomic reactivityin adults, 118–121aggression-relevant trait measures

and, 119–121child abuse and, 118–119during laboratory-induced

aggression, 121–125autonomic underarousal, 152–153autonomy, adolescent-onset

offending and, 58AVP. See argenine vasopressin

Baader-Meinhoff, 590Bandura, Albert, 638barbiturates, 625batterers. See also domestic violence

Type 1 vs. Type 2, 118behavior. See also norm breaking

behaviordevelopmental patterns of,

190–191functionally equivalent, 604health-risk, 295

behavior genetic studies, 78alternate models, 83

behavior modification, 353Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS),

SNS and, 115behavioral intervention, 603–607

ERP, 605

operant (functional analytic)approaches, 603–605

parent training, 605–606positive, negative reinforcement

in, 603relaxation training, 606–607SST, 605

behavioral scienceself-control theory vs., 533violence theory of, 539

beliefs, 639benzodiazepines, 622–623, 625beta-blockers, 622Better Beginnings, Better Futures

Project, 774betweenness centrality, 452Bi-Directional Causal model, of

peer rejection, 364biological characteristics, 218–219

by environment, 221–225biological criminology, 151

early works in, 162biological risk factors, 25–26

environmental manipulation of,162

biopsychosocial model, 13biosocial interactions, 163–164biosocial protective influences,

161–162biosocial research, on protective

factors, 162biosocial theories of violence

autonomic underarousal and,152–153

biological vs. environmental,151–152

biosocial protective influences,161–162

early health-related factors,153–156

prefrontal functioning deficits,153–156

prevention, intervention and,162–163

bipolar disorder, 205birth complications, 155–156, 158,

226BIS. See Behavioral Inhibition

SystemBJS. See Bureau of Justice StatisticsBlock Design subtest, of Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Scale, 198blood pressure, hostility and, 119Borderline Personality Disorder

(BPD), 290Bourdieu, Pierre, 751, 757, 759Bourgois, Philippe, 750–751, 755,

761boys

aggressive vs. nonaggressive,335–336

peer rejection for, 365BPD. See Borderline Personality

Disorderbrain development

risk factors affecting, 191–192social experiences and, 788

brain dopamine (DA) systems, 620brain functioning, 27, 153–156brain imaging studies, future

directions for, 138–140brain lesions, 153–154, 192

causes of, 188emotional regulation and, 193Iowa Gambling Task and, 199risk for violence and, 193–194

brain mapping, 788brain regions, dysfunction in, 134brain wave activity, slow wave, 126brainstem auditory evoked

potentials, 128breastfeeding, IQ and, 192British National Survey of Health

and Development, 25Broken Windows theory, 716bullying, 308, 474

norms regarding, 349–350physical aggression vs., 363suicide ideation and, 308

Bullying Prevention Program,349–350, 773

Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS),652

Burgess, Robert, 638Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory,

292

CADS model. See Child andAdolescent Dispositions Scale

California Youth Authority, 62, 512Cambridge Neuropsychological

Test Automated Battery(CANTAB), 199

Cambridge Study in DelinquentDevelopment, 20, 39

Cambridge-Somerville YouthStudy, 27–28, 40

Canada, juvenile homicide rates,503

candidate gene studies, genomescans vs., 85–86

cannabis, marijuana, 627–628. Seealso tetrahydrocannabinol

substance abuse, violent behaviorand, 650–651

usage, 648withdrawal from, 627

CANTAB. See CambridgeNeuropsychological TestAutomated Battery

carbamazepine, 619, 623cardiovascular functioning, 790






subject index 797

parasympathetic vs. sympatheticmediation of, 116

trait hostility and, 119Cardoso, Filomeno Cerron, 588catecholamines, 177causal influences, developmental

trajectories and, 269–272causal model, of peer rejection, 364causal pie model, 476CBCL. See Child Behavior

ChecklistCBT. See cognitive,

cognitive-behavioral therapyCCDF. See Comparative Crime

Data FileCD. See conduct disorderCDC. See Centers for Disease

ControlCenters for Disease Control

(CDC), 5, 344youth violence, 418

central nervous system (CNS),environmental experiencesimpact on, 155

Chicago, gang homicide in,390–391

Chicago Youth DevelopmentStudy, 28, 41

child abuse, 11, 28, 154–155, 539autonomic reactivity and,

118–119DBP and, 118Office of Child Abuse and

Neglect, 405parent training and, 606

Child and Adolescent DispositionsScale

evaluating, testing of, 263–264,276–277

practical utility of, 277strengths, weaknesses of,

276–277Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL),

190, 225, 619child development

exosystem and, 667microsystem and, 667social learning and, 261–262violence impact on, 306

child homicide, 406child maltreatment, 404–405

ecological-transactionalperspectives, 667, 681–682

in U.S., 668child mortality, homicide and, 307child protective services (CPS), 220child/adolescent conduct,

autonomic activity in, 112–116child/adolescent social status,

deviant friends/cliques and,371–372

childhoodintervention, 538physical abuse prevention during,

163resting heart rate during, 112risk factors, 21SIP across, 327–328violence impact on, 306

childhood aggression, 619CBT forcognitive behavioral treatment ofenvironmental impact on, 62gender imbalance in, 245later violence and, 22

Childhood and Adolescent ViolenceResearch (2000), 50

childhood behavior problems,crime and, 534

childhood conduct disorder, 112recovery from, 54

childhood conduct problemsresting autonomic activity and,

113SC and, 113

childhood predictorsof adult violence, 21–22, 27, 29,

62of antisocial behavior, 51

childhood victimization, 28–29. Seealso children’s exposure toviolence

childhood-onset antisocial behavior,adult adjustment and, 55

children. See also childhoodaggression

affection for, 538cognitive ability of, 262domestic violence and, 61early care giving of, 537–538emotional abuse of, 404–405emotional neglect of,

404–405genetic screening of, 235physical abuse of, 404–405physical neglect of, 404–405physical punishment of, 474sexual abuse of, 404–406,

473–474television impact on, 642–643violence against, 468

children’s exposure to violence,307, 678

adult intimate partner, 672community, 307, 678estimates of, 668SES and, 679

cholesterol/fatty acids, 177–178Christian Patriot movement, in

U.S., 595Christian white supremacists,

593

chronic strains, gangs and, 522class differences, in violence,

525–526Clinical Child Psychology Task

Force, 606clinical practice, environmental

effects and, 216clinical syndromes, with violence,

189–190clique members, 452. See also

deviant friends/cliquesclozapine, 621–622CNS. See central nervous systemcocaine, 626, 653–654

ASP and, 626crack epidemic, 503domestic abuse and, 653–654dopamine impact by, 655gender differences, 648–649juvenile homicide and, 503neurotransmitter pathways and,

654–655serotonin impact by, 655substance abuse, violent behavior

and, 651use rates, 648–649

cocaine-alcohol-violence, 654codeine, 626coercion, low quality friendships

and, 374cognitive ability, 271

antisocial propensity and, 261,265–266, 271

of children, 262genetic influences on, 262language development and,

265–266, 271SES and, 266

cognitive appraisal, 607cognitive capacity, 328cognitive, cognitive-behavioral

therapy (CBT), 607–610anger management, 607for child aggression, 607cognitive appraisal, 607for parent-child aggression,

607problem solving training, 609psychoeducation, 609Self Control Training, 608social support approaches, 609

cognitive decision-makingprocess, long-term AP and,37

cognitive deficits,neuropsychological approachto, 187

cognitive desensitization, toviolence, 552

cognitive development, hypoxia atbirth and, 192






798 subject index

cognitive functioningin antisocial-aggressive

individuals, 127frontal lobes and, 154P300 response amplitude and,

127cognitive process, of imitation, 550cognitive social learning theory, 351cognitive-behavioral interventions,

353cognitive-behavioral social

competency instruction,351–353

collective violence, 468Columbia County Study, 28, 39Columbine High School shootings,

344, 545–546commercial advertising, fear in, 573community cohesion, victimization

and, 494community contexts, in ecological

model, 477community differences, in violence,

526community ETV, SES and,

678–679community interventions, 479

residential mobility programs,480

for youth violence, 774community service, 354community violence, 11, 152, 468

children’s exposure to, 307,678

exposure to, 306family socio-economic status

and, 678–679large-scale studies of, 309

comorbidity, 291, 747–748Comparative Crime Data File

(CCDF), 497Comprehensive Gang Prevention,

Intervention, and SuppressionModel, 512

Comprehensive Strategy (CS) forSerious, Violent, and ChronicJuvenile Offenders, 509–512

empirical support for, 510–512framework, 509theoretical support for, 509–510

computerized tomography (CT),aggression studies, 128–129

CON. See Constraintconduct disorder (CD), 203, 307

ADHD and, 202–203bullying and, 308children with, 115diagnosis of, 260early- vs. late-onset, 52, 191formal diagnosis of, 63methylphenidate for, 622

neuropsychological studies on,202–203

ODD and, 203conduct problems

anxiety, depression and, 273–274causal mechanisms, 270–272demographic differences,

274–276developmental trajectories of,

262–263developmental types of, 262developmental-early vs. -late,

262disorder co-occurrence with,

272–274dispositions to, 270language development and,

265–266, 271mental health and, 261minor, 261nonaggressive, 262parasympathetic, vagal

influences, 114–116race/ethnicity and, 275–276SES and, 275–276sex differences, 274–275social learning of, 270varying, 263

conflict management, byadolescents, 437

Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS), 407,432, 673, 675, 677

Confluence model, aggressivechildren, peers and, 368

constraining method, in SEM,729–730

Constraint (CON), 294construct validity

aggression studies, 78–82criminality, delinquency studies,

78contagion models

data for, 704–706Poisson form, 704using fixed, random effects, 704

contagious epidemics, 690–691contextual effects, homicide and,

699–701contingency management, 604–605Continuous Performance Task, 195control theory

terrorism and, 539violence definition, 539–540

convictions, developmentaltrajectories of, 744–745

Cook-Medley Hostility Inventory,292

Copenhagen perinatal study, 25Copenhagen Project Metropolitan,

41coping, coping strategies, 519

maladaptive, 310skills, resources for, 523social control and, 523social support for, 523strain and, 520–521of students, 310violent others and, 523

Coping Power Program, 773coping theory, family violence and,

410–411copycat crimes, 555–557, 643. See

also imitation, priming;observational learning

corporal punishment, 13adolescent dating abuse and,

440–441cortical abnormalities, 194cost studies, 475Coumate, mice studies, 97counseling, 353–354CPS. See child protective servicescrack. See cocainecrime. See also property crime;

violent crimein American culture, 579childhood behavior problems

and, 534cross-national studies of, 486data collected on, 589fear of, 573–579fear vs. victimization and,

