54946524 architectural building materials

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ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING MATERIALS

CONCRETE & CONCRETE WOKS

Portland Cement made from materials which must contain the proper proportions of lime, silicaalumina and iron components.

Special Cements:

1. White Portland cement same materials as normal Portland except in color

2. Masonry Cement designed to produce better mortar than that made with normaPortland cement or with a lime-cement combination.

3. Air-entraining Portland Cement small amounts of this is added to the clinker andground with it to produce air-entraining cements, effective use for resistance to severe frost.

4. Oil Well Cement special Portland cement used for sealing oil wells.

5. Waterproofed Portland Cement normally produced by adding a small amount ostearate, usually calcium or aluminum to the cement clinker during the final grinding.

Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete:

Concrete artificial stone made by binding together particles of some inert material with a pastemade of cement and water. These inert materials are the aggregate.

Aggregate sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder, crushed furnace slag, burned clay, expandedvermaculite, and perlite.

Sand found in riverbends, free of salt and must be washed.Fine aggregate smaller than diameter stones.Course aggregate bigger than diameter stones.

Concrete Mixes:

Class AA - 1:1 :3 - concrete under water, retaining wallsClass A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams, RC slabs

Class B - 1:2 :5 - slab on fill, non-bearing wallsClass C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.

Control of Concrete Mixes:

Slump Test when freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the specified slump is beingattained consistently. A standard slump cone is 12 inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) indiameter at the bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is open on both ends.

Compressive Strength Test common quality-control test of concrete, based on 7 and 28 daycuring periods.

Concrete Additives materials often added to the concrete or applied to the surface of freshly

placed concrete to produce some special result.

Accelerators an admixture which is used to speed up the initial set of concrete. Such a materialmaybe added to the mix to increase the rate of early-strength development for several reasons.

Retarders to delay or extend the setting time of the cement paste in concrete.

Air-entraining agents air-entrained concrete contains microscopic bubbles of air formed withthe aid of a group of chemical called surface active agents, materials that have the property ofreducing the surface tension of water intended for use when better resistance to frost action isconcerned.

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Concrete Hardeners applied on concrete surface to increase hardiness and toughness.

Two Types of Concrete hardeners:1. Chemical Hardeners liquids containing silicofluorides or fluosilicates and a wetting agen

which reduces the surface tension of the liquid and allows it to penetrate the pores of the

concrete more easily.2. Fine Metallic Aggregate are specially processed and graded iron particles which are dry

mixed with Portland cement, spread evenly over the surface of freshly floated concrete, andworked into the surface by floating.

Water Reducing Admixtures material used to reduce the amount of water necessary toproduce a concrete of given consistency or to increase the slump for a given water content.

Damproofers materials used to reduce or stop the penetration of moisture through the concreteReduces permeability.

Bonding Agents:

Paste Slurry often applied to such an old surface immediately prior to pouring new concrete to

increase the amount of paste.

Two Types of Bonding Agents:

1. Metallic Aggregate iron particle are larger, but with same materials as the permeabilityreducer. Bonding takes place through the oxidation and subsequent expansion of the ironparticles.

2. Synthetic Latex Emulsion consists of highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin dispersedin water.

Set-Inhibiting Agents prevent the cement paste from bonding to the surface aggregate but wilnot interfere with the set throughout the remainder of the pour.

Pozzolanic Admixtures materials sometimes used in structures where it s desirable to avoid

high temperature or in structures exposed to seawater or water containing sulfates. Pozzolansmaybe added to concrete mixes-rather than substituting for part of the cement to improveworkability, impermeability, and resistance to chemical attack.

Concrete Products made of lightweight and heavyweight materials for use in exterior andinterior load-bearing walls, firewalls, curtain and panel walls, partitions etc.

Concrete Block:

1. Hollow load-bearing concrete block an 8 x 8 x 16 will approximately weigh 40 to 50lb. Made with heavyweight aggregate and 25 to 35 lb. when made with lightweighaggregate.

2. Solid load bearing block defines as one having a core area of not more than 25 percentof the gross cross-sectional area.

3. Hollow; non-load bearing concrete block one in which the core area exceeds 25percent of the cross-sectional area.

4. Concrete building tile5. Concrete brick

Common Sizes:1. 4 x 8 x 16 for non-load bearing partitions2. 6 x 8 x 16 for load bearing walls

Quality:

1. Hand made backyard industry

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2. Machine made commonly sold

3. Steam cured manufactured by big and nationally known factories for load bearing wallsUsually specified for government and multi-storey buildings.

Cellular Concrete Blocks lightweight block which is outstanding in thermal and sound insulationqualities. Basic ingredients are cement-made from silica-rich sand and lime-water, and aluminum

powder.

CERAMICS AND CLAY PRODUCTS

Brick basic ingredient in clay.

