5.3 mass flow analysis

5 – Environmental Assessment Tools5 – Environmental Assessment Tools

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5.1 Life Cycle Analysis5.1 Life Cycle Analysis

5.2 Eco Design5.2 Eco Design

5.3 Mass Flow Analysis5.3 Mass Flow Analysis


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Analysis of Environmental, Analysis of Environmental, Financial and Social Impacts Financial and Social Impacts throughout the Life-cycle of throughout the Life-cycle of

Products and ProcessesProducts and Processes



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Contents

• The Concept of Environmental LCA• Methodology of Environmental LCA;

• Goal and Scope• Inventory Analysis• Impact Assessment• Interpretation

• Extending the scope of Environmental LCA;• Economic LCA• Social LCA



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The Concept of LCA (1)

• Products do no pollute, but their production, use and disposal do!

• Product systems are composed of interrelated processes

Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no. 45268



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• Some products have a dominating environmental load in production, some in use, some in disposal:

Examples:

books, furniture, art etc.

Examples:

cars, television, airco etc.

Examples:

Ni-Cd batteries, household chemicals, fireworks etc.



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• Environmental LCA is the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of products or processes over their life cycle. LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle stages, product

parts or processes to environmental burden. LCA is often used to compare between products or design

alternatives.

• Applications of LCA: Product improvement Support for strategic choices Benchmarking External communication



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• LCA is a model of a complex reality!

• …of an average lifecycle of a mass product

• …of the effect of all impacts that occur

• …of their interaction.

• Any model is a simplification of reality: If you make a model, you must specify the goal and scope describing why you want to make the model.



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Methodology of LCA (1)

1. Goal and Scope definition

2. Inventory Analysis

3. Impact Assessment

4. Interpretation- Product development

and improvement

- Strategic planning

- Public policy making

- Marketing

- Other

Goaland scopedefinition

Inventoryanalysis

Impactassessment

Interpretation

Direct applications:

Life cycle assessment framework

The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006



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Questions:

• What is the intended application of the LCA?

• How much effort do you want to invest?

• Who are interested parties?

• What methodology will you use?

Why is a goal and scope definition important?– guidance in data collection phase– communication base for data providers– reference for data quality management. – afterwards, to explain how choices have been made during the various LCA

phases.

Methodology of LCA (2), Goal and Scope



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• Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural

aspects Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent

function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000 litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle.

Functional unit is basis for comparison


=?

“Compare environmental

impacts of packaging of 1000 litres milk in carton packages or glass

bottles”



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• Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural

aspects System boundaries: definition of processes that are included in the

investigation, e.g. material extraction, processing and transport; energy production; disposal processes. Production of capital goods (equipment used for production and transportation) are often excluded from the system. System boundaries are further defined during the inventory process.

Procedural aspects: organizational arrangements such as a critical review to guarantee consistency, scientific validity, transparency of the final report and how various stakeholders will be involved in the process (LCA is a participatory process)




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• Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase • Compiling and quantifying of inputs and outputs• Collecting of data, determination of total emissions and resource use• Detailed defining of product system and economy-environment

boundary. Only data collection for processes that are controlled by human beings (economic processes). Examples: coal mining, electricity production, controlled dumping of solid waste etc.

• Visualizing connected processes in product system• Scaling of available technical data (e.g. from data libraries) to

functional unit • Aggregating the inputs and outputs in Inventory Table

Methodology of LCA (4), Inventory



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Example of Product system and Inventory Table


electricity

steel

plastic

production distribution use dump

incineration

reuse

recycling

LCI table with environmental interventions

Crude oil from earth

40000 kg

CO2 to air 3500

SO2 to air 20 kg

NOx to air 100 kg

Cd to water 5 g

PAH to water

8 kg

Etc. …….



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Difficulties:• Data availability and quality

Data rarely available, usually special data gathering studies needed Measurement procedures rarely standardized

• Geographic variations quality of raw materials/energy sources production methods relevant environmental impacts

• Technology Which type of electricity production? Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane process? Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration Plant?



