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BODY COMPOSITION FOR ATHLETES

By Allie Lawrence FCS 608

Dr. Lisagor November 23, 2009

“Weight in the absence of knowledge of its components, is a poor measure for predicting athletic success and should not be used by itself for this purpose.” - Benardot �

Introduction

•  Body composition is the elements of the body which include: fat-free mass, fat mass, and water.

• Just as there are many sports, there are many body compositions; there is not ONE body type which is associated with every sport.

• Understanding an athlete’s body composition is imperative to understanding performance and health.

• An athlete’s body composition should be the focus, not the number on the scale.

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Setting the Stage Factors affecting body composition:

1.  Genetic predisposition

2.  Age

3.  Gender

4.  Amount of activity

5.  Nutrition

Genetic Predisposition   Endomorph = large trunk, short fingers, and shorter legs

  Ectomorph = long legs, long fingers, and shorter trunk

  Mesomorph = natural muscularity, trim waist

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Age   As people age, they develop lower lean mass and

higher fat mass.

  After the age of 30, metabolism drops 2 percent every decade.

  Body changes can be avoided with balanced diet and regular exercise

Gender   Women have a higher body fat than men because of necessary

biological functions (reproduction).

  Women’s essential body fat should be between 12-15% to support healthy reproductive functions. Men’s can be much lower.

Amount of Activity   Regular activity or exercise provides much needed

support in achieving a desirable body composition.

  Balancing energy in vs. energy out is key in achieving and maintaining a preferred body composition

Nutrition •  “Eating too much or too little” can cause a negative outcome for one’s body composition. •  Balance is key

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Fat Mass   Essential fat vs. Storage fat

  Too much or too little can be detrimental and counterproductive to the athletes performance and health.

Fat-Free Mass   Mainly water and protein

  Most athletes strive for the higher fat-free mass to lower fat mass ratio, because they believe this equates to a higher strength-to-weight ratio.   For aesthetic sports, this can be true; but for endurance sports, fat is

required to provide energy, therefore the focus should not be on fat mass to fat-free mass as much as energy in vs. energy out.

Main Components of Body Composition

Water Mass   Water makes up greater than 65% of total body mass

  Hydration is KEY

Bone Mass   Recent technological advances have

made it possible to measure bone density

  Knowing an athlete’s bone density can be a good predictor of future injury and bone health

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Measuring Body Composition 1.  Skinfold

  Using skin calipers take measurements in key place on the body.   Assess the measurements using standardized equations to determine

body fat.

2.  Hydrostatic Weighing (Hydrodensitometry)   Take land weight and water weight   Compare the two to determine fat mass vs. fat-free mass

3.  Air Displacement Plethysmography   BOD POD. Uses air like water to measure weight and volume of

patient

4.  Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DEXA)   Most accurate and expensive method   Takes x-rays and measures the energy that passes through the body at

different points.   Provides fat mass, fat-free mass and bone density measurements of

total body as well as in key areas of the body (legs, arms, trunk).

Body Composition for Different Sports

1. High Intensity, Short Duration Sports

Sprinting, short-distance cycling, swim sprinters

2. Intermitted, High Intensity Sports

Soccer, Basketball, Football, Volleyball

3. Endurance Sports

Marathon runners, long-distance cycling and swimming

4. Weight and Body Focused Sports

Gymnastics, wrestling, figure skating

5. Low-endurance, Precision Skilled Sports

Golf, Baseball

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High Intensity, Short Duration   Required to move more quickly over short distance.

  Require little drag or resistance

  Goal = low body fat %, high muscle mass %

Intermitted, High Intensity   Requires different levels of intensity throughout

competition

  Different positions require different body compositions

  Focus put on energy intake and aerobic capabilities

  Competes for 4 or more hours

  Lower body mass desired to reduce negative effects on performance

  Focus on energy intake over time to maintain energy level throughout competition

Endurance

Low-endurance, Precision, Skilled   Requires fine motor control, coordination,

quick reaction time

  Focus more on weight maintenance and energy balance

  Many different sizes of athletes competing in the same athletic position

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Weight and Body Focused   High lean mass, low fat mass and sometimes low overall body

weight

  Aesthetics major component

  Weight requirements in some of these sports

  High risk for eating disorders and harmful exercise practices in attempt to lose or “make” weight.

Research Article #1 Hind, K., Truscott, J.G., Evans, J.A. (2006). Low lumbar spine bone mineral density

in both male and female endurance runners. Centre for Bone and Body Composition Research, 39. Retrieved November 11, 2009 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16682267.

  Purpose – Compare the low bone mineral density (BMD) of female and male endurance runners, causes, long term affect, and prevalence within each gender.

  Hypothesis – Because few studies have been made comparing the BMD of male and female runners, the hypothesis is that low BMD may or may not be sex-specific.

  Method – 109 runners (65 female, 44 males), ages 19-50 with 3 years of training in events 3 km to marathon. Questionnaire to assess training, menses, and osteoporosis risks. Anteroposterior lumbar spine, total hip and femoral neck BMD were measured using DEXA.