573–574gender difference in, 642opportunity cause of, 540public perception of, 577–578social learning of, 521

crime data, 486cross-national, 486from International Labour

Organization, 495macro-level availability of, 495official, 486–490sources of, 486–490from World Bank, 495

crime, delinquency studies,self-control theory and,533–534

Crime Prevention throughEnvironmental Design, 351

crime rates, cross-cultural,cross-national methods, 418

crimes against children, publicreaction to, 576

Crimetime Saturday line-up, 572criminal behavior, 14

of aggression, 555biological basis of, 151career duration, 63impulsivity and, 588learned, 637–638normative learning and, 641






subject index 799

of parents, 227–228personality disorders and, 53social learning and, 637–638violence and, 535

criminal justice system, juvenilestransfer to, 507–508

criminal population studies, massmedia and, 556

criminal violence, key facts,534–536

criminal warfare, 597criminality, aggression, 83–87, 188

behavior genetic studies, 78environmental influences, 77violent vs. nonviolent, 84

criminality, delinquency studies,construct validity, 78

criminals, delinquentsantisocial behavior of, 200–201neuropsychological studies of,

200–201cross-national crime research, 497

data flaws, 487direct effects models, 488

CS. See Comprehensive Strategyfor Serious, Violent, andChronic Juvenile Offenders

CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, 572CSI: Miami, 572CT. See computerized tomographyCTS. See Conflict Tactics ScaleCultural Deviance model. See Peer

Influence modelcultural deviance theory, 641cultural norms, 467, 489

about victimization, 492violence and, 9

cultural, social variations, violenceand, 8

culture(s). See also attenuatedculture; oppositionalcontracultures; subcultures

relational aggression and,251–253

social-cognitive process across,252

violence impact of, 641–642

DA. See brain dopamine systemsdanger

ecology of, 692situational cues to, 575

Dangerous Offender Project, 39Danish Birth Cohort Studies, 40daring, 264–265, 268, 270–271date rape, 442Dating Violence Intervention and

Prevention Program forTeenagers, 442

dating/courtship violence, 406, 433DBP. See diastolic blood pressure

death, school associated, 344Death without Weeping

(Schepper-Hughes), 753degree centrality, 452delayed motor development, 51delinquency, 188

abstainers from, 59–60development theories of, 509developmental interaction

theory, 510evidence-based programs for, 510gender difference in, 642late-onset, 58overlapping pathways in,

509–510sibling resemblance in, 29–30violent behavior and, 505, 535

delinquent peers, 58, 60, 267, 641delinquent subtypes, research on,

67delta brain wave activity, 126dementia, aggressive behavior and,

129demographic differences

conduct problems and, 274–276violence and, 274–276

Denver Youth Survey, 39, 503depression, conduct problems and,

273–274desensitization, 636development, 173, 190–192

antisocial behavior across, 191behavior patterns, 190–191hierarchical modeling of,

740–741latent curve analysis of, 740–741

developmental interaction theory,of delinquency, 510

developmental manifestations, ofrelational aggression, 248–249

developmental models,group-based, statistical,743–748

developmental processesmediating, 62, 643transactional models of, 163

developmental risk factors, foryouth violence, 479

developmental trajectoriescausal influences and, 269–272construct categories, taxonomies

of, 743of convictions, 744–745of gang membership, 740–741group-based method analysis of,

740of physical aggressionsemi-parametric, group-based

approach, 741–742Developmental Victimization

Survey (DVS), 668

deviant friends/cliques, 368–373affiliation predictors, 368–369child/adolescent social status

and, 371–372childhood exposure to, 369coercion, low quality friendships

and, 373deviancy training, 373deviant peer network and, 373differential reinforcement, 373externalizing problems and, 369friendship features and, 373Individual Characteristics model

and, 370–371low SES, socio-family adversity

and, 372modeling, 374moderating variables, 371–373parenting impact on, 369Peer Influence model and,

369–371peer rejection and, 376peers’ social status and, 372–373personality characteristics and,

371prevention, intervention for,

375–376proximal processes, 373–375Social Interactional model and,

370social learning theory and, 369socio-family factors and,

371–372theoretical models, 369–370

deviant peer network, 373Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

of Mental Disorders (DSM),personality disorders in, 288

diastolic blood pressure (DBP),child abuse and, 118

diazepam (Valium), 625Differential Association model. See

Peer Influence modeldifferential association theory, peer

group relationships and, 641differential persistence prediction,

62differential reinforcement,

603–604social learning through, 640

diffusion tensor imaging, 135dihydroepiandrosterone-sulfate

(DHEAS), mice studies, 97discipline, 220

externalizing problems and,224–225

management process, procedures,349

in schools, 349disinhibition hypothesis, alcohol

consumption and, 655–656






800 subject index

disposition dimensions, 265of antisocial propensity, 263–264daring, 264–265, 268, 270–271negative emotionality, 265, 268,

270prosociality, 264, 270–271, 274psychopathy and, 272

dispositional risk, 225distortion models, 187DMHDS. See Dunedin

Multidisciplinary Health andDevelopment Study

DOH. See NYC Department ofHealth

Dollard, John, 637domestic abuse, cocaine link to,

653–654domestic terrorism

abortion and, 596in U.S., 583–584

domestic violence, 9, 11, 118,219–220. See also batterers

children and, 61literature, 118national surveys of, 406NCVD definition, 652studying, 751women and, 61

dominance theory, adolescentaggression and, 455–456

dopamineADHD and, 86alcohol impact on, 655antagonists, 620cocaine impact on, 655regulation of, 229–230

dopaminergic mechanisms,aggressive behavior and,129–130, 177

Dragnet, 572drive-by shootings, 391, 396The Drowned and the Saved (Levi),

750, 752drug trafficking, 755

ethnographic studies, 392gang homicide and, 392–393homicide victimization and,

699–700youth gangs and, 504–505

Drug Use Forecasting System(DUF), 718

DSM. See Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders

DUF, Drug Use ForecastingSystem, 718

Dunedin Multidisciplinary Healthand Development Study(DMHDS), 29, 40, 51, 56, 59,229, 294, 665

Durand, Oscar Alberto Ramirez,588

DVS. See DevelopmentalVictimization Survey

E. See environmental riskearly health-related factors,

153–156birth complications, 155–156fetal neural maldevelopment,

158–159prenatal nicotine exposure,

159–160early positive (P100) potentials, in

ERPs, 128early-onset persistent aggression,

biological, social risk factorsfor, 225–226

Earth Liberation Front (ELF), 596ECF. See executive control functionecological intervention, 628–629ecological model, 476–477

community contexts in, 477individual factors in, 477proximal social relationships and,

477societal factors, 477

ecological terrorism, 596ecological theory, family violence

and, 411ecological-transactional model,

child maltreatment and, 667,681–682

economic stress. See alsosocioeconomic status

homicide and, 488–489economic violence, 468, 656Ecstasy (MDMA), 649educational attainment, mental

health and, 665educational neglect, of children,

404–405EEG studies. See

electroencephalographicstudies

effect size determination, 82–83effective aggression, 329effects-coded method. See

constraining methodelder abuse, 11, 407elderly, crime fear among, 576electrocortical activation,

aggression and, 126electrocortical studies, 125–128electroencephalographic (EEG)

studies, 125–126delta activity, 126

ELF. See Earth Liberation Frontemotion, impulsivity, OFC role in,

171–172emotional abuse, of children,

404–405emotional arousal, 545

aggression and, 123–124emotional attachment, self-control

theory and, 538emotional changes, from violence,

provocation, 552–555emotional desensitization, 545,

563–564cross-sectional surveys, 558–559experiments on, 557–558longitudinal studies of, 559–561to violence, 554–555

emotional dysregulation, vagalinfluences in, 116

emotional neglect, of children,404–405

emotional predisposition, 547–548violence propensity and, 548

emotional regulation, brain lesionsand, 193

emotional responsebrain structures of, 112empirical data on, 562–564

emotional states, emotional traitsvs., 522

endophenotypes, 790–791enrichment, 354environmental influences, 221–222

antisocial propensity and,266–269

biological, 221–225clinical practice, public policy

and, 216CNS impact by, 155criminality, aggression and, 77genetics, heredity, 227–229,

266–268manipulation of, 230–231temperament and, 221–225

environmental interventions,348–351

police, SROs, 349security, surveillance procedures,

349environmental (E) risk, 50, 62,

216–217, 221–222Environmental Risk (E-Risk)

Longitudinal Twin Study, 219environmental susceptibility,

within-species diversity in, 217environmentalist position, on

violence, 151epidemics, 689, 755–756

contagious, 690–691ethnography and, 754–755

epilepsy, 194E-Risk. See Environmental Risk

Longitudinal Twin StudyERP. See event-related studies;

exposure and responseprevention

ethnicity/culture, 164






subject index 801

alcohol, drug abuse, 648violence across, 788

ethnography, epidemics and,754–755

ethno-nationalism, terrorism and,593–595

ETV. See exposure to violenceEurope

gangs in, 397–398right wing violence in, 595

European Sourcebook of Crime andCriminal Justice Statistics, 487

event-related (ERP) studies,126–128

P100 in, 128evocative genotype-environmental

correlations, 267excitation transfer, arousal and,

550–551executive brain functioning, 27executive control function (ECF),

alcohol impact on, 655exosystem, child development and,

667exposure and response prevention

(ERP), 605exposure to violence (ETV), 306,

788–789. See also children’sexposure to violence

age and, 311–312data on, 309–317elementary, middle school

students, 311empirical evidence, 555evidence on, 315–317future research, 564–565gender, age, ethnicity and,

311–312learning processes, 551long term effects moderators,

561–562long term socializing effects,

551–555males vs. females, 563–564mass media and, 556–557observational learning from,

551–552parental monitoring and,

310–311prevention, intervention for,

314–315recent, 310–311, 313–314research, 315–317risk for violence and, 546–547SES and, 664short term effects, 549–551trends, 312

externalizing behaviors, proximalprocesses, 373–375

externalizing problemsdeviant peers and, 369

harsh discipline and, 224–225psychopathy vs., 116vagal control and, 115

externalizing syndromes,quantitative model of, 111

extinction, 603–604

family, 217, 224, 267. See alsofamily violence

antisocial behavior impact by, 78relational aggression and, 254risk factors, 27–29, 51–53, 62,

192U.S. Census Bureau definition,

404violence in, 308

family adversity, 154risk factors, 51–53

family background, 20, 29–30. Seealso socioeconomic status

Family Checkup, 773–774family environment, 790

adolescent dating abuse and, 439family experiences, 332Family Intervention, 773–774family processes, violence and,

420–421Family Resource Center, 773–774family socio-economic

status/poverty, 670–674,676–677

family structure, adolescent datingabuse and, 441

family therapy, 610–611FFT. See Functional Family

Therapy, 610–611MST. See Multisystemic Therapy,

611family violence, 11, 468

adolescent dating abuse and,439–441

attachment theory and, 413categories of, 11–13coping theory and, 410–411defining, 403–405ecological theory and, 411extent of, 405–407factors associated with, 408–410general strain theory and, 412income and, 408intergenerational transmission of,

