4.1. survey and documentation survey...
TRANSCRIPT
4.1. SURVEY AND DOCUMENTATION
Survey report
The present study conducted in seven northern districts of Kerala. The survey
revealed that, the local peoples are using several plants for curing skin diseases.
Medicinal plants and their uses reported by the informants in the studied area were
tabulated. In the present study information gathered from 62 informants. Among them
42 (38 male and 4 female individuals, aged between 28 and 82years) are the ‘key
informants’ who gave the information exclusively about the treatment of skin diseases.
The information gathered from tribal physicians and non-tribal physicians ( Plate.2 ).
The present survey indicates ethno medicinal information of 113 plant taxa
belonging to 45 families consisting of 103 genera. Few of the herbal healers considered
their herbal knowledge as traditional secrets and did not easily part with it. Intimate
contacts were established with them. The traditional healers were not pressurized to
reveal their knowledge and were convinced that the information would be exclusively
for academic purpose. The first hand information collected from them by repeated
visits included treatment for 16 different types of human skin infections viz. Anti –
inflammatory, Insect bite, Wound healing, Foot crack, Psoriasis, Impetigo, Athelets
foot disease, Tinea infection, Burns, Chickenpox, Ringworm, Boils, Sores, Dandruff,
Eczema, Leucoderma, and Scabies. Traditional practitioners usually prefer external and
internal applications or oral administration of the herbal preparation since the treatment
of various types of skin ailments depending on the type and severity of the infection.
The drug formulations are usually paste of the drug parts with water, coconut oil,
Calcium Hydroxide, Curd, Vinegar, Cow urine or the extraction of oil from the drug
parts; juice extract from fresh juicy parts. Application of exudates of raw materials like
latex; decoctions and infusions of drug parts with water; roasted and powdered raw
plant material; Ash of the burnt drug part are also recommended by the physicians. The
external application of the drug is used for all types of skin ailments. Most of the
traditional healers recommended oral administration of ayurvedic decoction to purify
the blood.
Treatments are done with either single plant formulation, combinations of
several plants or even with many parts of the same plant. Out of 113, 17 formulations
involved multiple drugs obtained from two or more different plant species. According
to the herbal healers, the combinations of different plant species increases the activity
of medicine and ‘ill effect’ of any plant (if any) will be ‘neutralized’ by the other.
Rapid cure and enhancement of immunity power in the patients is the aim of
combinations. Similar concept is reported in the Indian Traditional Systems of
medicine like Ayurveda and Siddha Some of the formulations involve non-plant
materials such as Calcium Hydroxide (lime water), Copper sulphate. In some other
cases the boiling process and storage of prepared drug is done in the copper vessel and
applied topically to treat eczema, skin allergies, scabies and all types of skin diseases.
Storage of water in bright copper vessels (Taamrapaatra) was practiced by ancient
Hindus due to its believed antiseptic qualities. Cow's milk is recommended for ulcers;
butter and butter milk in all types of sores; ghee in blisters, irritability of the skin.
The study reveals that among 113 plants recorded, most of the plants used for
the treatment are collected from wild (Table 4 .1).
Habit-wise analysis of the plants indicates that herbs are highly used followed
by trees, shrubs, and climbers (Plate.3 ). In most of the cases leaves are frequently used
plant part for the drug preparations (48%) (Plate. 3 ). Of all the drug preparations, paste
is the most preferred method followed by fresh juice extraction (Fig. 4 ).
From the study, 14 Fabaceae members are used for the skin disease (Plate.
5) in the selected study area followed by Lamiaceae (9 members) and Euphorbiaceae
(7 members ).
Table.4.1. Identfication of plants from the Informations collected from the Traditional healers.
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
1Beloperone plumbaginifolia L.
Shrub Vishapacha Acanthaceae Leaf Insect bite,BoilsGrind the leaf and used as poultice
2Hemigraphis colorata Hallier f. Herb
Murikootti Acanthaceae Leaf Wound healing Apply the fresh juice of leaf
3Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida
Herb Vayalchulli AcanthaceaeWhole plant
Anti-inflammatory,Eczema
Decoction of plant taken orally
4Justicia beddomei (Clarke) Bennet.
Herb Aadalodakam Acanthaceae LeafRing worm infection,
Wound healing
Application of leaf paste, along with tender leaf Bridelia scandes, whole plant of Centella aesiatica ,Leaves of Hygrophylla schulli.
5Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz.
