psychology chapter 6 learning
TRANSCRIPT
PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 6 LEARNING
IRVINE VALLEY COLLEGE
FALL 2018 PROFESSOR TRUJILLO
FIGURE 6.1
Loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings are born knowing how to find the ocean and how to
swim. Unlike the sea turtle, humans must learn how to swim (and surf). (credit “turtle”:
modification of work by Becky Skiba, USFWS; credit “surfer”: modification of work by
Mike Baird)
FIGURE 6.18
Can video games make us violent? Psychological researchers study this topic. (credit:
“woodleywonderworks”/Flickr)
LEARNING
Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience
Associative learning occurs when an organism makes
connections between stimuli or events that occur together
in the environment.
Two forms of associative learning are classical
conditioning and operant conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed
extensive research on dogs and is best known for his
experiments in classical conditioning
In classical conditioning, the stimulus or experience
occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the
behavior.
(credit: Crystal Rolfe)
CONDITIONING
Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov’s
research on the
digestive system of
dogs unexpectedly
led to his discovery
of the learning
process now known
as classical
conditioning.
FIGURE 6.5
In higher-order
conditioning, an established
conditioned stimulus is
paired with a new neutral
stimulus (the second-order
stimulus), so that eventually
the new stimulus also
elicits the conditioned
response, without the initial
conditioned stimulus being
presented.
FIGURE 6.6
Kate holds a southern stingray at Stingray City in the Cayman Islands. These stingrays
have been classically conditioned to associate the sound of a boat motor with food
provided by tourists. (credit: Kathryn Dumper)
ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION, SPONTANEOUS
RECOVERY
The initial period of learning is known as acquisition.
Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery is the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
The rising curve shows the conditioned response quickly getting stronger through the repeated pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (acquisition).
Then the curve decreases, which shows how the conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned stimulus is presented (extinction). After a break or pause from conditioning, the conditioned response reappears (spontaneous recovery).
BEHAVIORISM
John B. Watson used the principles of
classical conditioning in the study of
human emotion.
According to Watson, all behavior can be
studied as a simple stimulus-response
reaction, without regard for internal
processes.
Watson argued that in order for
psychology to become a legitimate
science, it must shift its concern away
from internal mental processes because
mental processes cannot be seen or
measured
Watson had succeeded in conditioning a
fear response in an infant, known as
Little Albert, thus demonstrating that
emotions could become conditioned
responses
FIGURE 6.9
Through stimulus generalization, Little Albert came to fear furry things, including Watson in a Santa
Claus mask.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Edward Thorndike
proposed the law of effect,
behaviors that are followed
by consequences that are
satisfying to the organism
are more likely to be
repeated.
B. F. Skinner developed
operant conditioning,
where a response is
associated with a
consequence.
how behaviors are
strengthened or weakened
according to their
consequences?
OPERANT CONDITIONING
(a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences.
(b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward.
(credit a: modification of work by “Silly rabbit”/Wikimedia
Commons)
FIGURE 6.11
Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for behavior modification.
Once this little girl earns a certain number of stickers for demonstrating a desired
behavior, she will be rewarded with a trip to the ice cream parlor. (credit: Abigail
Batchelder)
FIGURE 6.12
Time-out is a popular form of negative punishment used by caregivers. When a child misbehaves,
he or she is removed from a desirable activity in an effort to decrease the unwanted behavior. For
example, (a) a child might be playing on the playground with friends and push another child; (b) the
child who misbehaved would then be removed from the activity for a short period of time
. (credit a: modification of work by Simone Ramella; credit b: modification
of work by “JefferyTurner”/Flickr)
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
The four reinforcement schedules
yield different response patterns.
The variable ratio schedule is
unpredictable and yields high and
steady response rates, with little if
any pause after reinforcement (e.g.,
gambler). A fixed ratio schedule is
predictable and produces a high
response rate, with a short pause
after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass
saleswoman). The variable
interval schedule is unpredictable
and produces a moderate, steady
response rate (e.g., restaurant
manager). The fixed interval
schedule yields a scallop-shaped
response pattern, reflecting a
significant pause after
reinforcement (e.g., surgery
patient).
FIGURE 6.14
Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for
abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress
and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill. (credit: Ted Murphy)
LATENT LEARNING
Edward Tolman found that rats
use cognitive maps to navigate
through a maze without
reinforcement.
Have you ever worked your way
through various levels on a
video game?
You learned when to turn left or
right, move up or down. In that
case you were relying on a
cognitive map, just like the rats
in a maze.
(credit: modification of work by “FutUndBeidl”/Flickr)
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
According to Albert Bandura, pure behaviorism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement.
In observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say. The individuals performing the imitated behavior are called models
Conducted the Bobo Doll study
(credit: U.S. Air Force, Senior Airman Kasey Close)
FIGURE 6.17
(a) Yoga students learn by observation as their yoga instructor demonstrates the correct stance and movement for her students (live model).
(b) Models don’t have to be present for learning to occur: through symbolic modeling, this child can learn a behavior by watching someone demonstrate it on television. (credit a: modification of work by Tony Cecala; credit b: modification of work by Andrew Hyde)