409–410mental illness model of, 408National Academy of Sciences

definition, 404National Family Violence

Surveys, 405against parents, 407prevention, intervention, 413by race, 409research, practice, 413

resource theory and, 411scope of, 403–408sex, gender differences and, 408sexual child abuse and, 410social characteristics of, 408–409social class and, 408social isolation and, 409social learning theory and, 410social situational stress and,

410–411sociobiology theory and,

411–412substance abuse and, 652–654theoretical perspectives, 410–413witnessing, 407–408

family-based intervention, 479for youth violence, 773–774

Farmer, Paul, 750–751, 755–756Fast Track, 772FBI. See Federal Bureau of

InvestigationFBI Supplemental Homicide

Reports, 700FDA. See U.S. Food and Drug

Administrationfear. See also fear of crime; personal

fearin commercial advertising, 573consequences of, 578–579contagion of, 692Gallup Organization

measurement of, 574gender and, 575–576incivility signs and, 575mass media and, 577–578nature of, 574NORC measurement of, 574personal vs. altruistic, 576population distribution of,

575–576of rape, 576of residential burglary, 575situational danger cues and, 575survival mechanism of, 574victimization vs., 573–574

fear of crimeAmerican city ecology and, 579among elderly, 576scientific foundation for, 580social commentators on, 579spatial avoidance and, 579survey research on, 574–575in U.S., 573–579

Fearless Dominance, 298Federal Bureau of Investigation

(FBI)gang crime definition, 389juvenile crime statistics of, 418SHR of, 589

felony drug arrest rates, homicideand, 700–701






802 subject index

female to male partner violence(FMPV), 674

fetal neural maldevelopment,158–159

FFT. See Functional Family Therapyfirearms, 671. See also guns

gang homicide and, 391–392gang violence and, 398gun, non-gun homicide, 695juvenile homicide rate and, 503

fluoxetine, 623fluvoxamine treatment, for

impulsive aggression, 176FMPV. See female to male partner

violencefMRI. See functional MRIfocal child approach, 247Fragile X Mental Retardation

Syndrome, 103freedom fighters, 584–585friendships

deviant friends/cliques and, 373gang membership and, 461reciprocated vs. common, 452

frontal dysfunctional lobehypothesis, murderers and,194

frontal limbic brain mechanism,serotonergic augmentation,175–176

frontal lobescognitive functioning and, 154nomenclatures of, 193

frustration-aggression hypothesis,122

Functional Family Therapy (FFT),610, 611

functional MRI (fMRI), 136

GABA. See gamma amino butyricacid

Gallup Organization, fearmeasurement by, 574

gamma amino butyric acid(GABA), 178, 623

alcohol impact on, 625, 654gang(s), 368, 371, 511. See also

youth gangschronic strains and, 522in Europe, 397–398guns and, 504–505research on, 638social networks research on,

460–461structure of, 392

gang crimedefinition of, 389ethnographic studies of, 392FBI definition of, 389local law enforcement definition,

389

motive-based definition of, 389prevention, 511

gang homicidecharacteristics of, 390collective behavior and, 395drug trafficking and, 392–393firearms and, 391–392instrumentalities of, 391–393levels of, 390Los Angeles, Chicago, 390–391patterns of, 390spatial concentration of, 393–394studies of, 390threat role in, 394

gang membershipdevelopment trajectory, 740–741empirical measures, 459–460friends and, 461social networks and, 457–459time spent in, 460types of, 460–461women and, 458

gang violencecollective behavior processes in,

394definitions of, 388–389drive-by shootings, 391, 396firearms and, 398group vs. individual aspects of,

394gunshot wounds from, 396homicide and, 388–391from medical perspective, 396medical settings and, 396–397non-gang violence vs., 388patterns of, 396–397in prison, 395–396social processes, 394–395, 398structural explanations, 393–394structural variables, 398theories of, 393–395victims of, 396–397violence escalation hypothesis,

394GBG. See Good Behavior Gamegemfibrozil, 625gender, 164, 642, 756–757

adolescent dating abuse and, 439aggression and, 85, 245–246, 790altruistic fear and, 576–577childhood aggression and, 245cocaine, crack use and, 648–649conduct problems and, 274–275crime and, 642delinquency and, 642family violence and, 408fear and, 575–576homicide and, 697IPV and, 677peer rejection and, 365prosociality and, 274

psychopathy across, 299relational aggression and, 245,

249–251self-control and, 541serotonin transporter genotype

and, 124symbolic violence and, 758violence and, 8–9, 12, 408,

524–525, 642, 756–757, 790violence exposure and, 311–312

gender differences, 122–125serotonin transporter genotype

and, 124in violence, 524–525

gender domination, symbolicviolence and, 758

gene X environment, 789–790general strain theory (GST). See

also strain theoryAgnew’s, 519family violence and, 412group differences in violence

and, 524–527genes, environments, adaptations

and offense, mice studies,103–104

genes, gonadal steroids and offense,mice studies, 94–96

genes, hippocampus and offense,mice studies, 102–103

genes, monoamines and offense,mice studies, 100–102

genes, nitric oxide and offense,mice studies, 98–100

genetic background effects, micestudies, 93

genetic predisposition, to aggressivebehavior, 62, 324

genetic screening, of children, 235genetics, heredity, 53, 62, 85–87,

219, 640, 790–791. See alsometabolite genes; precursorgenes; receptor genes;transporter genes

additive impact of, 87alternate models, 83antisocial propensity and,

266–269childhood cognitive ability and,

262comparative, 105criminality, aggression, 78environmental influences,

227–229, 266–268lifespan influence of, 266molecular, 86precursor, 87social rearing-environment and,

215studies, 77violence and, 77






subject index 803

genome scans, 85candidate gene studies vs., 85–86

genotype-environment interactions,267–268

girls. See also womenaggression in, 245peer rejection for, 365

Global Terrorism Reports, 589glucose metabolism, in orbital

prefrontal cortex, 130Goldstein’s tripartite model, of

substance abuse, 656–657Good Behavior Game (GBG),

230–231, 353gray matter volume, in aggressive

patients, 135group intervention, 253

for high-risk adolescentsgroups, measurement invariance

across, 731–732GST. See general strain theoryguanfacine, 622guns, 690. See also weapons-related

violencesocial contagion of, 692–693,

708–710violence and, 690youth gangs and, 504–505youth violence and, 14

Hall, Clark Leonard, 637haloperidol, 621–623handguns. See gunsHarris, Eric, 545–546harsh discipline, 220

externalizing problems and,224–225

Hashshashin, 591hazardous drinkers (HD), 653head injuries, 153–154, 192,

194health-risk behavior, 295heart rate (HR), 25, 51, 152

ADHD and, 114aggressive behavior and, 122hostility and, 119low resting, 112, 218psychopathy and, 117

heart rate variability (HRV),increased, 116

heritability, 219heroin, opioids, 626

SAMHSA data, 649substance abuse, violent behavior

and, 651–652heterotypic continuity, 747–748Hezbollah, 5915-HIAA. See serotonin metabolite

5-hydroxyindoleacetic acidhierarchical linear modeling

(HLM), of peer groups, 455

hierarchical modeling, of growthprocesses, 740–741

High School and Beyond study, 346high-risk adolescents, group

intervention forhippocampal mossy fibers (IIMF),

mice studies, 102, 104hippocampus, dysfunction in, 134HLM. See hierarchical linear

modelingHollingshead index, SES and, 673Home Run Multidisciplinary Team

(MDT), 511–512homicide. See also gang homicide;

infant homicideage and, 697age-specific felony drug arrest

rates and, 700–701among young U.S. males, 470child, 406cross-national comparative

research, 488drugs and, 699–700economic stress and, 488–489gang violence and, 388–391gender and, 697global rates of, 487income inequality and, 495inequality and, 488–489of intimates, 407modernization theory and, 488national cross-sectional

differences, 487national statistics on, 486–487NYGC and, 390predictors of, 488productivity losses from, 474race and, 697social integration and, 489social security expenditure and,

488–489social structure of, 697–701strain theory and, 488–489structural correlates, 488–490terrorism levels vs., 598trends, 487–488U.S. rates, 497victim-offender homogeneity,

698–699warfare and, 489worldwide rates, 470youth gang rates, 504youth violence and, 418

homicide rateschildren, youth, 307in Japan, 497in NYC, 688–690

homicide victimizationof African Americans, 706–707cross-national differences,

487–488

homogenous set test, mice studies,92

homophily hypothesis, 455homophobic aggression, 456–457hostage taking, 589hostile attributions, 335–336, 548hostility. See also trait hostility

blood pressure and, 119HR and, 119

HR. See heart rateHRV. See heart rate variability5-HT. See 5-hydroxytryptamine;

serotonin5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT),

172–173, 219. See alsoserotonin

chronic inhibition of, 619impulsive aggression and,

173–174prefrontal, limbic cortex and,

174–1755HTT-linked polymorphic region

(5HTT-LPR), aggression,violence and, 86

Human Rights Commission, 767hyperactivity, 51–52, 196hyperarousal. See physiological

hyperarousal

ICAP. See Integrated CognitiveAntisocial Potential theory

ICPS. See InterpersonalProblem-Solving Skills

ICVS. See International CrimeVictimization Survey

IED. See improved explosivedevice; Intermittent ExplosiveDisorder

IIMF. See hippocampal mossy fibersIIPMF. See intra- and infrapyramidal

mossy fiber fieldsimitation, priming, 555–557, 643

aggressive behavior and, 296cognitive process of, 550experiments on, 557mass media and, 557neurophysiological findings, 550observational learning and, 552of scripts, schemas, 549short-term influences of, 549social learning through, 639–640

improved explosive device (IED),597

impulse control, 291–292, 297P300 response amplitude and,

127impulsive aggression, 170–171, 588

5-HT and, 173–174brains structures of, 112decreasing, 175–176fluvoxamine treatment for, 176






804 subject index

impulsive aggression (cont.)IED and, 170neurobiological factors, 175–176pathophysiological mechanism

of, 174–175SSRI for, 175

impulsive antisociality, 298impulsiveness, 111

violence and, 26In Search of Respect (Bourgois),

750–751, 755, 761Incidental model, of peer rejection,

363–364income status, 493

homicide, 495victimization and, 495violence and, 470

Incredible Years, 773indirect aggression, relational

aggression vs., 246indirect victimization, 573Individual Characteristics model

deviant friends/cliques and,370

gang membership and, 371Peer Influence model vs., 371

individual interventions, 348,351–354

at schools, 351individual risk factors, 26–27Infant Health and Development

intervention experiment, 231infant homicide, maternal

education and, 671infant nervous-system

maldevelopment, 52inhibition conflict, alcohol

consumption and, 656Injury Surveillance System, 695,

705inner cities, race-specific economic

deficits in, 688insight/psychoanalytical treatment,

610Institute of Medicine, 5institutional violence, 11Integrated Cognitive Antisocial