Three Principal Forms:

1. Surface Clay found near the surface of the earth

2. Shales clay which have been subjected to high pressure until they have become relativelyhard.

3. Fire Clay found at deeper levels and usually have more uniform physical and chemicaqualities.

Two Classes of Clay:

1. Calcareous Clays contains about 15 percent calcium carbonate and burn to a yellowishcolor.

2. Non-calcareous Clays composed of silicate of alumina, with feldspar and iron oxideThese clays burn buff, red or salmon depending on the iron oxide content which vary from 2to 10 percent.

Standard Brick Size is 2 x 3 x 8 inches

Structural Clay Tiles are hollow units as opposed to brick which is sold. Tiles are made from thesame material as brick, but all clay tiles are formed by extrusion in the stiff-mud process.

Types of Tiles:

1. Load bearing wall tile used for bearing walls of light buildings, the height usuallyrestricted to four stories. Structural load bearing wall tile are made in 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 inthickness.

2. Partition tile non-load bearing

3. Back-up tile intended for use in both bearing and non-bearing walls which will be facedwith brick or facing tile.

4. Furring tile used on the inside of exterior walls to provide air spaces for insulation toprevent the passage of moisture and to provide a suitable plastering surface. Classified asnon-load bearing.

5. Fireproofing tile structural steel must be insulated in fireproof construction. One methodof doing this is to cover it with fire-proofing tile.

6. Floor tile manufactured in both load-bearing and non-load bearing grades in standardthickness raging from 3 to 12 inches in standard length and widths of 12 inches.

7. Structural Clay Facing tile unglazed tile and may have either a smooth or a roughtextured finish. They are designed to used as exposed facing material on either exterior orinterior walls and partitions.

8. Structural Glazed Facing tile produced from high-grade light burning clay which issuitable for the application of ceramic or salt glaze.

Terra Cotta means fired earth is a clay product which has been used for architecturadecorative purposes, since ancient Greece and Rome. Modern terracotta is machine-extruded and

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molded or pressed. The machine-made product is usually referred to as ceramic veneer, and is aunit with flat face and flat or ribbed back.

Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:

1. Adhesion Type held to the wall by the bond of the mortar to the ceramic veneer back andto the backing wall.

2. Anchor type are held y mortar and by wire tiles between the terracotta and the walbehind.

BUILDING STONES, GYPSUM AND LIME

Building Stones stones usually blocks or pieces of the basic material rock.

Classification:1. Three general categories:

a. Igneous formed as a result of the cooling of molten matter.

b. Sedimentary formed by the action of water either by depositing materials at thebottom of a water body or depositing them on the earths surface.

c. Metamorphic rocks changed from their original structure by the action of extremepressure, heat, or various combinations of these factors.

2. Classified according to form:

a. Rubble includes rough fieldstone which may merely have been broken into suitablesizes, or it may include irregular pieces of stone that have been roughly cut to size,usually used for and filling material. (escombro and lastillas)

b. Dimension (Cut stone) consists of pieces that have been cut or finishedaccording to a set or drawing. (for facing walls)

c. Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin pieces (1/2 in. and up which may or maynot have had their face dimensions cut to some particular size. (for walks and floors)

d. Crushed rock consisting of pieces varying I size from 3/8 to 6 in. and is used to alarge extent in concreting.

Building Stones:

1. Argilite one formed d\from clay, commonly dark-blue with faint shades of green, used forfloor tile, stair treads, coping stones, interior wall base, interior window stools of exteriowindow sills.

2. Granite igneous origin and composed of quartz, feldspar, hornblende and mica. Itsgenerally very hard, strong durable and capable of taking a high polish.

3. Limestone a sedimentary rock which is either oolitic, or calcite cemented calcareousstone formed of shells fragments, particularly non-crystalline in nature, it has no cleavagelines and uniform in structure and composition.

4. Travertine a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate. It has beenformed at the earths surface through the evaporation of water from hot springs.

5. Marble metamorphic rock, one that has been changed from its original structure in thiscase, limestone and dolomite have been recrystallized to form marble.

6. Serpentine igneous rock with the mineral serpentine. The mineral is olive green togreenish black, but impurities may give the rock other colors.

7. Sandstone a class of rock composed of cemented silica grains. Colors include gray, bufflight brown and red.

8. Slate rock formed by metamorphosis of clays and shales deposited in layers. A uniquecharacteristic of the rock is the relative ease with which it may be separated into thin toughsheets, called slates, or more thick.

Stone Construction:

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1. Paneling consists of using slabs of stone cut to dimension and thickness to cover backupwalls and provide a finished exterior.

2. Ashlar work requires the use of cut stone and includes broken ashlar, irregular coursedashlar, regular coursed ashlar.

3. Rubblework used as random when no attempt is made to produce either horizontal or

vertical course lines. Small spaces are filled with spalls, small stones and used as courserubble work, horizontal course lines are maintained but no vertical course lines used.