Herb Odichukuthi Acanthaceae RootAthelets foot disease,Impetigo
Grind the root and made in to a past, mix with curd, then apply
6Achyranthes aspera L. Herb
Cherukadaladi AmaranthaceaeWhole plant
Wound healing, Boils Apply the fresh juice of plant
7Amaranthus spinosus L.
Herb Mullen cheera AmaranthaceaeWhole plant
Athelets foot diseasePut the parts of the plant in boiled water and insert the foot, kept for 2 hours
8Amaranthus viridis L.
Herb Kuppa cheera Amaranthaceae Leaf Ringworm infection Leaf paste taken orally
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
9Anacardium occidentale L.
Tree Kasu-mavu Anacardiaceae Seed oil Foot crack,CornThe oil from nut applied on the crack
10Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f.
Tree Cheru Anacardiaceae Fruit Foot crackThe endosperm from seed applied on the crack
11Centella asiatica (L.) Urban
HerbKudangal,
ErangaApiaceae
Whole plant
Boils,dandruff,Ring worm
apply the fresh juice
12Anethum graveolens L.
Herb Kattu sathakuppa Apiaceae Seeds Boils.Leucoderma apply the seed oil
13Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
Shrub Sarpagandhi ApocynaceaeLeaf, stem,
Rhizome
Boils,Impetigo, Psoriasis
Boiled stem and leaves made in to a paste and applied on affected area, decoction of rhizome taken orally
14Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb) R.Br.
Tree Danthappala Apocynaceae LeafPsoriasis, eczema,
Ringworm infectionLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area
15Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.
Shrub Veliparathy Apocynaceae Leaf Eczema,ImpetigoLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,
16Calotropis gigantea(L.) R. Br.
Shrub Erikku Apocynaceae Leaf Eczema,dandruffAqueous paste of leaf powder is applied externally on the lesions
17Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f.
Herb Naruneendi Apocynaceae Leaf Eczema Leaf paste used as poultice
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
18 Cocos nucifera L. Tree Thengu ArecaceaeEndocarp -tender coconut
Impetigo
coconut shell charcoal and boiled with coconut oil , apply in the affected area 2.Grind the endosperm and apply
19 Areca catechu L. Tree Kamuku Arecaceae Leaf juice Tinea infectionApply the leaf juice along with garlic paste and Resinous exudations from Caryota urens.
20Aristolochia indica L.
Climber Garudakkodi Aristolochiaceae LeafImpetigo,septic due to
allergies,Scabies
Leaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area 2.Apply the fresh juice of the plant
21Ageratum conyzoides L.
Shrub Appa Asteraceae Leaf Ringworm infection
leaf grind with coconut shell charcoal and boiled with coconut oil ,apply in the affected area
22Ayapana triplinervius Vahl.
Shrub Ayapana Asteraceae Leaf Wound healing Leaf paste used as poultice
23Eclipta prostrata(L.) L. Herb
Kayyunni AsteraceaeWhole plant
Dandruff,wound healing
apply the plant juice
24Elephantopus scaber L. Herb
Anachuvadi Asteraceae RootWounds,Ring worm
infectonRoot paste is applied externally on wounds
25Sphaeranthus indicus L. Herb
Adakkamaniyan Asteraceae Leaf,stemFor all types of skin
diseasesApplication of leaf paste and stem paste
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
26 Vernonia cinerea L. Herb Poovamkurunnila AsteraceaeWhole plant
Eczema,Ring worm infection
Grind the whole plant and made in to a paste and apply
27 Bixa orellana L. Tree Kuppamanjal Bixaceae Fruit Boils Apply the fruit juice
28Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson
Climber Eakanayakam Celastraceae Root PsoriasisGrind the root and made in to a paste and apply in affected area
29 Commelina erecta L.Herb
Thezhuthanam pullu
CommalinaceaeWhole plant
ScabiesApplication of leaf paste and stem paste
30Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Shrub
Pullanji Combretaceae Leaf Eczema,Wound healingDecoction of leaf effective for bathing
31Terminalia chebula Retz.
Tree Kadukka Combretaceae Fruit EczemaGrind the Fruit and made in to a decoction. Apply in affected area.