Potential (ICAP) theory,35–38, 510

intelligence, 27intelligence quotient (IQ), 34

breastfeeding and, 192violence and, 26–27

intentionality, 467violence and, 6

intermittency, 54Intermittent Explosive Disorder

(IED), 170, 201–202International Crime Statistics, 486International Crime Victimization

Survey (ICVS), 420, 486, 490

country participation, 491, 496cross-cultural similarity in, 492data advantages, 490–491data limitations, 491–492, 496data-collection procedures, 491linked macro-,

micro-perspectives, 494–495macro-level findings, 493–494measurement error, 491methodological studies, 496micro-level findings, 494research problems, 492–495response rates, 491sample sizes, 491–492

International Homicide Index, 492International Labor Organization,

crime data from, 495International Study of Adolescent

Development (ISAD), 422measures, 422–423method, 422–423results, 423–427sample, 422

International Violence AgainstWomen Survey (IVAWS), 492

internet, violence exposurethrough, 307

Interpersonal Problem-SolvingSkills (ICPS), 351–352

interpersonal violence, 11, 468Interpol, 486intervention, 6. See also behavioral

intervention; cognitive,cognitive-behavioral therapy;prevention, intervention

Anger Control Training, 352–353cognitive-behavioral, 351–353community service, 354community-level, 479–480Crime Prevention through

Environmental Design, 351early childhood, 538enrichment, 354environmental vs. individual, 348evaluation of, 355family-based approaches, 479GBG, 353group based, 253ICPS, 351–352leisure activities, 354mentoring, tutoring, work-study,

354multiple points of, 511, 612other instructional, 353in parenting, 538–539pharmacological/ecological,

628–629preventative, 314–315Project PATHE, 349Project STATUS, 350–351recreation, 354

for relationally aggressivechildren, 253

relationship-level, 479research on, 347Safe Dates Program, 350school based, 253for school bullying, 349–350social competency instruction,

351–353societal, 479–480therapeutic, 179, 353–354universal vs. indicated, 351for violence exposure, 314–315

intervention research evidence, onschool violence, 347–354

intimate partner violence (IPV),468, 473–474, 675

alcohol consumption and, 652gender-contingent patterns of,

677across social classes, 673

intimidation, physical aggressionand, 7

intra- and infrapyramidal mossyfiber fields (IIPMF), micestudies, 102

Intradimensional/ExtradimensionalShift Task, 199–200

Iowa Gambling Task, 200brain lesions and, 199

IPV. See intimate partner violenceIQ. See intelligence quotientIrish Republican Army (IRA),

590–591ISAD. See International Study of

Adolescent DevelopmentIslamic fundamentalist groups, 593

terrorism by, 583–585isolates, 452Italian Red Brigades, 590IVAWS. See International Violence

Against Women Survey

Japan, homicide rates, 497Jewish terrorists, 593Justice Depart Agency, violence

prevention sponsored by,349

justice system, neuropsychologicalresearch and, 201

justified aggression, 329juvenile delinquency

competing theories of, 510risk factors, 511

juvenile homicideCanadian rates, 503crack cocaine epidemic and, 503firearm use and, 503increase explanation, 503–505

juvenile justice system, 49–50adolescents referred to, 505






subject index 805

juvenile transfers in, 507–508minority youth and, 506–507property offense cases in, 507reforms, 506–507

juvenile offendersexecution of, 508LWOP for, 508

juvenile victimizations, in NCVS,502

juvenile violence. See also violentdelinquency

arrest rates, 501developmental model of,

260–261distortion of, 502inflammatory rhetoric, 506–507moral panic over, 506–507myths, doomsday forecasts,

505–506prevention, intervention

implications, 508–513self-reported studies of, 503super-predator myth, 505–506trends, 503–505tyranny of small numbers and,

501UCR data on, 502

Jyvaskyla Longitudinal Study, 40

Katz, Jack, 750, 752–753Kauai Longitudinal Study, 41Klebold, Dillon, 545–546knowledge structure, notion of, 324

LAL. See long attack latencylanguage development, 269

cognitive ability and, 265–266,271

conduct problems and, 265–266late adulthood, adolescent

personality disorders and, 291latent curve analysis, of

development, 740–741latent variables, modeling, 729late-onset delinquency, alternative

accounts of, 58Law and Order, 572left frontal brain activation, 126legal system. See also juvenile

justice systempredatory aggression for, 619violent behavior control through,

537leisure activities, 354lesions. See brain lesionsLevi, Primo, 750, 752liaisons, 452life course

self-control over, 540–541violence over, 20–25violence patterns over, 527

violent behavior distributionover, 534–535

life event risk factors, 32–33life without parole (LWOP), for

juveniles, 508life-course persistent antisocial

development, 65–67adolescent-limited vs., 49adulthood offending, violence

and, 60–62domestic violence and, 61neurodevelopmental,

family-adversity risk factors,51–53

research needed, 53Lifeskills ’95 program, 512literature, violent crime genre, 572lithium, 622–623

serotonergic function and, 623London subway bombings,

583–584lone gunmen, 595long attack latency (LAL), mice

studies, 102longitudinal studies, 19, 559–561,

789Abused Children Study, 41Add Health, 668, 676–677Cambridge Study in Delinquent

Development, 20, 39Cambridge-Somerville Youth

Study, 27–28, 40Chicago Youth Development

Study, 28, 41Columbia County Study, 28, 39Copenhagen Project

Metropolitan, 41Dangerous Offender Project,

39Danish Birth Cohort Studies,

40Denver Youth Survey, 39, 503of desensitization, 559–561DMHDS, 40, 51, 56, 59, 229,

665E-Risk Twin Study, 219Jyvaskyla Study, 40Kauai Study, 41Mauritius Joint Child Health

Project, 41Montreal

Longitudinal-ExperimentalStudy, 41

Montreal Two-SamplesLongitudinal study, 40

National Collaborative PerinatalProject, 39

National Survey of Health andDevelopment, 41

Northern Finland Birth CohortStudy, 41

NYS, 39, 59–60, 503, 538of observational learning,

559–561Orebro Project, 40Oregon Youth Study, 26, 29–30,

40, 56, 65, 444of peer experiences, 377–378Philadelphia Birth Cohort

Studies, 41Philadelphia Collaborative

Perinatal Project, 157Pittsburgh Youth Study, 28, 30,

34, 40, 221Rochester Youth Development

Study, 28–30, 41Seattle Social Development

Project, 29, 39statistical objective of, 740–741Stockholm Project Metropolitan,

39use of, 740of violence justification, 559–561Woodlawn project, 40Young Law Breakers as Adults,

40loose group member, 452lorazepam, 623Los Angeles, gang homicide in,

390–391low arousal, as aggression predictor,

564LSD. See lysergic acid diethylamideLWOP. See life without parolelysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),

NSDUH data, 649

macro-system interventions, foryouth violence, 774–775

Madrid train bombings, 583–584,591

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)aggression studies, 128, 134–135conflicting results, 135

maladaptive behaviors, 112males

exposure to violence, 563–564self-control, 541terrorism and, 589–590

malnutrition, 160–161maltreatment, 220Manson, Charles, 545–546, 597MAO. See monoamine oxidasemarriage, married couples, 33

psychological reactivity among,120

trait hostility among, 120violence among, 9

masculine domination, disguiseddynamics of, 758–759

Masculine Domination (Bourdieu),751, 757, 759






806 subject index

mass communication, of violence,571–572

mass media, 642–644. See alsomedia violence

crime, violence preoccupation of,579–580

criminal population studies and,556

fear and, 577–578police reports and, 571priming and, 557violence exposure and, 556–557violent behavior and, 546violent crime, 577–578

maternal environment, 224mice, mice studies, 93–94

maturity gap, 50, 57–59research needed, 59

Mauritius Joint Child HealthProject, 41

maximum likelihood estimation(ML), model-fitting and, 83

MDMA. See EcstasyMDT. See Home Run

Multidisciplinary Teammedia violence, 307, 546, 558–559,

573, 642–644exposure to, 643

mediation hypothesis, antisocialpropensity and, 268–269

Mediation-Causal model, of peerrejection, 364

medical settings, gang violence and,396–397

memetics, memes, 691memory. See also working memory

neuropsychological tests of, 51men

altruistic fear and, 576–577dangerously violent, 310fear in, 575

mental healthchild, adolescent, 306conduct problems and, 261educational attainment and,

665internalizing symptoms, 307SES and, 269, 665–668

mentoring, tutoring, work-studyinterventions, 354, 479

meta-analysis studiesinclusion criteria for, 78–82non-independent samples, 82tetrachoric, intraclass

correlations, 82metabolite genes, 87methadone, 626methamphetamine use

SAMSHA data, 649substance abuse, violent behavior

and, 651–652

methylenedioxymethamphetamine.See Ecstasy

methylphenidate, for CD, 622Metropolitan Area Child Research

Group, 778–779MHPG. See 3-methoxy-5-

hydroxyphenylglycolmice, 104–106, 217

aggression types, 91AVP and, 95context dependent sex

differences, 93Coumate and, 97DHEAS and, 97female specific aggression, 91genes, environments, adaptations

and offense in, 103–104genes, gonadal steroids and

offense, 94–96genes, hippocampus and offense

in, 102–103genes, monoamines and offense

in, 100–102genes, nitric oxide and offense in,

98–100genetic background effects, 93homogenous set test, 92humans and, 104–106IIMF and, 102, 104IIPMF and, 102LAL and, 102life history, test conditions, 92male specific, Y chromosome,

92–94maternal environment, 93–94neutral cage test, 92offense, defense in, 91–92PAR and, 92, 96–98resident intruder test, 92, 95SAL and, 102standard opponent test, 92STS and, 97–98testosterone, 99

microsystem, child developmentand, 667

militant animal rights activists, 596Miller, Neal E., 637minor physical anomalies (MPAs),

158–159, 227minority youth, juvenile justice

reforms and, 506–507ML. See maximum likelihood

estimationMOA-A. See monoamine oxidase

genemodel-fitting, 83

ML estimation in, 83WLS estimation in, 83

modernization theory, homicideand, 488

molecular genetic studies, 86

Monitoring the Future (MTF), 503monoamine oxidase (MAO), 268

chronic inhibition of, 619monoamine oxidase gene

(MAO-A), 219, 229–230, 232Montreal

Longitudinal-ExperimentalStudy, 41

Montreal Preventative TreatmentProgram, 511

Montreal Two-SamplesLongitudinal study, 40

mood disorders, omega-3 fattyacids and, 177

morbidity, mortality, violence and,6

morphine, 626mothers, aggressive boys and, 335MPAs. See minor physical anomaliesMPQ. See Multidimensionality