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  Results - Overall both sexes reported lower than zero BMD of the lumbar spine and total hip. The prevalence of low BMD was similar for both the males and females. BMD was lower in oligoamenorrhoeic runners and oral contraceptive users than that of eumenorrheoeic and male runners.

  Conclusion – Male endurance runners face the same threats to BMD that female runners do. It was concluded that more studies are necessary to determine preventative measures.

Research Article #2

Mudd, L., Fornetti, W., Pivarnik, J. (2007). Bone mineral density in collegiate female athletes: comparisons among sports. Journal of Athletic Training, 43. Retrieved November 10, 2009 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1978462/?tool=pubmed

  Purpose: Study conducted to compare site specific BMD among NCAA Division 1 varsity female athletes and establish predictors of BMD measurements.

  Hypothesis: “Some female athletes may have decreased bone mineral density, which puts them at higher risk for stress fractures and future osteoporosis.”

  Methods: Female athletes in 12 sports were examined. Participants were asked about menstrual cycle. Total-body BMD was measured using DEXA. Controlling for menstruation and mass, a stepwise regression was uses to analyze the predictors of BMD.

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  Results: Of 99 women, 23 were oligomenorrheic or amenorrheic. The runners had the lowest total body and BMD values, except in the leg score. The BMD in the legs of swimmers and divers were significantly lower than the other athletes except runners and rowers. The regression analysis showed that mass and sport alone act as significant predictors of total body BMD.

  Conclusion: This study showed that even though different training methods are employed for the different sports the BMD did not differ significantly based on sport with the exception of running, swimming and diving. Therefore, trainers should be aware of their female athletes BMD and of overtraining and their affect on future bone health.

Research Article #3 Warner, E., Fornetti, W., Jallot, J., Pivarnk, J. (2004). A skinfold model to

predict fat-free mass in female athletes. Journal of Athletic Taining, 39. Retrieved November 1, 2009 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC522149/?tool=pubmed

  Purpose: The skinfold method is often used to determine the body’s fatness, but few tests are able to measure the fat-free mass (FFM) of the body. The aim of this study is to develop a skinfold method, which can measure the FFM.

  Methods: Both varsity and club athletes from NCAA Division 1 universities were invited to participate. The subject’s standing mass and height were measured with a beam balance and stadiometer. Using calipers the abdominal, suprailiac, thigh and triceps were measured. Next, DEXA used for further measurements.

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  Results: A regression model including height, weight, and skinfold measurement was conducted. There was little difference between the DEXA and skinfold results (FFM and body fat %) for the sports that were presented in this study.

  Conclusion: The results indicate that a model using only weight, abdominal and thigh skinfolds was satisfactory for determining accurate FFM in female collegiate athletes.

Research Article #4 Vardar, S., Tezel, S., Ozturk, L., Kaya, O. (2007). The relationship between

body composition and anaerobic performance of elite young wrestlers. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 6. Retrieved November 7, 2009 from http://www.jssm.org/combat/2/7/v6combat2-7.pdf

  Purpose: Determine the relationship between body composition and anaerobic power in elite wrestlers. In this study wrestling is categorized as a short-duration, high intensity sport which combines strength and anaerobic capabilities, because of the short rest periods and need for quick bursts of power. Much of the focus in this sport is on total body weight and less on understanding if there is a connection between percentage fat mass (%FM) and wrestling success.

  Hypothesis: There is a possible relationship between anaerobic performance and fat-free mass and body fat percentage in both elite female and male wrestlers.

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  Methods: Eight female and eight male wrestlers, between 15 and 19 years old all of whom qualified for the Turkish junior national team. Study was conducted through the competitive season. Body fat was measured using body impedance analysis (BIA). The anaerobic state was measured using Wingate test.

  Results: BMI results did not differ appreciably between male and female wrestlers. There was a positive correlation between peak performance and FFM in the males, with no correlation for females. In both females and males the mean power was significantly connected to FFM.

  Conclusion: The study suggestions, despite popular opinion in the sport of wrestling, there is a greater relationship between FFM and anaerobic performance than %FM. Focusing on %FM leads wrestlers to practice counterproductive nutrient intake, which reduces the FFM, which has a strong connection to successful anaerobic performance.

Research Article #5 Gorostiaga, E., Llodio, I., Ibanez, J., Granados, C., Navarro, I., Ruesta, M., Bonnabau, H., Mikel, I.,

(2009). Differences in physical fitness among indoor and outdoor elite male soccer players. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 106. Retrieved November 14, 2009 from http://www.springerlink.com.libproxy.csun.edu:2048/content/658226681q270743/fulltext.pdf

  Purpose: Compare the anthropometric, strength, muscle power, and aerobic capabilities of indoor soccer players (IS) and outdoor soccer players (OS). Examine the relationship between leg extension power production and endurance, and percent body fat of both IS and OS players.

  Hypothesis: This study presented two separate hypotheses. First, compared to OS players, IS players should have lower endurance capacity with higher strength and muscle power. Second, it stated that in both IS and OS low levels of body fat should be linked with higher physical fitness values.