32Luffa acutangula (L.)Roxb.
climber Peechinga Cucurbitaceae Fruit All skin diseasesRub the fruit juice in affected area
33Shorea roxburghii G.Don
Tree Salavriksham Dipterocarpaceae
Resinous exudation from the
bark
ScabiesDissolve the exudation in vinegar
34 Acalypha indica L. Herb Kuppameni Euphorbiaceae Leaf ScabiesGrind the leaf with curcuma rhizome and apply
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
35Bischofia javanica Blume. Tree
Thomathari Euphorbiaceae Leaf Boils,Eczema,UlcersLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area
36Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume. Shrub
Kanjikottam EuphorbiaceaeTender leaves
Scabies, Eczema Application of leaf paste
37Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.)Voigt
Shrub Pooli Euphorbiaceae Leaf Ringworm infection
Grind the leaf along with Curcuma longa rhizome. Then apply in the affected area.2.grind the leaf and tender shoot and made in to a paste and apply
38 Jetropha multifida L. Shrub Aramedakam Euphorbiaceae Leaf Boils, scabiesLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in the affected area.
39Tragia involucrata L.
Herb Kodithoova EuphorbiaceaeWhole plant
DandruffApply the fresh juice of the plant in head.
40Phyllanthus emblica L.
Herb Nelli EuphorbiaceaeWhole plant
DandruffApply the fresh juice of the plant in head.
41Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth.
Tree Vaka FabaceaeBark
powderFor skin diseases Used for bathing
42Butea monosperma (Lam.)Taub
Tree Plasu Fabaceae BarkFor alltypes of skin
diseases
Burn the bark without charring and apply the ash in affected area.
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
43 Cassia fistula L. Tree Kanikonna FabaceaeLeaf, bark,
Eczema,Ringworm infection
Boil the leaf and bark in water and wash the affected area
44Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. Herb
Karkokilari Fabaceae Seeds Leucoderma Grind the seeds in Cow urine
45Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.
Climber Thodenvalli Fabaceae LeafScabies,Anti-
inflammatory,ImpetigoLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area
46Desmodium motorium (Houtt.)Merr.,
Herb Thozhukanni Fabaceae Leaf Wound healing Apply the leaf paste
47Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC
Herb Nilampulladi FabaceaeWhole plant
ScabiesLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,
48Erythrina stricta Roxb.
Tree Murikku Fabaceae Leaf EczemaGrind the leaf and used as poultice
49Indigofera tinctoria L.
Shrub Neela amari Fabaceae Leaf DandruffLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,
50 Mimosa pudica L. Herb Thottavadi FabaceaeWhole plant
Eczema, Cracks on footLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,
51Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Tree Ungu FabaceaeBark,seed
sPsoriasis, Eczema,
Ringworm infection
Decoction of bark effective for bathing 2.bark boiled with coconut oil and apply
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
52Senna alata(L.)Roxb.
Shrub Anathavara Fabaceae Leaf Boils,Scabies Apply the leaf paste
53 Senna tora L. Herb Thakara Fabaceae Leaf Athelets foot diseaseBoil the leaf in water and wash the affected area
54Tamarindus indicus L.
Tree Puli Fabaceae Leaflets Scabies
Prepare thaila from the leaf juice along with fruits of Phyllanthes emblica and Terminalia chebula.
55Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Ktze.
Herb Thricheda Lamiaceae Leaf ImpetigoBoil the leaf in water and wash the affected area
56Callicarpa tomentosa (L) Murr.
Tree Cheruthekku Lamiaceae LeafScabies,Ringworm
infectionApply the tender Leaf juice
57Clerodendrum infortunatum L.
Shrub Peringalam Lamiaceae LeafScabies ,Other Skin
diseasesLeaf paste used as poultice
58Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link
Herb Thumba LamiaceaeWhole plant
Wound healing Apply the fresh juice
59Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
Herb Thulasi Lamiaceae Leaf Insect bite,BoilsGrind the plant along with curcuma rhizome
60Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) SPRENG.
Herb Panikoorkka Lamiaceae Leaf Wound healing Rub the leaf in the wounds.
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
61
Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. var.tomentosus(Benth ex Emey.)Codd
Herb Iruveli Lamiaceae LeafWound
healing,Ringworm infection
Rub the leaf in the wounds.
62Premna serratifolia L.
Shrub Munja Lamiaceae Leaf Wound healing
Boil the leaf in water and wash the affected area 2.Leaf paste mix with paste of Terminalia chebula L.
63 Vitex negundo L. Shrub Karinochi Lamiaceae LeafBoils,Anti-
inflammatory,Wound heling
Leaf paste used as poultice
64Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.
Herb Kattarvazha Liliacea Leaf Paronychia,Burns Leaf paste used as poultice
65 Allium cepa L. Herb Chuvannulli Liliacea Bulb PsoriasisMake thaila with onion and apply
66Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth exRoem.&Schult.