Personality QuestionnaireMRI. See magnetic resonance

imagingMST. See Multisystemic TherapyMTF. See Monitoring the FutureMultidimensionality Personality

Questionnaire (MPQ), 77, 294Alienation scale of, 292

Multisystemic Therapy (MST), 611murder, fear of, 575murderers, 194–195

frontal dysfunctional lobehypothesis and, 194

Mussawi, Hussein, 591

nadalol, 622National Academy of Science, 643

family violence definition, 404National Center for Victims of

Crime (NCVD), domesticviolence definition, 652

National Child Abuse and NeglectData System (NCANDS),405

National Collaborative PerinatalProject, 39

National Counterterrorism Center,589

National Crime VictimizationSurvey (NCVS), 311, 677

juvenile victimizations, 502National Drug Intelligence Center,

652National Electronic Injury

Surveillance System, 473National Family Violence Surveys,

405National Institute of Education,

Safe School Study (1978),345

National Institute of Health, 50






subject index 807

National Institute of Justice, 406National Institute of Mental

Health, 613National Longitudinal Study of

Adolescent Health (AddHealth), 668, 676–677

National Opinion Research Center(NORC), fear measurementby, 574

National Research Council Report(2003), 354

National Survey of Families andHouseholds, 675

National Survey of Health andDevelopment, 41

National Survey on Drug Use andHealth (NSDUH), 648

National Violence Against WomenSurvey (NVAW), 406–407

National Youth Gang Center(NYGC), 390

National Youth Survey (NYS), 39,59–60, 503

on parenting, 538National Youth Survey Self-Report

Delinquency Instrument, 221nature vs. nurture, 215, 218–219

interaction effect, 219–221NCANDS. See National Child

Abuse and Neglect DataSystem

NC-PRAMS. See Pregnancy RiskAssessment MonitoringSystem, North Carolina

NCVD. See National Center forVictims of Crime

NCVS. See National CrimeVictimization Survey

NE. See norepinephrine functionNEAD. See Nonshared

Environment and AdolescentProject

negative emotionality (NEM), 265,268, 271, 294–297

alienation and, 296parent-child relationships and,

270in toddlers, 270

neglect, 11physical abuse vs., 12

neighborhood effects, on socialcontagion, 701–710

neighborhood risk, 702–703neighborhood socio-economic

status/poverty, 671–672,675–678

adolescent ETV and, 679–680adolescent IPV and, 677–678

NEM. See Negative Emotionalityneurobiological mechanisms, 620neurobiological model, 111–112

neurodevelopment, 62life-course persistent antisocial

behavior and, 51–53neurodevelopment processes, 49neuroimaging studies, 128–138. See

also aggression studies ofpsychopathic individuals,136–137

neuroleptics, 620–622neurological abnormalities, 51neuropeptides, 178neurophysiology, of imitation,

priming, 550neuropsychological assessment,

188–189neuropsychological studies

of antisocial disorders, 197–205on ASPD, 203–204on CD, 202–203of criminals, delinquents,

200–201IED, 201–202justice system and, 201of physical violence, 197–205of physically violent behavior,

194of psychopathy, 197–205

neuropsychology, 50, 187cognitive deficits and, 187

neurotransmitter pathways, 86alcohol consumption impact on,

654–655cocaine impact on, 654–655

neutral cage test, mice studies, 92New York City (NYC)

current, historical homicidetrends, 694–701

gun, non-gun homicides,694–695

homicide rates in, 688–690Injury Surveillance System, 695,

705New York State Longitudinal

Study, 39NHD. See nonhazardous drinkers

9–11, 583–584terrorism since, 598

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA),627

non-criminal violent behavior, 540nonhazardous drinkers (NHD), 653Nonshared Environment and

Adolescent Project (NEAD),219

NORC. See National OpinionResearch Center

norepinephrine function (NE), 177norm breaking behavior, peer

pressure and, 374Normative Beliefs, 547–548, 551

about aggression, 560

normative development, SIP and,327

normative learningcriminal behavior and, 641social learning theory and, 644

norms, 479, 639. See also culturalnorms; social norms

Northern Finland Birth CohortStudy, 41

NSDUH. See National Survey onDrug Use and Health

Nurse Home Visitations, 773nutrition, 160–162NVAW. See National Violence

Against Women SurveyNYC. See New York CityNYC Department of Health

(DOH), 705NYC Department of Health and

Mental Hygiene, 689–690NYGC. See National Youth Gang

CenterNYS. See National Youth Survey

observational learningcross-sectional surveys, 558–559imitation and, 552longitudinal studies, 559–561from violence exposure,

551–552observational learning theory, 551ODD. See oppositional defiant

disorderOFC. See orbitofrontal cortexoffenders

life-course persistent vs.adolescence-limited, 49

typologies of, 37offending, situational influences on,

272Office of Child Abuse and Neglect,

405Office of Juvenile Justice and

Delinquency Prevention(OJJDP), 390

official crime data, 486–490Ogburn, William Fielding, 637OJJDP. See Office of Juvenile

Justice and DelinquencyPrevention

Oklahoma City bombing, 595omega-3 fatty acids, suicide and,

177omission, 603operant (functional analytic)

therapybackground, 603defined, 603evidence, 603–605

opportunity, self-control and, 540oppositional contracultures, 641






808 subject index

oppositional defiant disorder(ODD), 272

CD and, 203substance abuse and, 272–273

orbital prefrontal cortex, glucosemetabolism in, 130

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), 171emotion, impulsivity role of,

171–172Orebro Project, 40Oregon Youth Study, 26, 29–30,

40, 56, 65, 444overt aggression, 85

modeling, 728relational vs., 333

oxycontin, 657oxytocin, 178

P. See person riskP100. See early positive potentialsP300 response amplitude

cognitive functioning and, 127impulse control problems and,

127Palestinian Liberation Organization

(PLO), 591, 594PAR. See pseudoautosomal regionparanoid cognitive personality, 292,

297parasympathetic nervous system

(PSN), 114, 153parent aggression, CBT forparent to child physical aggression

(PCPA), 668cognitive behavioral treatment of

parent trainingbackground, 605–606child abuse and, 606cost effectiveness of, 606evidence, 606

parental influences, 153, 267, 325,535

criminal background, 227–228mental illness, 156

parental rejection, 220parental supervision, adolescent

dating abuse and, 441parental violence, 640parent-child maltreatment, 670parent-child relationships, negative

emotionality and, 270parenting, 11, 27, 50, 52, 58, 770

coercive, 78deviant peer affiliation and, 369harsh, 53NYS on, 538planned interventions in,

538–539self-control and, 538–539, 541substance abuse and, 29unskilled, 52

violence exposure and, 310–311partner abuse, 406–407passive genotype-environmental

correlations, 267passive-aggressive personality

disorder, validity of, 291pathological violence, 14–15Pathologies of Power (Farmer),

750–751, 755–756Patterson’s mediation model, of

peer rejection, 376PCL-R. See Psychopathy-Checklist

RevisedPCL-SV. See

Psychopathy-Checklist,screening version

PCP. See phencyclidinePCPA. See parent to child physical

aggressionP-E. See person-environment

interactionPeaceBuilders program, 772peer(s). See also delinquent peers

affiliation trajectories, 58entropy among, 374future research directions,

376–378intervention and, 479nondeviant, 375–376SCM and, 454social behavior impact by,

453–454victimization by, 361

peer acceptancepositive effects of, 367–368self-perceptions of, 372

peer contagion, 373peer environment, adolescent

dating abuse and, 439peer experience, 328, 361

age, group norms and, 363categories of, 376–377empirical evidence, 364–365longitudinal studies of, 377–378

peer groupsassessment methods, 454differential association theory

and, 641HLM, 455homophily hypothesis, 455SNA of, 455social integration within, 362youth violence and, 771

peer influence, 332aggression and, 454–457process, contextual factors, 378of siblings, 377theories of, 454–457

Peer Influence modeldeviant peers and, 369evidence against, 370

evidence for, 369–370Individual Characteristics model

vs., 371Social Interactional model vs.,

371versions of, 369

peer pressure, norm breakingbehavior and, 374

peer rejection, 26, 51, 220–224,325, 362–368

Additive-Causal model of,364–365

aggressive behavior and,362–363, 365–366

aggressive-antisocial behaviorand, 366–367

Bi-Directional Causal model of,364

Causal model of, 364degree, severity of, 366deviant friends and, 376gender and, 365Incidental model of, 363–364Mediation-Causal model, 364Patterson’s mediation model of,

376physical aggression and, 58reducing, 367self-perceptions and, 367stability of, 366temporal proximity of, 366theoretical models, 363–364

peer reports, 248peer, socioeconomic, neighborhood

risk factors, 29–31peers’ social status

deviant friends/cliques and,372–373

social learning theory and, 372PEM. See Positive Emotionalityperceived threat, 7perinatal complications, risks, 25,

155Perry Mason, 572persistent aggressive behavior,

serotonin transporter densityand, 130

person (P) risk, 216–217, 221–222personal fear, altruistic fear vs., 576personality

deviant friends/cliques and, 371dimensional models of, 288five-factor model of, 264paranoid cognitive, 292psychopathic, 297–299research on, 288, 300structural models of, 288, 297

personality and violence, 299–300alienation and, 295–297externalizing spectrum and,

294–295






subject index 809

negative emotionality and,295–297

research criticism, 290–291within structural framework,

294–295structural models, 293

personality disorders. See alsopassive-aggressive personalitydisorder

adolescent to later adulthood,291

comorbidity, 291criminal offenders with, 53DSM definition of, 288violence and, 289–292

personality traits, 293distributed dimensions of, 293hierarchical organization of, 293structural models of, 292–294,

300systematic covariation and, 293

person-environment (P-E)interaction, 216–218

antisocial behavior and, 231–233caveats, 235–236practice, policy implications of,

234–235research implications of, 233–234

PET. See positron emissiontomography

pharmacological intervention,628–629

PHDCN. See Project for HumanDevelopment in ChicagoNeighborhoods

phencyclidine (PCP), 624, 626–627phenytoin, 623Philadelphia Birth Cohort Studies,

41Philadelphia Collaborative Perinatal

Project, 157physical abuse

of children, 404–405neglect vs., 12prevention, 163

physical aggression, 195–197assessment of, 246–248defined, 195development trajectories of,