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Difficulties:• Allocation of environmental interventions in case of multiple output

processes; Many processes are ‘multifunctional’ (e.g. co-production, combined

waste treatment.) and interventions can be allocated to more outputs:

• Recycling and reuse• Allocation determined by number of reuse times and fraction of

materials that can be recycled at a certain quality

Electricity production

Salt electrolysis

Plastic production

Paint production

Chlorine

Caustic Soda

Plastic bag use

Recycling

Old plastic



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• Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)• Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental impacts, like

climate change, acidification, eco-toxic impacts etc.

Methodology of LCA (7), Impact assessment

Land useLand use

LCI result

Raw materialsLand use

CO2VOS

P SO2NOxCFC

CdPAHDDT

Climate changeClimate change

AcidificationAcidification

EcotoxicityEcotoxicity

DepletionDepletion

EutrophicationEutrophication

HumantoxicityHumantoxicity



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Methodology of LCA (8), Impact assessment:

• Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization: Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category, e.g. CO2 and

CH4 to climate change Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.) from LCI with a

characterisation factor to get indicator results Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator results and to get

dimensionless score (useful for comparison)Impact category

Char. Factor (Global Warming Potential)

Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)



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EffectIntervention Damage CO2

PSO2NOx

DDTDust

VOC

Cd

PAHCFC

Heavy metals

Greenhouse effect

Acidification

Pesticides

EutrophicationDamage to Eco-systems

Damage to human health

IndicatorWinter smog

Summer smog

Carconogenics

Ozone layer depl.

Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact categories (ISO) and are defined according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact 2002+ etc.)



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• A ‘high’ contribution to a certain impact category (a high normalized score) does not automatically mean an ‘important’ contribution weighing of results is needed

• Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a normative process, depending on preferences of researcher; which environmental impact is most important?

• Procedure of LCIA according to ISO:- Classification and characterisation are an obligatory step.- Normalisation is an optional step.- Weighing is only permitted for internal decision making, and not

for comparison of products to the public.



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Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation

• “Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are combined consistent with the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations” (ISO)

• To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and scope: Are the the general assumptions reasonable? Is the functional unit well chosen? Are ISO standards applied? Has a peer review been conducted?



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Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation

• Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the impact of important choices or assumptions What if other allocations are applied. What if other boundaries are applied. What if other impact assessment method is used.

• By recalculating the LCA with other assumptions, we can verify how the conclusions connect with the assumptions.



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Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (1)

• LCA is often associated with environmental impacts, but scope can be extended to include economic and social impacts.

• Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC);• Analysis of life cycle costs

• Social LCA• Social impacts throughout life cycle of products and

processes



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• What are the costs and revenues incured during the life cycle of a product or process?

• R&D• Production• Marketing• Sales• Etc.

• Sometimes external costs included as well (costs that are ‘imposed’ on society or the environment):

• Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA results…but is it possible to monetise all environmental services?



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• Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as employment and health: Job quality Quality physical health Quality social health Earthly possessions

• Challenging to model social life cycle impacts, because social conditions do change more rapidly impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate emotions resulting from changes disappear with time diseases get cured people who are laid off may find new jobs)



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5.2 Eco5.2 Eco-Design-Design

Life Cycle Thinking within the Design of Products and

Processes

5.2 Eco-design5.2 Eco-design


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• What is Eco-Design?• Implications for the Design Process.• Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid

Waste.• Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable

Product Design.

Contents



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• Eco-design…

• incorporates environmental aspects into the familiar design process

• is aimed at improving eco-efficiency (section 2.3) of products and processes

• evolves directly from life cycle thinking and is a logical application of LCA (section 5.1) results

What is Eco-Design?



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• The designer considers functionality requirements of the product including its environmental implications along the life cycle.

• The ‘Lifecycle Design Strategies Wheel’ visualizes the guidelines of Eco-Design.

• A ‘product profile’ is created using LCA.