4. Trim involves use of stones cut for a specific purpose and include Quoin stones laid athe intersection of two walls.

a. As jambs stones which form the sides of window and door openings.b. As sills stones which form the bottom of window and door openingsc. As belts special stone courses which are built into a wall for a particular purpose

One reason is to provide architectural relief to a large wall of one material or toprovide a break I the vertical plane of the wall, another reason is to hide a change inthe wall thickness.

d. As copings one which is cut fit on the top of a masonry wall. It prevents the passageof water into the wall, sheds water to either inside or outside, and gives a finishedappearance to the wall.

e. As cornices specially cut stones which are built into and project from a masonrywall near the top to provide the appearance of a cave.

f. As lintels stones which bridge the top of door and window openings.g. As stone steps made to fit over an inclined concrete slab or to cap steps cast in

concrete.h. As an arch stone cut to form some particular type of arch over a door or window

opening.i. As stone flooring walks and patios, made by covering a base of stone concrete

brick or tile with flagstones, trimmed flagstone, trimmed rectangular and square.

Gypsum a soft mineral consisting of a hydrated calcium sulfate from which gypsum plaster ismade (by heating); colorless when pure used as a retarder in Portland cement.

WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS

Wood a traditional building material, it is easily worked, has durability and beauty. It has greatability to absorb shocks from sudden load. In addition, wood has freedom from rust and corrosion, icomparatively light in weight, and is adaptable to countless variety of purposes.

Classification of Trees:

1. Hardwoods deciduous trees that have broad leaves which are normally shed in thewinter time.

2. Softwoods conifers trees that have needles rather than leaves and that bear their seedsin cones.

Moisture Content of Wood expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight and can bedetermined by the oven-dry method or by an electric-moisture meter method.

Three categories of Lumber:

1. Yard Lumber used for ordinary light construction and finishing work and consists of 1 and2 inches material manufactured into common boards, shiplap, shelving dimension lumbercenter match, flooring, roof plank, siding, v-joint, trim and molding of all kinds. These areusually found in retail lumberyards.

2. Shop Lumber usually left in 1 and 2 inches rough thickness often containing knots odefects not ordinarily permissible in other categories. It is intended for use in shops or millsmaking sash, doors and cabinets where it will be cut into relatively short pieces and thedefective material discarded.

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3. Structural Lumber in intended for use in heavy construction for load-bearing purposesand is cut into timbers of large size than yard lumber, 3 inches or more thick and 4 inches ormore wide. It is made from the heartwood of the log.

Finishes of Wood:S1S surfacing or planning of one side

S2S two sides planedS4S four sides planedRough as sawn and not planed

Wood Grain:

1. Edge Grain annual rings run approximately at right angle to the face.

2. Flat Grain when the annual rings run more or less parallel to the surface.

3. Angle Grain when the annual rings are at about 45 degrees to the face.

Seasoning of Lumber:

1. Air-Drying lumber is strip-piled at a slope on a solid foundation. This allows air to circulatearound every piece while the sloping allows water to run off quickly.

2. Kiln-Drying more expensive lumber which is required for more refined uses so as woodwill not move, such as furniture. Flooring and general interior use.

Pressure treated lumber when lumber is subjected to pressure and injected with chemicals orsalts to insure it from rots.

Specification when buying lumber:Indicate no. of pieces, thickness, width, length, total bd. Ft. kind of lumber and finish.Example: 6-2 x 8 x 14-0 = 112 bd. Ft. tanguile S4S

Glue laminated timber term used to describe a wooden member built up of several layers ofwood whose grain directions are all substantially parallel, and held together with glue as fasteningcommonly used for beams, girders, posts, columns, arches, arches, bowstring truss chords, usuallysoftwoods are commonly used because of their low cost, lightness and strength.

Glue use in laminating:

1. Casein glue satisfactory for use in dry locations not exposed to rain or water.

2. Urea-formaldehyde-resin cheap and well cure at from 70 degrees Fahrenheit up. Wilwithstand soaking in cool water.

3. Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues not usually recommended because of the hightemperature needed to cure them. Useful for combining timber and plywood and are verywater-resistant.

4. Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde resin glues are expensive but have excellent qualitiesof durability and water resistance.

RECYCLED WASTE PRODUCTS, BUILDING BOARDS AND PAPERS

Building Boards a group of sheets of building materials often faced with paper or vinyl, suitablefor use as a finished surface on walls, ceiling, etc.

Kinds of Building Boards:

1. Plywood made by bonding together thin layers of wood in a way that the grain of eachlayer is at right angles to the grain of each adjacent layer.Veneer - each layer of plywoodRotary Cutting a method of cutting wood veneer in which a log is fixed in a lathe androtated against a knife so that the veneer is peeled from the log in a continuous sheet.

2. Hardboard made from processed wood chips.

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Three grades of board:

a. Standard flexible to be quite easily bent

b. Tempered hardboard made by impregnated standard board with a temperingcompound of oils and resin and baking it to polymerize the tempering material.

c. Low-density hardboard not as strong and durable as standard hardboard.