743–744frequency of, 378group profiles, 746intimidation and, 7normative, 191peer rejection and, 58

physical fights, 474motives for, 31

physical neglect, of children,404–405

physical punishment, 28physical stressors, 122

physical violencecomorbidity, 190neuropsychological studies of,

197–205physically violent behavior,

neuropsychology studies of,194

physiological hyperarousal,antisocial behavior and, 113

pindolol, 622Pittsburgh Youth Study, 28, 30, 34,

40, 221planned ignoring, 604PLO. See Palestinian Liberation

Organizationpolice intervention, in schools,

349–350police reports, mass media and, 571political violence, 468, 596–597poor conditioning theories, of

arousal, 553Positive Emotionality (PEM), 294positron emission tomography

(PET), 176aggression studies, 128, 130–134prefrontal dysfunction, 130–133temporal lobe dysfunction, 133

poverty, 14, 50, 219, 752–753. Seealso family socio-economicstatus/poverty; neighborhoodsocio-economic status/poverty;socio-economic status/poverty

family violence and, 408Powell, Colin, 589PPI. See Psychopathic Personality

InventoryPREA. See Prison Rape Elimination

Act of 2003precursor genes, 87predatory violence, 14prefrontal cortex, cognitive

functions of, 193prefrontal dysfunction, 153–156

PET of, 130–133prefrontal, limbic cortex, 5-HT

function in, 172–175pregnancy

maternal smoking during, 192stress-management during, 163

Pregnancy Risk AssessmentMonitoring System, NorthCarolina (NC-PRAMS),673–674

Pregnancy Risk AssessmentMonitoring System, SouthCarolina (SC-PRAMS),673–674

prenatal malnutrition, 52prenatal nicotine exposure,

159–160prescription drug dependence, 657

President’s Commission on LawEnforcement andAdministration of Justice, 573

prevention, intervention, 162–163,477–481, 603, 775–777. Seealso exposure and responseprevention; family therapy;science of prevention; selectiveinterventions; universalinterventions

adolescent dating abuse, 438,442–444

by age groups, 770approaches, 478–480beyond current, 775–781community-based, 774Comprehensive Gang

Prevention, Intervention, andSuppression Model, 512

CS for, 510–512cultural context, 770–771Dating Violence Intervention and

Prevention Program forTeenagers, 442

effective response determination,480–481

effective strategy development,768–771

evidence-base for, 477family violence, 413family-based, 773–774focus of, 768–769of gang crime, 511intended effects production,

778–780intended population, 769–771for juvenile violence, 508–513Lifeskills’95 program, 512macro-system, 774–775MDT, 511–512middle-school, 770Montreal Preventative Treatment

Program, 511nondeviant peers for, 375–376parenting, 770research, 477, 777–778risk, protective factors and, 771San Diego County Breaking

Cycles program, 511science of, 478, 789youth violence, 771–775

priming. See imitation, primingPrinciples of Criminology

(Sutherland), 638prison gangs, 395–396

organization of, 395street gangs and, 398–399

Prison Rape Elimination Act of2003 (PREA), 757

legal terminology, definitions in,757–758






810 subject index

proactive aggression, 363reactive vs., 334

processing bias, across situations,contexts, 332–337

processing overload hypothesis, 154Project for Human Development in

Chicago Neighborhoods(PHDCN), 668–669, 675,681–682

Project Metropolitan, 27Project PATHE, 349Project SafecareProject STATUS, 350–351property crime, ICVS data on,

490–492propranolol, 622prosociality, 264, 270–271

gender and, 274protective factors, 33–34, 54,

771biosocial research on, 162SES, 677

provocation, emotional changesfrom, 552–555

pseudoautosmal region (PAR), 92mice studies, 96–98

pseudo-maturity, 57PSN. See parasympathetic nervous

systempsychoeducation, 609, 610psychological reactivity, among

married couples, 120psychopathic individuals,

neuroimaging studies of,136–137

psychopathic personality, violenceand, 297–299

Psychopathic Personality Inventory(PPI), 298

psychopathy, 297–299adult, 116–118amygdala and, 200antisocial personality vs., 116arousal and, 553ASPD and, 190autonomic nervous system and,

116–118diagnosis of, 116dispositions and, 272externalizing problems vs., 116across genders, 299HR and, 117neuropsychological studies of,

197–205violence and, 299violent recidivism and, 116

Psychopathy Checklist, 117Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-SV),

screening version, 298Psychopathy Checklist-Revised

(PCL-R), 136, 190, 297

psychopharmacological agents,191–192

aggression decreasing, 620–623amphetamines, 626, 649, 652androgens, anabolic steroids, 627anti-convulsants, 622–623anti-depressants, 620–623anti-hypertensive agents, 622barbiturates, 625benzodiazepines, 622–623, 625cannabis, 627–628, 648,

650–651cholesterol lowering agents,

625–626cocaine, 503, 626, 648–649, 651,

653–655lithium, 622–623neuroleptics, 620–622opiates, 626, 651–652PCP, 624, 626–627psychostimulants, 626stimulants, 622

psychopharmacology, 618–619psychosocial risk factors, 152psychostimulants, 626

amphetamines, 626, 649,652

puberty, adolescent-limitedantisocial behavior and, 50

public health approachclassic model used in, 475collective vs. individual action in,

466health, economic consequences

and, 474prevention emphasis of, 466scientific method requirements

of, 466to violence, 466–470to youth violence, 768

public information campaigns, 479public opinion, on violent youth,

216public policy

environmental effects and, 216on genetic screening, 235

punishment, 603

al Qaeda, 591, 593

race/ethnicity. See alsoethnicity/culture

conduct problems and, 275–276homicide and, 697in inner cities, 688in violence, 526violence across, 788violence exposure and, 311–312

rapefear of, 576social learning processes and, 640

reactive aggression, 363adolescent dating abuse and, 442proactive vs., 334

recent exposure to, 313–314,317–318

Recent Exposure to Violence Scale(REVS), 313–314

receptor genes, 87recreation, 354relational aggression, 85, 245

assessment of, 246–248in collectivist/interdependent-

oriented cultures, 252consequences of, 250cross-cultural research on,

252–253culture and, 251–253defined, 245–246developmental manifestations,

248–249developmental risk, harm,

250–251family and, 254focal child approach, 247future research directions, 254gender differences and, 249–250gender normative, 251indirect aggression vs., 246intervention for, 253observations, 247during older developmental

periods, 249overt vs., 333peer reports, 248in preschool years, 246romantic partners and, 249, 251teacher reports, 247–248verbal aggression vs., 246in western cultures, 252

relationship violence, 14relationship-level intervention, 479relaxation training, 606–607religious extremism, 591–593religious terrorism, 591. See also

terrorism, terroristsresident intruder test, 95

mice studies, 92residential burglary, fear of, 575residential mobility programs, 480resource theory, family violence

and, 411respiratory-sinus arrhythmia

(RSA), 115Responding in Peace and Positive

Ways (RIPP), 772response cost, 604resting autonomic activity

antisocial behavior and, 112–113child conduct problems and, 113

REVS. See Recent Exposure toViolence Scale






subject index 811

Reynoso, Abimael Guzman, 588rhesus macaques studies, 217right wing terrorism, 593–595. See

also terrorist group typologiesin U.S., 594–595

right wing violence, in Europe, 595RIPP. See Responding in Peace and

Positive Waysrisk behavior, 27

ADHD and, 272–273ODD and, 272–273

risk communication, 580risk factors, 9, 19, 25–34, 38,

61–62, 771additive, sequential, 34adverse social environments, 152biological, 25–26, 162brain development, 191–192brain lesions, 193–194childhood, 21combined, 163–164developmental, 479dispositional, 225for early-onset persistent

aggression, 225–226environmental, 227–229family, 27–29, 51–53, 62, 192health, 295individual, 26–27for juvenile delinquency, 511life events, 32–33maternal smoking during

pregnancy, 192mechanisms, 32media violence, 546–547neighborhood, 702–703neurodevelopmental, 51–53P-E, 221–222peer, socioeconomic,

neighborhood, 29–31perinatal, 25, 155protective, 33–34psychosocial, 152situational, 31–32, 272technological, 580for victimization, 493violence reduction programs and,

38for youth violence, 479, 771

risperidone, 620–622Rochester Youth Development

study, 28–30, 41routine activities theory, 31RSA. See respiratory-sinus

arrhythmiaRussia, youth gangs in, 397Rutgers Health and Human

Development Project, 64

Safe Dates Program, 350Safe Dates Study, 434, 440, 444

Safe School Study (1978), 345Safer Bars Programme, 628SAL. See short attack latencySAMHSA. See Substance Abuse

and Mental Services HealthAdministration

San Diego County Breaking Cyclesprogram, 511

SARP. See Spousal AssaultReplication Program

SBP. See systolic blood pressureSC. See skin conductancescale setting, in SEM, 729Schepper-Hughes, N., 753schizophrenia, 204–205, 292school(s)

architectural arrangements at,351

behavior modification,cognitive-behavioralinterventions at, 353

bullying in, 349–350classroom, instructional

management in, 350Crime Prevention through

Environmental Design and,351

discipline management at, 346,349

failure of, 746–747individual interventions at, 351normative beliefs in, 347police intervention in, 349–350psycho-social climate of, 347racial heterogeneity of, 347scheduling, classes, grades

reorganizing in, 350–351security, surveillance procedures

in, 349SROs in, 349survey research evidence,

345–347victimization in, 344–345weapon-carrying in, 347

school based interventionprograms, 253

school disorderhierarchical modeling of, 346predicted, 347

school resource officers (SRO), 349school violence, 308–309

future research directions, 355intervention research evidence,

347–354multi-victim shootings, 354–355shootings, 344

science of prevention, violentbehavior and, 767–768

Scientific Advisory Committee onTelevision and Social Behavior,642

SCM. See social cognitive mapapproach

SC-PRAMS. See Pregnancy RiskAssessment MonitoringSystem, South Carolina

script theory, social contagion and,691

scripts, schemas, priming of, 549SDP. See Social Development

ProjectSeattle Social Development

Project, 29, 39Second Step, 772security, surveillance procedures,

349in schools, 349

The Seductions of Crime (Katz),750, 752–753

seizures, 194Selection model. See Individual

Characteristics modelselective interventions, 769–770selective serotonergic reuptake

inhibitors (SSRI), impulsiveaggression and, 175

self and others, expectations of,322

Self Control Training, 610self-control, 536–539

behavioral science theory vs., 533child affection and, 538crime, delinquency studies and,