  Method: Two teams, one IS and one OS, were used. The following anthropometric measures were taken: body height, body mass, skinfold, and fat free body mass. Each player had to perform a jump test, a sprint test, endurance running test, and a muscle power test. The jump test consisted of four maximal jumps from standing position. The sprint test was 15 m with ninety seconds rest in between three trials. The endurance test consisted of four stages of 12, 13, 14, and 15 km, with three minutes between each test. Finally, the muscle test was conducted using a half-squat extension. Using customized software to measure output. Verbal encouragement was used to promote maximum output as rapidly as possible.

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  Results: The height of IS players was 15% lower than OS players. IS players had a 2% higher sprint running time than IS players in both 5 m and 15 m distances. Due to exhaustion eight OS and nine IS players did not perform the endurance test. Little difference was observed between IS and OS players during the endurance test. The lower extremity test showed IS players having lower power output compared to OS players. There was a negative relationship recorded between leg power and sprint running in both groups. Body fat correlated positively with sprint times, but negatively with jumping power.

  Conclusion: OS and IS players have similar body height, body mass, fat-free mass and endurance output. IS players had higher percent body fat, lower vertical jump height, sprint performance, and half-squat power. IS players are at a clear disadvantage compared to OS when measuring “forceful muscle contraction needed during certain game action.” It was concluded that players with higher sprint running and vertical jump height tend to have lower endurance performance. In addition, it is more advantageous for the players to have a lower body fat percentage for performance success.

Controversy •  Goal becomes more important than health.

•  Female Athlete Triad

•  Lack of knowledge of the athletes, coaches, trainers, peers can lead to harmful means to obtain unrealistic ideals.

•  Studies have shown that athletic trainers rate body weight as very or moderately important to performance and viewed body composition as less important. (pg. 256-257).

•  Addressing weight issues correctly is extremely important, if it is done so correctly it can have a positive effect on athletic performance. If it is done incorrectly it can lead athlete to take extreme measures to obtain their goal.

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Human Ecological Model

•  It’s not just about the number on the scale…

•  Sport, coaches, trainers, family, friends, peers and fans can often put undue pressure on an athlete to achieve success at any cost, even at the cost of one’s health.

•  Education for the athlete and their support unit is important when addressing weight and body composition.

•  “Second place is the first loser” can be motivational but can also push athletes and their support to try unhealthy methods to reach an ideal body weight/composition

Conclusion In conclusion, body composition can be used as a tool in achieving success in sports. It can help prevent injury and maximize the body’s potential during competition. Athletes in most sports need to keep their focus on body composition and less on weight, with the exception of the weight and body conscious sports which rely on aesthetics and weight to perform. With all sports an appropriate body composition should be achieve using healthy and safe methods, not extreme methods that can be counterproductive and put the athlete at risk for later health problems. It is extremely important to teach not only the athletes, but also the coaches, trainers, and family how to address body composition and weight to ensure that the athlete’s physical and mental health are not compromised. New technologies in body composition measurement have made it easier to get accurate composition measurements of various components of the body. Utilizing these measurements can enhance an athlete’s output and help an athlete reach their goals and have the success they strive to achieve.

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References Benardot, D. (2006). Body Composition. Advanced Sports Nutrition (chapter 12). Retrieved November 10, 2009 from

www.healthline.com/hlbook/nut-body-composition.

Dunford, M. (Ed). (2006). Sports Nutrition: A Practice Manual for Professionals (4th ed.). Chicago: American Dietetic Association.

Gorostiaga, E., Llodio, I., Ibanez, J., Granados, C., Navarro, I., Ruesta, M., Bonnabau, H., Mikel, I., (2009). Differences in physical fitness among indoor and outdoor elite male soccer players. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 106. Retrieved November 14, 2009 from http://www.springerlink.com.libproxy.csun.edu:2048/content/658226681q270743/fulltext.pdf

Hind, K., Truscott, J.G., Evans, J.A. (2006). Low lumbar spine bone mineral density in both male and female endurance runners. Centre for Bone and Body Composition Research, 39. Retrieved November 11, 2009 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16682267.

Mudd, L., Fornetti, W., Pivarnik, J. (2007). Bone mineral density in collegiate female athletes: comparisons among sports. Journal of Athletic Training, 43. Retrieved November 10, 2009 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1978462/?tool=pubmed

Ortansa, I., Ileana, G. (2006). The importance of body composition measurement at athletes and non-athletes. Sports Medicine Journal, 6. Retrieved November 9, 2009 from http://www.medicinasportiva.ro/SRoMS/english/Journal/No.6/The%20importance%20of%20body%20composition%20measurement%20at%20athletes%20and%20non%20athletes%20full.html

Vardar, S., Tezel, S., Ozturk, L., Kaya, O. (2007). The relationship between body composition and anaerobic performance of elite young wrestlers. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 6. Retrieved November 7, 2009 from http://www.jssm.org/combat/2/7/v6combat2-7.pdf

Warner, E., Fornetti, W., Jallot, J., Pivarnk, J. (2004). A skinfold model to predict fat-free mass in female athletes. Journal of Athletic Taining, 39. Retrieved November 1, 2009 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC522149/?tool=pubmed