3. Insulating Fiberboard made from three types of fiber wood, sugar cane, and asbestos

and binder, formed into a board.

4. Chipboard a large class of building board made from wood and particles and a binder,often faced with veneer.

5. Particle Board a hardboard made from relatively small particles.

6. Gypsum Board a wall board having a gypsum core.

7. Straw Board a hardboard made of compressed wheat straw, processed at 350 to 400degree Fahrenheit and covered with a tough kraft paper.

8. Asbestos-cement Board a dense, rigid board containing a high proportion of asbestosfibers bonded with Portland cement, resistant to fire, flame, and weathering, has lowresistance to heat flow.

9. Corkboard from the outer bark of the cork oak tree, cork granules is mixed with syntheticresin, compressed and formed into sheet from 1 to 6 inches thick and baked under pressure

into rigid boards.

10. Paperboard made into two different types: a paper pulp pressed into boards 3/16, or in. thick, 4 ft. wide, and 6, 7 or 8 ft. long. Usually one surface is primed for easier finishing

The other is a layer of stiff paper folded into corrugated from and faced on both sides with athick paper backing, cemented to the core.

11. Mineral Fiberground thick mats of mineral fibers, usually glass or rock wool are coveredwith a backing of stiff paper on one or both sides to form rigid boards, ranging in thicknessfrom to 2 in. The usual board size is 24 x 48 inches.

12. Plastic Foamboards polystrene and polyurethane plastics are formed by a patentedprocess to about 40 times their original volume. Used for perimeter insulation for concretefloor slabs, for wall and roof deck insulation, and for roof decks when properly supported.

Building Papers in building construction, paper is used for sheathing, roofing and insulation, inmaking asphalt shingles, laminated and corrugated building products, and concrete form materialsas a moisture and vapor barrier; as cushioning material; as wallpaper; as an envelope or sheath foother materials; and as a fireproofing material.

Type of Wood Pulp:

1. Mechanical Pulp or groundwood, is produced by grinding blocks of wood against arevolving abrasive stone or by grinding steamed wood chips in a grinding mill.

2. Chemical Pulp produced by digesting wood chips in various chemicals to free thecellulose fibers from the liquid binding.

3. Semi-chemical Pulp wood chips are first subjected to a mild chemical treatment andthen mechanically disintegrated in rotating disk refiners.

Types of Paper:1. Sheathing Paper used to provide an airtight barrier over walls, floors, etc.

2. Roofing Paper A. roofing felts - used in making a built-up roof and are usually producedin 36 in. wide rolls, in various weights from 3 to 20 lb/square. B. Rolled roofing a heavymineral surfaced paper used as a final roof covering, made 18 and 36 in. wide, in variousweights from 45 to 120 lb/square.

3. Insulating Paper used to secure bulk and entrapped air with as much strength aspossible. Insulating papers are made from both wood-fiber insulating paper and asbestosfibers.

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4. Cushioning Paper similar to wood-fiber insulating paper, but less attention is paid tostrength. Its chief use is for cushioning under linoleum, carpets, or slate roofing.

5. Vapor Barrier Paper- intended to prevent the passage of moisture vapor through wallsceilings and floors.

6. Laminating Paper a special, high strength kraft paper made for use in the production oplastic laminates. The thin, strong paper is impregnated with liquid plastic resin and severa

sheet are laminated together under heat and pressure to form the base for the plastic sheet7. Concrete Form Paper made from strong kraft paper in the form of a spiral tube and

boxlike from made from corrugated container paper.

8. Wallpaper paper from which decorative wallpaper is made.

9. Envelope Paper used as an outer covering or envelope for a number of buildingmaterials. One of these is gypsum board, composed of a layer of calcined gypsum coveredin both sides by a sheet of kraft paper.

10. Fire Proofing Paper made from asbestos fibers, since this is an incombustible materialThis material maybe in the form of matted paper, similar to asbestos insulating or roofingpaper, or it may be in the form of a cloth woven from thread spun from asbestos fibers.

BITUMINOUS MARTERIALS

Bitumen a generic name applied to a semisolid mixture of complex hydrocarbons, derivedfrom coal or petroleum, as a coal-tar pitch or asphalt.

Tar the resulting condensate when destructive distillation is carried out on such materials aswood coal, shale, peat or bone.Pitch a solid or semi-solid residue produced from partial evaporation or fractional distillationof tar.

Coal-tar Pitch most common material of this kind of pitch.

Asphalts - dark brown or black solids or semi-solids which are found in the natural state and

are also produced by the refining of petroleum.

Liquid Paving Asphalts liquid asphalts used for paving are cutbacks.

Asphalt Paving Cements used as binders for more expensive asphalt pavements.

FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATERIALS

Ferrous metal in which iron is the principal elementNonferrous containing no, or very little iron.