533–534emotional attachment and, 538empirical demonstrations of, 541external, social controls and, 537gender and, 541long-term costs and, 537opportunity and, 540over life course, 540–541parenting and, 538–539, 541research validity, 540–541self-regulation theory and, 533socialization and, 537–538versatility effect and, 540

self-directed violence, 468self-esteem, adolescent dating

abuse and, 440Self-Ordered Pointing (SOP) test,

of working memory, 195self-regulation theory, self-control

theory and, 533self-report studies, 419–420self-reported violence, predictive

validity of, 21SEM. See structured equation

modelingSendero Luminoso (Shining Path),

588sensation-seeking theory, of arousal,

553






812 subject index

serious, violent, and chronicoffenders (SVC), 509

serotonergic functionlithium and, 623in prefrontal-limbic circuit,

172–173serotonergic genes, 86serotonin (5-HT). See also

5-hydroxytryptaminealcohol consumption impact on,

655cocaine impact on, 655

serotonin metabolite5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid(5-HIAA), 620

aggression and, 86violent suicide and, 620

serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRI), 623–624

serotonin transporter density,persistent aggressive behaviorand, 130

serotonin transporter genotype,gender differences and, 124

serotonin transporter (5HTT)polymorphism, aggression and,86

SES. See socioeconomic statussexual abuse. See also adolescent

dating abuse; rapeof children, 404–406, 473–474

sexual aggression. See also rapesocial learning processes and, 640

sexual victimization, 311. See alsovictimization

family violence and, 410sexual violence, 11, 473–474

in American prisons, 757,761–762

Shining Path. See SenderoLuminoso

short attack latency (SAL), micestudies, 102

SHR. See Supplementary HomicideReports

siblings, 13, 407peer influence of, 377

single-photon emissioncomputerized tomography(SPECT), aggression studies,128–130

SIP. See social informationprocessing model

situational risk factors, 31–32, 272routine activities theory and, 31

situational violence, 13skin conductance (SC)

of adult psychopaths, 117child conduct problems and, 113

smoking, 192SNA. See social network analysis

SNS. See sympathetic nervoussystem

social adversity, 52social aggression, in SEM, 728social causation, 665–668, 680–682social class, IPV across, 673social cognitive map approach

(SCM), 454social cognitive processes

antisocial behavior developmentand, 322–337

cultural differences in, 252during social events, 324violence behavior and, 322–337

social consequences, 573social contagion

analytic models, 703–704data, 704–706guns and, 692–693, 708–710micro-processes of, 693–694neighborhood effects on,

701–710proximate social structures and,

691–692results, 706–710script theory and, 691social norms and, 715–717structural equivalent networks

and, 692violence as, 690–694violent events, social networks

and, 710–715social control, 702–703

chronic strains and, 522strain and, 520

Social control model. See IndividualCharacteristics model

social crowds, violent behavior and,377

social decisions, information flow,processes, 547

Social Development Project (SDP),330

social environment, 639life-course persistent antisocial

behavior and, 50social exchange theory, family

violence and, 411social experience, brain

development and, 788Social Facilitation model. See Peer

Influence modelsocial identity

dominance hierarchy andviolence and, 693–694

social information models, 187,547–549, 790

future developmental studydirections, 330–332

stability assessments, 329–330stability in, 329

social information processingantisocial behavior types and,

334–335across childhood, 327–328children and parents, 336developmental patterns in,

327–332latent knowledge and, 326–327life experiences and, 336–337multiple step, multiple indicator,

325–326normative development changes

in, 327normative development stages in,

328across problematic social

situation, 332–334situation specific, 323as social transmission

mechanism, 324–327standard measures of, 327

social information processing model(SIP), 322

antisocial behavior and, 323across childhood, 327–328

social integration, homicide and,489

social interaction, neurobiology of,178

Social Interactional modeldeviant friends/cliques and,

370Peer Influence model vs., 371

social isolation, 702–703family violence and, 409

social knowledge, 324social learning

central features, 639child characteristics and,

261–262of conduct problems, 270criminal behavior and, 637–638through differential

reinforcement, 640through imitation, 639–640rape and, 640sexual aggression, 640of violence, 522

Social Learning and Imitation(Miller, Dollard), 637

social learning and violent behavior,research on, 640–642

social learning environment, ofadoptive families, 267–268

social learning theorydevelopment of, 638deviant friend association and,

369empirical tests of, 640family violence and, 410future directions, 644






subject index 813

normative learning mechanismsand, 644

peers’ social status and, 372properties of, 638–640psychology, sociology and,

637–638relevant research, 642

social network analysis (SNA),450–451

concepts, 450–453empirical measures, 459–460of homophobic aggression,

456–457methods, 451–453of peer groups, 455violence research improvement

with, 453youth aggression and, 453

social networksof adolescents, 693aggression and, 457gang membership and, 457–459gang research and, 460–461violent events and, 710–715

social norms, social contagion and,715–717

social power, violence and, 8social processes

antisocial behavior origins in, 49gang violence and, 394–395, 398micro, macro level transmission

of, 693–694social push hypothesis, 153, 155Social Relations Model (SRM), 736social relationships

entropy in, 374generative power of, 752

Social Scripts, 547, 551social security, homicide and,

488–489social selection, 665–668, 680–682social settings, 477, 752–753social situational stress, family

violence and, 410–411social skills training (SST)

background, 605evidence, 605for young children, 605

social supportfor coping, 523

social work, 353–354social-cognitive information process

model, 547–549arousal and, 553–554Emotional Predispositions,

547–548Normative Beliefs, 547–548, 551Social Scripts, 547, 551World Schemas, 547, 551

socialization, 639, 790self-control theory and, 537–538

of young people, 538Socialization model. See Peer

Influence modelsocialized sexualities, 757–758social-problem solving, individual

differences in, 547social-rearing environment, genes

and, 215social-relational aggression,

individual differences in, 323social-transmission process, 325societal intervention, 479–480sociobiology theory, family violence

and, 411–412socioeconomic status (SES), 51. See

also family socio-economicstatus/poverty; neighborhoodsocio-economic status/poverty

antisocial behavior and, 269between-partner, 674–675children’s ETV and, 679cognitive ability and, 266community ETV and, 678–679conduct problems and, 275–276ETV and, 664Hollingshead index and, 673mental health and, 269,

665–668protective factors, 677victimization and, 667as violence predictor, 30

socio-economic status/povertymeasurement of, 668–670violence associations exposure

and, 670–680socio-family factors, deviant

friends/cliques and, 371–372socio-structure-social-learning

theory (SSSL), 644SOP. See Self-Ordered Pointing testspatial avoidance, crime fear and,

579special interest terrorism, 596–597SPECT. See single-photon emission

computerized tomographysports, aggression, interpersonal

violence in, 540Spousal Assault Replication

Program (SARP), 673spousal violence, 408, 467SRM. See Social Relations ModelSRO. See school resource officersSSRI. See selective serotonergic

reuptake inhibitors; serotoninreuptake inhibitors

SSSL. Seesocio-structure-social-learningtheory

SST. See social skills trainingstandard opponent test, mice

studies, 92

Standardized Program EvaluationProtocol, 511

State-of-the-Science ConsensusStatement in Preventing Violence(2004), 50

State-Trait Anger Scale, 292steroid sulfatase (STS), mice

studies, 97–98stimulus control, 603–604Stockholm Project Metropolitan,

39strain

chronic, repeated exposure to,521–523

coping, coping strategies and,520–521

gangs and, 522major types of, 519–521particular acts and, 521severe, 520social control and, 520, 522unjust, 520violence likelihood and, 521–523violence predisposition and,

521–523violent coping and, 520–521violent response to, 523–524

strain theory. See also general straintheory

homicide and, 488–489versions of, 519

stranger violence, 19Strangers to Ourselves (Wilson),

759street violence, 19structural violence, 756structured equation modeling

(SEM), 727aggression forms, functions and,

733constraining method in, 729–730dyadic analysis, 734–736group differences and, 731–732latent correlations, 731latent variables and, 729,

736–737mean structure identification,

729means comparison, 730means, variances, correlations in,

728–731measured indicators, 728measurement invariance,

731–732multi-group options, 731–732overt, social aggression in, 728phantom variables, 730–731scale setting in, 729–730variable associations, 730variance comparison, 730weak factorial invariance, 731






814 subject index

STS. See steroid sulfatasestudents

absence, dropout by, 345coping strategies of, 310self-reported violent behaviors,

310teacher relations, 347with trauma symptoms, 312violence exposure of, 311

Study Group on Serious andViolent Juvenile Offenders,506

Study Group on Very YoungOffenders, 506

subculturessubstance abuse, 260, 291, 311. See

also alcohol, drug abuseamphetamines, 652family violence and, 652–654Goldstein’s tripartite model of,

656–657heroin, opioids, 626, 651–652marijuana, 650–651methamphetamines, 649,

651–652ODD and, 272–273onset age, 658parenting and, 29prevalence rates, 648–649violent behavior and, 647,

654–657Substance Abuse and Mental

Services HealthAdministration (SAMHSA),648

sufficient/component cause model,476

suicide, 310bullying and, 308cognitive-behavioral,

multisystemic theory and, 480juvenile, 503omega-3 fatty acids and, 177SNS and, 119violence and, 119worldwide rates, 470

suicide bombers, 597female, 589

Supplementary Homicide Reports(SHR), 589

Sutherland, Ewin, 638SVC. See serious, violent, and

chronic offenderssymbolic violence, 762

gender domination and, 758terrorist events and, 588

sympathetic nervous system (SNS),114

BIS and, 115suicide and, 119

systemic violence, 656–657

systolic blood pressure (SBP), TypeA personality and, 120

teachersreports, 247–248student relations, 347theft from, 345victimization of, 346

technical knowledge, 639teenage mothers, 29, 152television, film violence, 558–561,

572aggression and, 642arousal by, 551children impact by, 642–643

temperament, personality, 218by environment, 221–225peer rejection and, 221–224

temporal lobe dysfunction, PET of,133

terrorism, terrorists. See alsoecological terrorism

adaptability of, 590Christian white supremacists,

593control-theory and, 539data collected on, 589defined leadership of, 588defining, 584–585domestic, 583–584freedom fighters and, 584–585goal-directed character of, 589government response to, 594homicide levels vs., 598as intellectual struggle, 585Islamic groups, 583–585, 593Jewish, 593large scale attacks, 583–584by lone gunmen, 595media attention on, 587models of, 585organized structures, 587–588psychological paradigm of, 585rational/strategic paradigm of,

585religious, 591resource allocation to, 598–599since 9/11, 598special interest, 596–597subject label of, 584–585symbolic violence and, 588terrorist group typologies,

590–597violence motivations of, 586–587violent behavior basis of, 583violent crime vs., 585–590war on, 598–599WMD and, 593young males and, 589–590

terrorist group typologies, 590–597ethno-nationalism, 593–595

religious extremism, 590–597right wing extremist groups,

593–595special interest terrorism,

596–597testosterone, 177, 218

mice studies, 99tetrahydrocannabinol (THC),

627–628, 650theory driven studies, 419therapeutic intervention, 179therapeutic treatment

behavioral intervention,603–607

cognitive, cognitive-behavioralintervention, 607–610

family therapy approaches,610–611

insight/psychoanalytical, 610Thrasher, Frederick, 638threatened egotism, 2923-methoxy-5-hydroxyphenylglycol

(MHPG), 177TMT-B. See Trail Making Test-Btoddlers, negative emotionality in,

270topiramate, 623Trail Making Test-B (TMT-B), 198trait aggression, in adults, 118–121trait alienation, 790trait dispositions, 112trait hostility, 790

among married couples, 120cardiovascular activity and,

119transformative environments, 752transporter genes, 87Trauma Symptom Checklist for