Herb Eeyachembu Lobeliaceae Root WoundsThe root paste is applied externally to cureold wound
67Lawsonia inermis Lam.
Shrub Mayilanji Lythraceae Leaf Athelets foot disease Leaf paste used as poultice
68 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Tree Chadachi Malvaceae Leaf Dandruff Apply the fresh juice of leaf
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
69Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
Shrub Chembarathi MalvaceaeLeaf and Flower
Eczema,dandruffLeaf juice and flower boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area,
70Pavonia odorata Willd.
Herb Eruveli Malvaceae Root Athelets foot disease
Grind the root along with curcuma longa rhizome, Mimosa pudica leaves .Then apply in the affected area
71Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. Tree
Poovarasu Malvaceae Leaf Scabies,ImpetigoDecoction of leaf effective for bathing
72Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn
Tree Veppu Meliaceae LeafBoils,Rashes due to
chicken pox,Ringworm infecton
Decoction of leaf effective for bathing
73Naragamia alata Wight & Arn
Herb Nilanarakam MeliaceaeWhole plant
Insect biteGrind the plant along with curcuma rhizome
74Cyclea peltata(Lam.) Hook.f &Thoms.
Climber Padathali MenispermaceaeWhole plant
Eczema Application of leaf paste
75Tinospora cordifolia (willd.)Miers
Climber Chittamruthu Menispermaceae Leaf Boils,scabies1.Leaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in affected area, 2.application of leaf paste
76Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn
Tree Muringa Moringaceae Stem bark Against inflamationsGrind the stem bark along with curcuma rhizome and apply in affected area
77 Ficus racemosa L. Tree Athi Moraceae Fruit Leucoderma
Crush the dried fruit and dissolve one teaspoon in 20 ml. Water and kept it in 6 hrs. And then apply in affected area
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
78 Ficus benghalensis L. Tree Peral MoraceaeLeaf and
BarkEczema, All skin
diseases
The four plant together known as Nalpamara.The decoction used for bathing
79 Ficus microcarpa F. Tree Ithy MoraceaeLeaf and
Bark
80 Ficus religiosa L.Tree
Arayal MoraceaeLeaf and
Bark
81Myristica fragrans Houttt.
Tree Jathikka MyristicaceaeTender
leafImpetigo Apply the leaf paste
82Jasminum grandiflorum L. Climber
Pichakam Oleaceae Leaf Ringworm infection Application of leaf paste
83Biophytum sensitivum (L.)DC. Herb
Mukkutti OxalidaeWhole plant
Wound healing Apply the fresh juice
84Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.
Herb Kadukurohini Plantaginaceae Seed ScabiesGrind the seeds and apply in the affected portion.
85 Piper betle L. Climber Vettila Piperaceae Leaf Dandruff Apply the fresh juice of leaf
86 Piper nigrum L. Climber Kodi Piperaceae Leaf PsoriasisDecoction of leaf effective for bathing
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
87Cynadon dactylon (L.)Pers,
Herb Karuka PoaceaeWhole plant
EczemaApplication of leaf paste along with paste of rhizome of Curcuma longa
88Polygonum plebeium R. Br.
Herb Chorakam Polygonaceae Leaf All skin diseasesThe decoction of leaves used for effective bathing.
89 Ixora coccinea L. Shrub Thechi Rubiaceae Flower Eczema Grind the flower and apply
90Oldenlandia umbellata L.
Herb Parpidakapullu RubiaceaeWhole plant
Leucoderma,Impetigo Leaf paste used as poultice
91 Rubia cordifolia L. Climber Manjishta Rubiaceae Leaf Ringworm infection Application of leaf paste
92Spermacoce latifolia Aubl.
Herb RubiaceaeWhole plant
Impetigo Leaf paste used as poultice
93Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.
Shrub Panal Rutaceae Root PsoriasisApply the root paste in affected area
94Citrus limon (L.)Burn.f.
Tree Narakam Rutaceae Fruit Tinea infectionFruit juice mix with sodium borate'
95Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
Climber Thuduthuduppa Rutaceae Leaf For all skin diseases
Leaf juice boiled with coconut oil along with Hibiscus -rosa sinensis leaf and apply in affected area,
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
96Ventilago madraspatana Gaerh.,Fruct
Climber Vembata Rhamnaceae BarkScabies, Tinea
infectionApply the fresh juice of bark
97Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.