Ferrous Metal:

1. Steel a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig iron and/oscrap steel, graded according to the carbon content.

2. Pig Iron used to make cast iron which is high in compressive strength but low in tensilestrength, and has little use for construction.

3. Wrought Iron produced when pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove nearly all ofthe carbon and other impurities.

4. Alloy Steels made by containing other elements with the molten steel. Nickel, chromiumcopper and manganese are used.

5. Nickel Steel stronger than carbon steel and is used to make structural members forbuilding chromium steel is very hard and corrosion-resistant.

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6. Stainless Steels made with chromium or a combination of nickel and chromium used inbuildings for exterior wall panels, frames for doors, expansion joints, flashings, copingsfascia and gravel stops.

7. Copper bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is used for making sheet steeand metal lath.

8. Manganese Steel offers great resistance to abrasion and finds important use in the

cutting edges of heavy digging tools.9. Weathering Steel recently developed grade of steel. It forms its protection agains

atmospheric corrosion and thus requires no painting.

Nonferrous Metal:

Aluminum a lustrous, silver-white nonmagnetic, lightweight metal which is very malleablehas good thermal and electrical conductivity; a good reflector of both heat and light.

Aluminum Foil used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective insulation.

Copper a lustrous reddish metal, highly ductile and malleable; has high tensile strength; is anexcellent electrical and thermal conductor; is available in a wide variety of shapes; widely used

for downspout, electrical conductors, flashings, gutter, roofing, etc.

Lead a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low melting point and a high coefficient of thermaexpansion. Very easy to cut and work, enabling it to be fitted over uneven surfaces. Used forroofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels.

Tin a lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low melting point; relativelyunaffected by exposure to air; used for making alloys and solder and in coating sheet metal.

GLASS AND GLAZING

Glass a hard, brittle inorganic substance, ordinarily transparent or translucent; produced by

melting a mixture of silica, a flux and a stabilizer.

Types of Glass:

1. Reflective Glass used to control glare and reduce solar heat. It the product of a glass-coating process which is carried out in a large, rectangular vacuum chamber. Manufacturedin two types, silver and gold, the glass can be specified in any one of three nominal lighttransmittance of 8, 14, or 20 percent.

2. Rolled and Rough Cast Glass used where clear vision is not required, such as by factoryroofs and walls, windows for halls and staircases, skylights, and partitions in offices. Castglass diffuses light, and because of its low reflecting and absorption index, transmits 90 to93 percent of light rays striking it.

3. Cathedral and Figured Glass manufacturing is similar to rolled and rough-cast glassesHowever, they contain a pattern or texture impressed usually on one surface by a patternedroller.

4. Wired Glass simply a rolled glass into which wire mesh is inserted during the process ofmanufacture.

5. Heat Absorbing Plate Glass made by adding ingredients to the mix used in makingregular slate glass so that the finished product is pale bluish-green or gray.

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6. Tempered Plate Glass three to five times as strong as regular plate of the samethickness and area in resisting compressive forces and fracture due to strain or thermashock.

7. Vitreous Colored Plate polished plate glass can be heat-strengthened and coated on oneside with vitreous color which is fire-fused to the surface.

8. Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet Proofing) widely used in the automotive industry and

transportation, but now finding some uses in the building industry, like glass that canwithstand firearm attack and explosions.

9. Insulating Glass consists of two sheets of plate or sheet glass, separated by an air spaceand joined around the edges to produce a hermitically sealed unit.

Classification of Sheet Glass:

1. Window Glass used for glazing windows doors and storm sash in residential buildingswhere good light and vision are required at moderate cost.

2. Heavy Sheet Glass used for glazing windows and doors where greater strength isrequired but where slight distortion is not objectionable.

3. Picture Glass used for covering pictures, photographs, maps, charts projector slides and

instrument dials.

Glass products:

1. Glass Blocks comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature oftransmitting light.

2. Solid Glass Brick also made to admit light into a building, because of its solidconstruction, it offers greater protection against vandalism than conventional window glassor glass blocks. The ability of the brick is to allow undistorted passage of light.

PLASTICS AND RELATED PRODUCTS

Plastics a large group of synthetic materials which are made from a number of commonsubstances such as coal, salt, oil. Natural gas, cotton, wood and water. From these, relativelysimple chemicals known as monomers, which are capable of reacting with one another areproduced. These are then built up into chainlike molecules of high molecular weight calledpolymers.

Two General Classification:

1. Thermoplastics become soft when heated and hard when cooled, regardless of thenumber of times the process is repeated. Include in the thermoplastics are acrylic cellulosispolyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) polysterene, polyallomers polycarbonates, polyimidepolypropylene, polysulfone, phenylene oxide, nylons, methyl pertenes, ionomerfluoroplastics, acetal and acryonitrile butadieniene styrene (ABS).

