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Learning

Learning is a lasting change in behavior or mentalprocess as the result of an experience.

There are two important parts: a lasting changea simple reflexive reaction is not learning

learning regarding mental process is much harder toobserve and study.

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Life without Learning

Learning is more than school, books and tests.

Without learning our lives would simply be a seriesof reflexes and instincts.

We would not be able to communicate, we would have nomemory of our past or goals for the future.

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Learnings Effects on Behavior

In humans, learning has a much larger influence onbehavior than instincts.

Learning represents an evolutionary advance over instincts.

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S I M P L E A N D C O M P L E X L E A R N I N G

Types of Learning

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Simple Learning

Habituation: Learning not to respond to therepeated presentation of a stimulus. Ex: Emergency sirens in the city

How often do youlook when a caralarm goes off?

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Simple Learning

Mere Exposure Effect: A learned preference for stimuli towhich we have been previously exposed. Ex: A coach/parents voice

Which do you prefer?

Which did your parentsdrink when you were alittle kid?

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Complex Learning

Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning, suchas classicaland operant conditioningwhich can bedescribed in terms of stimuli and responses.

Classical conditioning is more simple learning, operantconditioning is more complex learning.

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Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

One of most famous people in the study of learning isIvan Pavlov.

Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov

stumbled upon classical conditioning while he wasexperimenting on his dog.

Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previouslyneutral stimulus (stimuli w/o reflex provoking power) acquires thepower to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.

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Pavlovs Experiment

Ivan Pavlov

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Pavlovs Findings Explained

Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired witha natural reflex-producing stimulus, will begin to produce alearned response, even when it is presented by itself.

Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces noconditioned response prior to learning.

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Pavlovs Experiment

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Components of Conditioning

There are 5 main components of conditioning.Classical Conditioning always involves these parts.They are:

Neutral StimulusUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Response (CR)

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

UCS: A stimulus thatautomatically-without conditioningor learning- provokes a reflexiveresponse.

In Pavlovs experiment, food wasused as the UCS because itproduced a salivation reflex.

Classical conditioning cannot happen without UCS. The onlybehaviors that can be classically conditioned are those that areproduced by unconditioned stimulus.

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

UCR: A response resulting froman unconditioned stimuluswithout prior learning.

In Pavlovs experiment, the UCRwas the dog salivating when itstongue touched food.

Realize that the UCS-UCR connection involves nolearning or acquisition.

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From Unconditioned to Conditioned

During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with theunconditioned stimulus.

After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the sameresponse as the UCS.

Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditionedresponse comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

=

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Conditioned Stimulus

A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that gains thepower to cause the response.

In Pavlovs experiment, the bell/tone began to producethe same response that the food once did.

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Conditioned Response

A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulusthat has become associated with the unconditionedstimulus.

Although the response to the CS is essentially the same asthe response originally produced by the UCS, we now call ita conditioned response.

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Extinction

Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening) of alearned response, when an unconditioned stimulusdoes not follow a conditioned stimulus.

To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with theUCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must weaken thestrength of the connection between the two stimuli.

It is important to realize that extinction does not mean completeelimination of a response.

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Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response,and the CR can reappear during spontaneous recovery.

Spontaneous Recovery: The response after a rest period ofan extinguished conditioned response. Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.

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Classical Conditioning

Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR

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Reinforcement Procedures

What if we could not distinguish between stimuli that weresimilar? The bell ending class vs. fire alarm

The door bell vs. our cell phones

Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between twosimilar signals stimulus.

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Operant Conditioning

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Operant Conditioning

An operant is an observable behavior that anorganism uses to operate in the environment.

Operant Conditioning: A form of learning inwhich the probability of a response is changed byits consequencesthat is, by the stimuli thatfollows the response.

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B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner became famousfor his ideas in behaviorismand his work with rats.

Law of Effect: The idea thatresponses that produced desirableresults would be learned, orstamped into the organism.

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B.F. Skinner and The Skinner Box

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Reinforcement

Areinforcer is a condition in which thepresentation or removal of a stimulus, that occursafter a response (behavior) and strengthens thatresponse, or makes it more likely to happen again

in the future.

Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presentedafter a response that increases the probability ofthat response happening again.

Ex: Getting paid for good grades

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Negative Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement: The removal of anunpleasant or averse stimulus that increases theprobability of that response happening again.

Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.

Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbeltbuzzer stop.

The word positive means add or apply;negative is used to mean subtract or remove.

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Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcementschedule under which all correct responses arereinforced.

This is a useful tactic early in the learning process.It also helps when shaping new behavior.

Shaping: A technique where new behavior is

produced by reinforcing responses that are similarto the desired response.

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Punishment

Apunishment is an averse/disliked stimuluswhich occurs after a behavior, and decreases theprobability it will occur again.

Positive Punishment: An undesirable event thatfollows a behavior: getting spanked after telling a lie.

+ Punishment - Punishment

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Punishment

Negative Punishment: When a desirable eventends or is taken away after a behavior.

Example: getting grounded from your cell phone afterfailing your progress report.

Think of a time-out (taking away time from a fun activity withthe hope that it will stop the unwanted behavior in the future.)

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The consequence

provides something

($, a spanking)

The consequence

takes something away

(removes headache,

timeout)

Positive

ReinforcementNegative

Reinforcement

The consequence

makes the behavior

more likely to happen

in the future.

Positive

PunishmentNegative

Punishment

The consequence

makes the behavior

less likely to happen in

the future.

Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix

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Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Unlike reinforcement, punishment must beadministered consistently. Intermittent punishmentis far less effective than punishment delivered afterevery undesired behavior.

In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can havethe effect of rewarding the behavior.

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Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement

Punishment and negative reinforcement areused to produce opposite effects on behavior.

Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its

probability of reoccurring.

Negative reinforcement always increases a behaviorsprobability of happening in the future (by taking away anunwanted stimuli).

Remember, positive means adding something andnegative means removing something.

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Uses and Abuses of Punishment

Punishment often produces an immediate change inbehavior, which ironically reinforces the punisher.

However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:

1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappearswhen the threat of punishment is gone.

2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression

3. Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.

4. Punishment is often applied unequally.

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Reinforcement Schedules

Intermittent Reinforcement: A type ofreinforcement schedule by which some, but not all,correct responses are reinforced.

Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective wayto maintain a desired behavior that has already beenlearned.

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Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement

Interval schedule: rewards subjects after acertain time interval.

Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certainnumber of responses.

There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement:

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)

Variable Interval Schedule (VI)

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

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Interval Schedules

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct

response after some defined period of time.

Example: B.F. Skinner put rats in a box with a lever connected to a feeder. Itonly provided a reinforcement after 60 seconds. The rats quickly learned that itdidnt matter how early or often it pushed the lever, it had to wait a set amount oftime. As the set amount of time came to an end, the rats became more active inhitting the lever.

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Interval Schedules

Variable Interval Schedule (VI):

A reinforcement system that rewards a correctresponse after an unpredictable amount of time.

Example: A pop-quiz

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Ratio Schedules

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):

A reinforcement schedule that rewards a responseonly after a defined number of correct answers. Example: A used car salesman earning commission after every

5th car sold.

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Ratio Schedules

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):

A reinforcement schedule that rewards anunpredictable number of correct responses. Example: Buying lottery tickets or slot machines

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Interval

Number ofresponses

1000

750

500

250

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

80

Intermittent ReinforcementSchedules-

Skinners laboratory pigeons

produced these responsespatterns to each of four

reinforcement schedules

For people, as for pigeons,research linked to number ofresponses (ratio) produces ahigher response rate thanreinforcement linked to timeelapsed (interval).

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Primary and Secondary reinforcement

Primary reinforcement: something that is naturallyreinforcing: food, warmth, water

Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is areward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in thelong run: good grades.

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Two Important Theories

Token Economy: A therapeutic method based on operantconditioning that where individuals are rewarded withtokens, which act as a secondary reinforcer. The tokens canbe redeemed for a variety of rewards.

Premack Principle: The idea that a more preferred activitycan be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Operant and Classical Conditioning

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Operant and Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Behavior is controlled by the stimulithat precedethe response (by theCS and the UCS).

Behavior is controlled byconsequences (rewards,punishments) that follow theresponse.

No reward or punishment is involved(although pleasant and averse

stimuli may be used).

Often involves rewards(reinforcement) and punishments.

Through conditioning, a newstimulus (CS) comes to produce theold (reflexive) behavior.

Through conditioning, a newstimulus (reinforcer) produces a newbehavior.

Extinction is produced bywithholding the UCS.

Extinction is produced bywithholding reinforcement.

Learner is passive (acts reflexively):Responses are involuntary. That isbehavior is elicitedby stimulation.

Learner is active: Responses arevoluntary. That is behavior isemittedby the organism.

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A Third Type of Learning

Sometimes we have flashes of insight when dealingwith a problem where we have been experiencingtrial and error.

This type of learning is called cognitive learning,which is explained as changes in mental processes,rather than as changes in behavior alone.

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Wolfgang Kohler and Sultan

Kohler believed that chimps could solve complexproblems by combining simpler behaviors they hadpreviously learned separately.

Kohler taught Sultan the chimp how to stack boxesto obtain bananas that were over his head and howto use a stick to obtain something that was out of

his reach. He taught Sultan these skills in separatesituations.

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Sultans Situation

When Sultan was put in a situation where the bananas werestill out of his reach after stacking the boxes, Sultan becamefrustrated. He threw the stick and kicked the wall beforesitting down.

Suddenly, he jumped up and dragged the boxes and stickunder the bananas. He then climbed up the boxes andwhacked the fruit down with the stick.

This suggested to Kohler that the animals were not

mindlessly using conditioned behavior, but were learningby reorganizing their perceptions of problems.

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Sultan the Chimp

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Cognitive Learning

Sultan was not the only animal to demonstratecognitive learning. When rats were put into a mazewith multiple routes to the reinforcer, the ratswould repeatedly attempt the shortest route.

If their preferred route was blocked, they wouldchose the next shortest route to the reward.

Cognition Map: A mental representation of a place.

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Latent Learning

In a similar study, rats were allowed to wanderaround a maze, without reinforcements, forseveral hours. It formerly was thought thatreinforcements were essential for learning.

However, the rats later were able to negotiate themaze for food more quickly than rats that hadnever seen the maze before.

Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is notapparent until the learner has an incentive todemonstrate it.

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Latent Learning

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Observational Learning

You can think of observational learning as anextension of operant conditioning, in which weobserve someone else getting rewarded but act asthought we had also received the reward.

Observational learning: Learning in which newresponses are acquired after others behavior and the

consequences of their behavior are observed.

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Observational Learning

After observing adults seeming to enjoy punching,hitting and kicking an inflated doll called Bobo, thechildren later showed similar aggressive behaviortoward the doll.

Significantly, these children were more aggressivethan those in a control condition who did not

witness the adults violence.

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