Children, 310, 312trauma symptoms

students with, 312of violent adolescents, 310

Twentieth Century-Fox, 572twin, adoption studies, 77–78,

228–229, 266–267method, 78search strategy, 78

Type A personality, SBP and, 120

U. N. See United NationsUCR. See Uniform Crime ReportsUN Crime Survey, 486understanding, 5–6unemployment, 32UNICRI. See United Nations

Interregional Crime andJustice Institute

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR),388, 589

on juvenile violence, 502United Nations (U. N.), 486






subject index 815

United Nations Interregional Crimeand Justice Institute(UNICRI), 490

United States (U.S.)asymmetrical threat to, 597child maltreatment in, 668Christian Patriot movement in,

595crime fear in, 573–579domestic terrorism in, 583–584family violence in, 308homicide rates, 497National Counterterrorism

Center, 589right wing terrorism in, 594–595victimization in, 418, 420violence depictions vs. incidents

in, 571violence in, 571young male homicide rate in, 470youth violence in, 418

universal interventions, 769–770The Untouchables, 572urban youth, violence among, 30U.S. See United StatesU.S. Census Bureau, family

definition, 404U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services (USDHHS)Office of Child Abuse and

Neglect, 405violence prevention programs of,

767U.S. Food and Drug Administration

(FDA), aggression medicationapproval by, 618–619

U.S. National Youth Survey, 21,30–31

U.S. Surgeon General, 465

vagal control, 227externalizing problems and, 115tone, 153

Valium. See diazepamvalproate, 623values, 639vasopressin, 178v-chip, ratings creep, 580verbal aggression

carbamazepine for, 619relational aggression vs., 246

verbal development. See languagedevelopment

versatility effect, self-control theoryand, 540

victimization, 7, 296, 306–307,361. See also sexualvictimization

adolescent self-reported, 308age and, 494boys vs. girls, 311

community cohesion and, 494contextual vs. compositional

explanations, 494–495across countries, 497cross-national differences in, 495cultural interpretation of, 492data on, 311determinants of, 494fear vs., 573–574of females, 788income status and, 495indirect, 573international data on, 490micro-level risk factors of, 493multi-source research approach,

492national estimates, 490by normative peers, 361across offense types, 493outside school, 344rates of, 311risk factors, 493in schools, 344–345self- vs. police-reported, 493–494SES and, 667by setting, 307–309across social contexts, 494of teachers, 346in U.S., 418, 420violent behavior and, 311

victimization data, 419–420Victoria Adolescence Project, 57video games, 331–332, 561violence, 34–38, 475–477. See also

acquaintance violence;adolescent violence; adultviolence; children’s exposureto violence; collective violence;community violence; domesticviolence; economic violence;exposure to violence; familyviolence; institutional violence;interpersonal violence;intimate partner violence;juvenile violence; parentalviolence; pathological violence;personality and violence;political violence; relationshipviolence; self-directedviolence; self-reportedviolence; sexual violence;situational violence; spousalviolence; stranger violence;street violence; symbolicviolence; systemic violence;youth violence

5HTT-LPR and, 86age differences in, 525aggression vs., 361–362alcohol, drug abuse and, 536in American culture, 579

in American suburbs, 754among countries, 470among family members, 11among urban youth, 30anger and, 521APD and, 290assessment methods, 419–420autonomic activity and,

113–114behavior theory of, 539as behavioral health issue, 6beliefs favorable to, 522–523biopsychosocial model of, 13BPD and, 290candidate genes for, 85–87categories, types of, 10–11Caucasian vs. African-American,

28causal pie model of, 476certainty, agreement about, 6–8child, adolescent exposure to,

306class differences in, 525–526clinical syndromes, 188–190cognitive desensitization to, 552community differences in, 526comparative approaches to,

752–753comparative studies on, 419consensus about, 5contextual factors, 14control-theory definition of,

539–540costs of, 10, 475, 523–524across countries, 419–420criminality and, 188cultural norms and, 9, 467,

489cultural, social variations and, 8against dating partner, 433defining, 5–9, 466–467, 519,

619, 787–788delinquency and, 188demographic differences and,

274–276differentiating, 6domination, sex and, 756–757ecological model of, 476–477economic burden, 465, 474–475emotional arousal and, 545emotional changes associated

with, 552–555emotional desensitization to,

554–555emotional predisposition and,

548emotional reactions to, 562–564as entertaining, 580environmentalist position, 151escalation hypothesis, 394across ethnic/racial groups, 788






816 subject index

violence (cont.)event perspective of, 710–711of everyday life, 753–760exposure impact, 546–547family background and, 20family processes and, 420–421fatal, non-fatal, 470–474gang vs. non-gang, 388gender and, 8–9, 12, 408,

524–525, 642, 756–757, 790generalizability studies, 419global context, 481–482global health problem of, 465global medical data on, 473–474group difference in, 524–527habituation to, 563–564human condition of, 465impact of, 470–475impulsiveness and, 26by income status, 470independent predictors of, 34instigated, supported, 361intent and, 6, 467internet and, 307IQ and, 26–27legal distinctions, 6legally sanctioned, 10locating, 751–752longitudinal surveys of, 19long-term risk factors for, 38,

61–62magnitude of, 470–475mass communication of, 571–572measuring, 15media and, 307, 546, 558–559,

573, 642–644modifiable risk factors for, 19morbidity, mortality and, 6normative school values

regarding, 346norms surrounding, 479obsession with, 572–573over life span, 19, 527perceived costs of, 521, 523perception of, 8personality disorders and,

289–292planning of, 536politically-based, 596–597predictability of, 535–536predisposing effects, 545predisposition toward, 521–523prevalence of, 10preventing, 477–481prevention research, 477psychopathic personality and,

297–299psychopathy and, 116, 299psychopharmacology therapy for,

618–619public attention to, 573

public health approach to,466–470

public information campaigns,479

race/ethnic differences in, 526recent exposure to, 317–318rejection, victimization and, 361research, policy differentiation

and, 9–15risk markers for, 9at school, 308–309self-report studies, 419–420SES and, 30across settings, 306shared definition of, 9sibling, 407situated notions of, 757–758situational causes of, 711situational costs of, 523–524social consequences of, 573as social contagion, 690–694social, economic development

and, 497social identity and, 693–694social learning of, 522social power and, 8in sports, 540statistics on, 10sudden acts of, 545sufficient/component cause

model of, 476suicide and, 119theory driven studies, 419theory of, 34–38types, contexts of, 467–470understanding, 5–6in U.S., 571U.S. Surgeon General on, 465victimization data, 419–420victim’s perception of, 7virtue of, 10weapon-related, 307WHO definition of, 7, 467

violence associations exposure,socio-economic status/povertyand, 670–680

violence, group differences, GSTexplanation of, 524–527

Violence Intervention Program(VIP) for Children andFamilies, 774

violence over life span, 20–25changes with age, 24–25continuity in, 21–23measurement, prevalence, 20–21specialization, versatility, 23–24

violence reduction programs, riskfactors and, 38

violence research, SNA and, 453violent adolescents, trauma

symptoms of, 310

violent behavior. See also physicallyviolent behavior

alcohol and, 649–650among mentally disordered

individuals, 290amphetamines and, 652controls for, 537correlates of, 534–536deficit models of, 187delinquency, criminal behavior

and, 535delinquency involvement and,

505habituation to, 489heroin, opioids and, 651–652as life-long, developmental

phenomenon, 788marijuana and, 650–651mass media and, 546methamphetamines and, 652non-criminal, 540public attention on, 545–546public interest in, 571recent violence exposure and,

310–311science of prevention and,

767–768situational influences on, 32social crowds and, 377social study of, 750social-cognitive processes and,

322–337substance abuse and, 647,

654–657terrorism and, 583victimization and, 311youth gangs and, 388, 398

violent crimeICVS data on, 490–492media and, 577–578terrorism vs., 585–590

Violent Crime Index offenses,juvenile arrests for, 506

violent death, male vs. female,470

violent delinquency, measures of,501

violent events, 710–711social networks, social contagion

and, 710–715third parties in, 712–715

violent history, autonomic activityand, 118–119

violent identities, contagion of, 693violent individuals, EEG

abnormalities in, 126violent offenders, life-course

persistent vs. adolescentlimited, 21–22

violent offenses, 19by youth gangs, 505






subject index 817

violent recidivism, psychopathyand, 116

violent scenes, simple imitation of,549–550

violent youth, public opinion on,216

VIP. See Violence InterventionProgram for Children andFamilies

Volstead Act, 717voyeurism, 573

War on Terrorism, 598–599warfare, 468

criminal, 597homicide and, 489

Warner Brothers, 572WCST. See Wisconsin Card Sorting

Taskweapon carrying, 474

in schools, 347weapons of mass destruction

(WMD), 593, 597weapons-related violence, 307,

354, 396. See also firearms;gang violence

at schools, 347Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale,

Block Design subtest of, 198weighted least squares (WLS),

model-fitting and, 83WHO. See World Health

OrganizationWilson, T., 759Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

(WCST), 198Without a Trace, 572WLS. See weighted least squaresWMD. See weapons of mass

destruction

womenaggression towards, 558altruistic fear and, 576–577domestic violence against, 61exposure to violence, 563–564fear in, 575gang membership by, 458risk sensitivity of, 575self-control for, 541suicide bombers, 589violence perpetration,

victimization of, 788violent, 310

Woodlawn project, 40working memory, 193

assessment of, 195SOP test of, 195

workplace aggression, 296World Bank, crime data from, 495World Health Assembly, 465, 767World Health Organization

(WHO), 5, 50, 470, 486, 767violence cost estimates of, 10violence definition of, 7, 467

World Health Statistics Annual, 486World Report on Violence and

Health, 50, 465, 468, 767World Schemas, 547, 551

young children, social skills trainingfor, 605

Young Law Breakers as Adults, 40youth aggression

reasons for, 453SNA and, 453

youth gangsdrug trafficking and, 504–505embeddedness in, 458–459European vs. American, 398gun use in, 504–505

homicide rate in, 504proliferation of, 504–505research on, 458–459in Russia, 397violent behavior and, 388violent offenses by, 505

youth homicide, spatial, socialtrends in, 690

youth homicide, NYCepidemiology of, 694–701neighborhood effects, 701–710

Youth Relationship Project, 443youth violence, 13, 767–768

antisocial behavior and, 361anxiety, nervousness and, 27CDC data on, 418childhood predictors of, 27community interventions for, 774developmental risk factors, 479drugs, alcohol and, 14, 31family size and, 29family-focused interventions for,

773–774guns and, 14homicide and, 418macro-system interventions,

774–775parenting and, 27pathological, 13–15peer relations and, 771predatory, 13–14prevention programs, 771–775public health approach to, 768relationship, 13–14risk factors associated with, 771situational, 13in U.S., 418

Youth Violence (2001), 50youth violence programs, school

based, 772–773






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