Implications for the Design Process (1)

The Lifecycle Design Strategies Wheel



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• The relative complex LCA procedure and the creative slightly chaotic design process are not so easy to combine:


Problem

Idea

Decision



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Planning Idea generation Concept development Detailed design

Availability of information on the product

Freedom to change the design

Complexity of the Design Process



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Design phase Design activity LCA activityLCA information

generated

Product planning

Target is defined as product/market

combination

Assessment of strategy

Strategic choices

AnalysisRefinement of target

and definition of requirements

LCA of reference product

Design guidelines and eco-indicators

Idea generation

Creativity techniques are used to generate

new solutions

Use of design rules and eco-indicators

Pre-selection of ideas

ConceptBest ideas are selected and elaborated

Short screenings and what-if analysis

Support in concept choices

Detailed design

Best concept is detailed; prototype and

CAD drawings

Specific questions and issues

Support in detailed design choices

Application of LCA results in Design for Environment



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• Simulation of environmental impacts by LCA can provide important guidance during the design process: …In the creative phase as pre-defined guidelines and pre-

defined indicators …In the concept phase as screenings

…An LCA of a reference product should be ready before the creative phase in order to develop dedicated guidelines and indicators!

Possibilities for environmental improvement are large at the early/conceptual phase within the design process, when there is still freedom to change the design

!!



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Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (1)

• Eco-Design implies efficient resource use for production • Eco-Design implies lower use of toxic substances• Eco-Design implies efficient material and energy use

…which decreases…:

• natural resource extractions (materials and energy)• hazardous materials within discarded products• toxic emissions during incineration• solid waste quantities



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• Eco-Design improves Eco-efficiency:

Eco-efficiency =

Functional performance provided by product over life cycle

Environmental Impacts of product over life cycle

eco-efficiency resource-efficiency

reduction haz. substances

= +

applying Eco-efficiency results in Eco-products…



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Consequences for solid waste:• Reduction of natural resource extractions (materials and energy)• Reduction or elimination of hazardous materials within waste• Reduction of toxic emissions during incineration

Eco-products

Improved material and

energy content (quantity and

quality) in products

Reduced solid waste amount and

hazardousness composition



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Design for Environment (DfE): “the systematic consideration of design performance with respect to environmental, health, and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle” (Fiksel, 1996 in Wrisberg et al. 2002).

DfE…• focuses on existing products and processes that fulfil

a specific function (function-oriented systems)• expands the design scope towards environmental and

social implications of products and processes

Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design (1)

Des

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fo

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nvi

ron

men

t



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Sustainable Product Design: investigates possibilities for improvement on a broader scale.

Examples:• Alternative Function Fulfilment (changes the way in

which a specific function or need is fulfilled)• System innovation (redesigning of product production

systems, creating ‘closed-loop’ economies etc.)

Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design (2)

Su

stai

nab

le P

rod

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Des

ign



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5.3 Material Flow Analysis 5.3 Material Flow Analysis (MFA)(MFA)

Analysis of Material FlowsAnalysis of Material Flows

in a Regionin a Region

5.3 Material Flow Analysis5.3 Material Flow Analysis


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Contents

• Why MFA?• What is MFA?• Rationale of MFA: the Mass Balance Principle• Framework of MFA;

• System Definition• Quantification of Flows and Stocks• Interpretation

• Applications of MFA



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Why MFA? (1)

Because products do not pollute, but materials do…

Environment: resource base


Extractions of materials

Natural Resource Depletion


Environment: waste sinkWaste

Residuals (Pollution)

Waste Absorption



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Why MFA? (1)

…hence, material flows and stocks from the economy are crucial to the understanding of environmental problems

Material flows and accumulations

Quantity-aspect

Throughput

Quality-aspect

Hazard potentialThroughput Hazard potential



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Why MFA? (2)

… and eventually solutions are based on an analysis of environmental problems in material/physical terms (Van der Voet,

1996)



Extractions of materials

Natural Resource Depletion


Environment: waste sink

Pollution

Waste Absorption

Quantitatively: lower materials throughput

Qualitatively: less hazardous materials



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What is MFA? (1)

MFA is a tool for systematic research of flows and stocks of materials from ‘cradle to grave’ (LCA!) in a region:

MFA is useful for:

•Identification of sources of environmental pollution

•Identification of accumulations of hazardous substances

•Identification of potential control points, useful for environmental management



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What is MFA? (2)

• MFA describes the industrial ‘metabolism’ of a region: the transfer, storage and transformation of substances within an anthropogenic (=human controlled) system and the exchange of these substances with the environment (Brunner and Rechberger 2004).