ClimberThudali Rhamnaceae Leaf Impetigo
Grind the leaf along with the bark and leaf of Phyllanthus emblica. Then apply in the affected area.
98Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.)Willd.
Shrub Kotta Rhamnaceae Leaf Eczema
Grind the leaf along with Phyllanthus emlica leaf and bark made in to a paste and apply in the affected part
99 Santalam album L. Tree Chandanam Santalaceae Wood For fairness Grind the stem and apply
100Bacopa monnieri (L) Pennell
Herb Brahmi ScrophulariceaeWhole plant
EczemaGrind the Whole plant and apply in the paste form
101 Scoparia dulsis L. Herb Kallurukki Scrophulariceae RootItching and
inflammation3 gm. Root gring and taken orally
102 Physalis angulata L. Herb Njottanjodian SolanaceaeWhole plant
PsoriasisLeaf juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in the affected area.
103Datura stramonium L.
Shrub Ummam Solanaceae Leaf,fruit DandruffLeaf juice and fruit juice boiled with coconut oil and apply in the affected area.
104 Smilax china L. Climber Cheenapavu Solanaceae Rhizome Wound healingGrind the rhizome and apply in the paste form
No. SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITVERNACULAR
NAMEFAMILY
PARTS USED
PURPOSE MODE OF USE
105
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour)Moore ssp.laurina(Retz.)Nooteb.
Tree Pachotti Symplocaceae Stem barkFor fairness,
Discolouration
The bark is made in to a paste and mix with sandal paste and turmeric powder .
106Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch
Tree Aavil UlmaceaeTender
leafEczema ,impetigo
Grind the young leaves and add ghee ,and apply
107Dendrocnide sinuate (Blume) Chew
Shrub Anavanangi Urticaceae Leaf DandruffLeaf juice mixed with Santalam album L. wood paste boiled with coconut oil and apply.
108Cissus quadrangularis L.
Climber Chengalamparanda VitaceaeLeaf and
stemRingworm infection Grind the useful part and apply
109 Curcuma longa L. Herb Manjal Zingiberaceae Rhizome Ringworm infectionGrind the rhizome with root paste of Mangifera indica L. and apply
110Kaempferia galangal L.
Herb Kacholam Zingiberaceae Rhizome Leucoderma,CornsGrind the rhizome and mix with calcium hydroxide and apply
111Zingiber zerumbet (L) J.E Smith
Herb Malayingi Zingiberaceae Rhizome LeucodermaGrind the rhizome and add one teaspoon honey and then apply
112 Marsilea minuta Herb Cheriye ela Marsileaceae Leaf Wound healing Apply the leaf paste
113Lygodium flexuosumL.
Herb Poli Schizaceae Leaf Anti-inflamatory Apply the leaf paste
4.2. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DATA
The collected data are represented systematically in the tabular form. The
information such as botanical name, family, part used, and use value are provided for
each species (Table2). Informants consensus factor (Table. 4.3), fidelity level
(Tables.4.4 ), Correlation between fidelity level and citation of the plants are tabulated
in (Table 4.5) separately.
4.2.1. Use Value
Use value’ is the positive correlation between the importance value of a plant
(measured by the number of informants for a particular plant) and the number of uses
cited by the informants. The use value (UV), a quantitative method that demonstrates
the relative importance of a species known locally. It was calculated according to the
following formula:
UV=ΣUi/n
Where ‘Ui’ is the number of uses to treat the different types of skin diseases
mentioned by each informant for a given species; ‘n’ is the total number of informants.
Table.4.2.Use Value of Plants used in the treatment of Skin diseases.
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
1Beloperone plumbaginifolia L.
Acanthaceae L 2 4 0.5Insect bite,
Boils
2Hemigraphis colorata Hallier f.
Acanthaceae L 1 5 0.2 Wound healing
3
Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida
Acanthaceae W 2 4 0.5Anti-
inflammatory, Eczema
4Justicia beddomei (Clarke) Bennet.
Acanthaceae L 2 3 0.67Wound
healing, Ring worm infection
5Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz
Acanthaceae R 2 4 0.5Athelets foot
disease , Impetigo
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
6Achyranthes aspera L.
Amaranthaceae W 2 3 0.67Wound
healing,Boils
7Amaranthus spinosus L.
Amaranthaceae W 1 2 0.5Athelets foot
disease
8Amaranthus viridis L.
Amaranthaceae L 1 2 0.5Ringworm infection
9Anacardium occidentale L.