2. Thermosetting Plastics set into a permanent shape when heat and pressure are appliedto them during the forming stage. Thermosetting group includes phenolics, aminos (ureaand melamine) epoxies, polyesters, polyurethane, alkyd silicones and diallyl phthalate(DAP).

Production: Plastics products are formed by a number of methods which include:

1. Injection Molding Process measured amount of powder or granules is heated and whenflowing forced through the nozzle of the barrel into a shaped cavity, where it cools osolidities.

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2. Blow-Molding Process an extruder extrudes a hollow tube which is captured betweenthe two halves of a hollow. As the mold closes, air is blown into the tube and expand it to fitinside surface of the mold.

3. Rotational Molding used to form hollow units with complex shapes and heavy walls, apremeasured amount of powder or liquid resin is placed at the bottom half of a cold moldwhich is then closed.

4. Expandable Bead Molding a process used to produce light weight products opolysterene foam, small granules of polysterene with a small amount of an expanding agenare placed in a rolling drum and steam heated.

5. Compression Molding a measured quantity of powder in a heated mold, which is thenclosed. Heat and pressure are applied to the powder which melts and flows to all parts of themold.

6. Transfer Molding similar to compression molding except that the powder is heated andliquefied outside the mold and injected into the mold under heat and pressure, where theforming and setting takes place.

7. Foamed Plastics are made by expanding agent with either granules or powder and thenheating. Heat melts the plastic and causes the formation of a gas which expands the moltenmaterial into foamed structure.

8. Thermoset Foam made by mixing the appropriate resin with a curing agent and anexpanding agent and then heating them in a mold.

9. Extrusion Forming used for mass-produced materials which have a constant crosssection, and it is done in two ways by forcing of semi-liquid plastic through a die of theproper size and shape in a manner similar to that used for forming brick by extrusion.

10. Thermoforming Process sheet plastic is heated until soft and then forced by air pressureagainst a cold and hardens in shape.

11. Laminating Process consists of impregnating sheets of paper, glass fiber, or cloth with athermosetting liquid resin and then applying heat and pressure to a number of sheets toform a laminated product.

12. Casting a simple process in which liquid plastics, with their appropriate curing agent, arepoured into molds and set, with or without heat.

13.Calendaring Process plastic is fed to revolving rollers which turn out a thin sheet or filmthe thickness of the product is determined by the roller spacing, and the surface of the sheetmay be smooth or matted, depending on the roller surface.

Plastic Laminates consists of three or more layers of material bonded or laminated togetherwith plastic adhesive under high pressure.

ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS

Cohesiveness the ability of particles of a material to cling tightly to one another.

Adhesiveness the ability of a material to fix itself and cling to an entirely different material.

Sealers products which are used to seal the surface of various materials against the penetrationof water or other liquids or in some cases to prevent the escape of water through the surface.

INSULATING MATERIALS

Three ways of heat transfer:

1. Conduction the inside of a concrete wall which has one side exposed to outside wintertemperatures feels cold to the touch. Heat is being conducted from the side of highetemperature to that lower temperature.

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2. Radiation from this point, it is transferred to the outside air by radiation.

3. Convection when air is heated, it expands and begins to circulate, during the circulation itcomes in contact with cooler surface, some of its heat is given up to them. It is thereforeimportant to try to prevent air currents from being set up in the walls and ceiling of oubuildings.

Kinds of Thermal Insulation:

1. Loose Fill:

a. fibrous type made from mineral woolrock wool, glass wool, or slag wool ovegetable fiber usually wood fiber.

b. Granular insulation made from expanded minerals such as perlite andvermaculite or from ground vegetable matter such as granulated coork.

c. Fibrous loose fill used to insulate walls of buildings that have been built withoutinsulation.

d. Granules are graded into four sizes, 1, (3/8 in. to no. 16 sieve) and sizes 2 (no. 4 tono. 30 sieve) used as loose-fill insulation for sidewalls and ceilings over suspendedceilings, between wood sleepers over a concrete floor slab, as fill for the cores of

concrete blocks, and sizes 3 (no. 8 to no. 100 sieve) size 4 (no. 16 to 100 sieve).2. Blanket Insulation made from some fibrous materials such as mineral wool, wood fiber

cotton fiber, or animal hair, manufactured in the form of a mat, 16, 20 or 24 in. width, in 8 ftlengths or put up in rolls of from 40 to 100 linear feet, with controlled thickness of 1, , 2, 3and 4 inches.

3. Batts similar to blankets but they are restricted to 48 inches in long or less they arealways covered with paper, and made especially for installation between stud spacings.

4. Structural Insulation Board made from organic fiber-wood, cane, straw or cork. Thewood and cane raw material is first pulped, after which it is treated with water proofingchemicals.

a. Strawboard made from carefully selected straw, fused under heat and pressureinto a panel 2 inches thick and 4 ft. wide.

b. Corkboard made from granulated cork mixed with resin and pressed into sheets oseveral thickness, depending on the use to which they will be put.

5. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation type of insulation is so called because the units arerelatively stiff and inelastic. In most cases inorganic materials are used in theimanufactures.

6. Reflective Insulation made from such materials as aluminum or copper foil or sheemetal, with bright surfaces that reflect heat rather than absorbing it.

7. Foamed-In-Place Insulation this is polyurethane product made by combining apolyisocyanate and a polyester resin.

8. Sprayed-on-Insulations materials used are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber mixed withinorganic binders, vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or gypsumand perlite aggregate using gypsum as binders.

9. Corrugated Insulation usually made from paper foamed into shapes that produce

enclosed air pockets. One type is produced by shaping heavy paper into a series of smalregular semicircular corrugations and covering a both sides with a sheet of flat paper to givestrength and produce the air pockets.

BUILDING PROTECTION

Waterproofing a method of protecting surfaces against the destructive effects of waterDamp-Proofing protection from the outside is provided by water repellent materials which turnwater aside and force it to return to the earth.

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Soil Poisoning it is important to poison the soil against anay in order to stop the anay frominfesting the main posts, walls and flooring.Wood Preservative a chemical liquid painted and applied to lumber to preserve it for years. Itprotects wood against powder post beatles (buk-bok), powder post termite (unos), decay causingfungi such as sap stain and dry rot.Fire- Proofing a clear liquid applied easily on wood, plywood, lumber and other board that

retains the natural beauty, gives added strength and protects materials against fire, weatherdecay, insects and warping.Ratproofing a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion of rats and other smadestructive animals from gnawing the wooden parts of the house, habitating on ceilings and floorsof houses and buildings.Rustproofing a method of protecting the ferrous materials like steel, iron from rusting ocorrosion.

Thoroseal a cement-based, heavy-duty, easy to apply, water proof sealant and coatingThoroseal is ideal for basement walls.

Vapor barriers are materials which effectively retard or stop the flow of water vapor andnormally are produced in sheets or thin layers.

PAINTS AND PROTECTIVE COATINGS

Paint a mixture consisting of vehicles or binders, with or without coloring pigments, adjusted anddiluted with correct amounts and types of additives and thinners, which when applied on a surfaceforms an adherent continuous film which provides protection, decoration, sanitation, identificationand other functional properties.

Components of an oil base paint are:

1. body that solid, finely ground material which gives a paint the powder to hide, as well ascolor a surface.

2.vehicle a nonvolatile fluid in which the solid body material is suspended. The vehicleshould consists of from 85 to 90 percent drying oil and the remainder thinner and drier.

3. pigment material which give the paint its color

4. thinners are volatile solvents, materials which have a natural affinity for the vehicle in thepaint. They cause the paint to flow better. Most common thinner is turpentine.

5. driers organic salts of various metals such as iron, zinc, cobalt, lead manganese, andcalcium, which are added to the paint to accelerate the oxidation and hardening of thevehicle.

Varnishes a group pf more-or-less transparent liquids which are used to provide a protectivesurface coating, at the same time they allow the original surface to show but add a lustrous andglossy finish to it.

Enamels when pigment is added to a varnish, the result is enamel.

Shellac the only liquid protective coating containing a resin of animal origin. The resin is anexudation of the lac insect of India and Southeast Asia, deposited on the branches of the tree.Lacquers a new product made from synthetic materials to take the place of varnish for clearfinishes. The ingredients are dissolved in a mixture of volatile solvents which evaporate, leaving afilm to form the protective coating. When another class of material, pigments are added to clearlacquer, the result is lacquer enamel, available in wide range of colors.

Stains materials used to apply color to wood surfaces. They are intended to impart color withoutconcealing or obscuring the grain and not to provide a protective coating.

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Fillers are finishing materials which are used on wood surfaces, particularly those with opengrain, to fill the pores and provide a perfect smooth, uniform surface for varnish or lacquer. It is alsoused to impart color to the wood pores and so emphasize the grain.

Sealers to seal the surface of the wood and prevent the absorption of succeeding finish coats. It

may be applied to bare wood in essentially the same way as paste filler but has much less fillingcapacity.

Silicone Water Repellant used on all non-painted concrete, synthetic finishes, rubble, brickand wash-out finishes as a protection from absorption of water and prevent moss, alkali, fungi todestroy the surface.

HARDWARES

Hardware metal products used in construction, such as bolts, hinges, locks, tools. Etc. they areclassified as:

Finishing hardware hardware such as hinges, catches, etc. that has a finished appearance aswell as function, especially that used with doors, windows, and cabinets, maybe considered part ofthe decorative treatment of a room or building.

Rough hardware in building construction, hardware meant to be concealed, such as bolts, nailsscrews, spikes, rods, and other metal fittings.

Types of Doors:

Flush a smooth surface door having faces which are plane conceal its rails and stiles or othestructure when used inside, it is of hollow core when used for exterior, it is of solid core.

Panel door a door having stiles, rail and sometimes muntins, which form one or more framesaround recessed thinner panels.