• Examples: Sources, pathways and sinks for mercury in a watershed Nitrogen flows and stocks in the Malang area

• Sometimes MFA is applied on systems of smaller scale; for example the flows and stocks of heavy metals in a waste incineration plant



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Systematic analysis of regional material flows and stocks

• Systematic description of Flows and Stocks of materials in a region where activities in the anthroposhere are taking place

• There is an exchange of materials between and within anthropogenic (economic) and environmental subsystems

Systematic overview of material flows in a region

Economy-Environment Boundary

Processes within subsystem ‘water’

Processes within subsystem ‘earth’

Processes within subsystem ‘air’



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Rationale of MFA: The Mass Balance Principle (1)

• Mass balance: the law of conservation of mass• Mass output = Mass input + Mass accumulation

1

3

2

Xp-q: Material Flow from process ‘p’ to process ‘q’

• X0-1 = X1-2 + X1-3

• X1-2 = X2-0

• X1-3 = X3-0

• X0-1 = X2-0+ X3-0



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Advantages of applying Mass Balance Principle

1. Mass balances can be applied at different system levels:• Single processes• Complex combinations of processes at smaller and larger

scales: Household Country World

2. Valuable tool to calculate regional streams that are hardly measurable, like in waste residual outputs (Ayres 1989).

3. Efficient way to obtain accurate results even when some data are missing



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Framework of MFA (1)

Goal and system definition

Quantification of flows and stocks

Interpretation

Problem

1

2

3



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Goal definition = selection of substance or material to be investigated: single element (Substance Flow Analysis) or group of substances (Material Flow Analysis)

System definition = definition of system boundaries and relevant processes

a. Spatial boundary: Geographical or administrative boundary (e.g. watershed or country)

b. Temporal boundary: Flows per hour or month or year. Often 1 year because of data availabillity

c. Selection of relevant processes: Only processes that are significant to the substance(s) under investigation

1



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Quantification of stocks and flows: Calculate mass flows of goods that enter and leave

processes (measurements or applying mass balance) Calculate substance flows within these flows (multiplying

mass flows of goods with element concentrations) Calculate stocks: is there any type of accumulation

occuring?

Example of mass flow of goods and a substance (Cadmium) in a municipal waste incinerator

2



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• Interpretation of results:

What is the relative contribution of processes to certain flows?Where are hotspots and potential control points? Is there a possibility of problem shifting when certain flows will

be restricted?

3



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• MFA is a cyclical process: start with provisional data and rough estimations; refine and improve system until required data quality is achieved

Systematic overview of MFA procedures



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Applications of MFA: resource management

• Analysis and planning of resources• Identification of depletion and accumulation of

materials in society; forecasting of resource scarcities and ‘secondary’ sources (recycling, landfills)

Example: natural resources are transformed to ‘anthropogenic’ resources; stocks in landfills become important for future mining of substances



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Applications of MFA; resource management

• Resource study: Copper cycle in Asia

Copper cycle in Asia The units are Gg Cu/year; Lith=Lithosphere



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Applications of MFA; environmental management

• Identification of existence, size and fate of hazardous substances in a region

• Identification of hotspots and control points• Identification of problem shifts

Example (hypothetical): “A Material Flow Account of a harbour watershed shows a large flow of mercury in wastewater. Laboratories are relatively the largest contributors. In wastewater treatment plants, absorption and deposition to sludge are a major removal mechanism for mercury. When mercury flows in wastewater are restricted by means of imposing advanced treatment technology to wastewater treatment plants in the region, then mercury outflows to landfills are likely to increase.”

substance

source

problem shift



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Applications of MFA in soil management



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Applications of MFA; solid waste management

• MFA discerns between flows of ‘goods’ and ‘substances’ Important because substances cause environmental

problems, while flows of substances can only be controlled indirectly via flows of the goods that contain the substances.

“It is not the good leachate of a landfill that imposes danger to the groundwater. The danger resides in the cocktail of hazardous substances in the leachate of the landfill.” (Brunner

and Rechberger 2004)• MFA can identify appropriate recycling options

Elemental composition of materials determine whether a material is appropriate for recycling

• MFA identifies side-effects of recyclingAccumulation of heavy metals in soils when sewage sludge

is used as agricultural fertilizer


5.3 mass flow analysis

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