Overhead Swing-up door a rigid overhead door which opens as an entire unit.

Overhead Roll-up garage door - a door which, when open, assumes a horizontal position abovethe door opening, made of several leaves.

Roll-up door a door made up of small horizontal interlocking metal slats which are guided in atrack; the configuration coils about an overhead drum which is housed at the head of the openingeither manual or motor-driven.

Accordion door a hinge door consisting of a system of panels which are hung from an overheadtrack.

Bi-fold door one of two or more doors which are hinged together so that they can open and foldin a confined space.

Revolving door an exterior door consisting of four leaves which pivot about a common verticaaxis within a cylindrically shape vestibule, prevents the direct passage of air through the vestibulethereby eliminating drafts from outside.

Sliding door a door mounted on track which slides I a horizontal direction usually parallel to onewall.

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By-passing sliding door a sliding door which slides to cover a fixed door of the same width oranother sliding door.

Sliding pocket door a door which slides inside a hollow of the wall.

Dutch door a hinge door which is divided into two. The upper part can be opened while the lowe

portion is closed.

Example of Finishing Hardware:

Hinge - a movable joint used to attach support and turn a door about a pivot, consists of two platejoined together by a pin which the door and connect it to its frame, enabling it to swing open oclosed.

1. Butt hinge consists of two rectangular metal plates which are joined with a pin. In largehinge, the pin is removable, in small hinges, it is fixed.

2. Fast pin hinge a hinge I which the pin is fastened permanently in place.

3. Full surface hinge a hinge designed for attachment on the surface of the door and jambwithout mortising.

4. Loose joint hinge a door hinge having two knuckles, one of which has vertical pin thatfits in a corresponding hole in the other, by lifting the door up, off the vertical pin, the doormaybe removed with unscrewing the hinge.

5. Loose pin hinge a hinge having a removable pin which permits its two parts to beseparated.

6. Paumelle hinge a type of door hinge having a single joint of the pivot type, usually omodern design.

7. Olive knuckle hinge a paumelle hinge with knuckles forming an oval shape.

8. Spring hinge a hinge containing one or more springs, when a door is opened, the hingereturns it to the open position automatically, may act in one direction only, or in bothdirections.

9. Vertical spring pivot hinge a spring hinge for a door which is mortised into the heel o

the door, the door is fastened to the floor and door head with pivots.

Example of Rough Hardware:

CW- common wire nail with head and for strength; box nail also used for strength.

FIN finishing nail without head; casing nail also without head.

Screws classified by gauge (diameter), length, head-type, and metallic make-up.

Bolts have threaded shafts that receive nuts. To use them, a hole is drilled, pushing the boltthrough and adding a nut.

Flush bolt a door bolt so designed that when applied it is flush with the face or edge of the door.

Chain door fastener a device attached to a door and its jamb limits the door opening to thelength of the chain.

Lockset a complete lock system including the basic locking mechanism & all the accessoriessuch as knobs, escutcheons, plates, etc.

Latch a simple fastening device having a latch bolt, but not a dead bolt containing no provisionsfor locking with a key, usually can be open from both sides.

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Lift latch a type of door latch which fastens a door by means of a pivoted bar that engages ahook on the door jamb, a lever which lifts the pivoted bar used to unfasten the door.

Button - a small rejecting member used to fasten the frame of a door or window.

Knob a handle, more or less spherical usually for operating a lock.

Escutcheon a protective plate surrounding the keyhole of a door switch or a light switch.

Plates a thin flat sheet of material

Strikes a metal plate or box which is et in a door jamb & is either placed or recessed to receivethe bolt or latch of a lock, fixed on a door.

Lip strike the projection from the side of a strike plate which the bolt of a lock strikes first, whena door is closed; projects out from the side of the strike plate to protect the frame.

Hasp a fastening device consisting of a loop or staple and a slotted hinge plate normally securedwith a padlock.

Key-padlock a device which fastens in position maybe operated by a key.

Hasplock a kind of hasp that has a built-in locking device which can be opened only with a key.

Friction catch any catch which when it engages a strike, is held in the engaged position byfriction.

Magnetic catch a door catch flat that uses a magnet to hold the door in a closed position.

Bullet catch a fastener which holds a door in place by means of a projecting spring arctuatedsteel hall which is depressed when the door is closed.

Hospital arm pull a handle for opening a hospital door without the use of hands, by hooking anarm over the handle.

Panic exit device fire exit bolt a door locking device used on exit doors; the door latch releaseswhen a bar, across the inside of the door is pushed.

Eye bolt a bolt having its head in the form of a loop or eye.

Concrete insert a plastic, wood fiber, or metal usually leads plug either built in a wall or ceilingor inserted by drilling, used as an anchor or support to hold attached load.

Hook bolt a bolt having one end in the form of a hook.

Door stopper to prevent the door with its lockset from harming the wall or tiles.

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