Anacardiaceae S 2 4 0.5Foot
crack,Corn
10Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f.,
Anacardiaceae F 1 2 0.5 Foot crack
11Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.,
Apiaceae W 3 5 0.6
Boils, Dandruff, Ringworm infection
12Anethum graveolens L.,
Apiaceae S 2 3 0.67Boils,
Leucoderma
13Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
ApocynaceaeL ,S,
R3 4 0.75
Boils, Psoriasis, Impetigo
14Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb) R.Br.
Apocynaceae L 3 10 0.3
Psoriasis, eczema,
Ringworm infection
15 Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae E 1 2 0.5 Impetigo
16 Areca catechu L. Arecaceae L 1 2 0.5 Tinea infection
17Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.
Apocynaceae L 2 3 0.67Eczema, Impetigo
18Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f
Apocynaceae L 2 5 0.4Eczema, Dandruff
19Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.
Apocynaceae L 2 4 0.5 Eczema,Boils
20Aristolochia indica L.
Aristolochaceae L 3 2 1.5
Impetigo, Septic due to
allergies, Scabies,
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
21Ageratum conyzoides L.
Asteraceae L 1 2 0.5Ringworm infection
22Ayapana triplinervius Vahl.
Asteraceae L 1 5 0.2 Wound healing
23Eclipta prostrata(L.)L.
Asteraceae W 2 5 0.4Dandruff,
Wound healing
24Elephantopus scaber L.
Asteraceae R 2 6 0.33Wounds,
Ringworm infection
25Sphaeranthus indicus L.
Asteraceae L,S 1 5 0.2For all types
of skin diseases
26Vernonia cinerea L.
Asteraceae W 2 3 0.67Eczema, Ring
worm infection
27 Bixa orellana L. Bixaceae F 1 2 0.5 Boils
28Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson
Celastraceae R 1 2 0.5 Psoriasis
29Commelina erecta L.
Commalinaceae W 1 3 0.33 Scabies
30Calycopteris floribunda Lam.
Combretaceae L 2 5 0.4Eczema,Woun
d healing
31Terminalia chebula Retz.
Combretaceae F 1 2 0.5 Eczema
32Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.
Cucurbitaceae F 1 3 0.33All skin diseases
33Shorea roxburghii G.Don
Dipterocarpa-ceae
B 1 2 0.5 Scabies
34 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae L 1 2 0.5 Scabies
35Bischofia javanica Blume.
Euphorbiaceae TL 3 3 1Boils,Eczema,
Ulcers
36Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume.
Euphorbiaceae TL 2 8 0.25Scabies, Eczema
37Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt.
Euphorbiaceae L 1 2 0.5Ringworm infection
38Jetropha multifida L.
Euphorbiaceae L 2 6 0.33 Boils, Impetigo
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
39Tragia involucrata L.
Euphorbiaceae W 1 5 0.2 Dandruff
40Phyllanthus emblica L.
Euphorbiaceae W 1 4 0.25 Dandruff
41Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth.
Fabaceae B 1 2 0.5For skin diseases
42 Butea monosperma (Lam.)Taub
Fabaceae B 1 9 0.11For alltypes of skin diseases
43 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae L,B 2 8 0.25Eczema,Ring
worm infection,
44Cullen corylifolium (L.)Medik.,
Fabaceae S 1 3 0.33 Leucoderma
45Derris scandens (Roxb.)Benth.
Fabaceae L 3 2 1.5Impetigo,Anti-inflammatory,S
cabies
46Desmodium motorium(Houtt.) Merr.
Fabaceae L 1 3 0.33 Wound healing
47Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC
Fabaceae W 1 3 0.33 Scabies
48Erythrina stricta Roxb.
Fabaceae L 1 5 0.2 Eczema
49Indigofera tinctoria L.
Fabaceae L 1 3 0.33 Dandruff
50 Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae W 2 5 0.4Eczema,
Cracks on foot
51Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Fabaceae B,S 3 6 0.5
Psoriasis, Eczema,
Ringworm infection
52 Senna alata Fabaceae B 1 10 0.2 Boils ,Scabies
53 Senna tora L. Fabaceae L 1 6 0.17Athelets foot
disease
54Tamarindus indicus L.
Fabaceae L 1 3 0.33 Scabies
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
55Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Ktze.
Lamiaceae L 1 3 0.33 Impetigo
56Callicarpa tomentosa (L) Murr
Lamiaceae L 2 6 0.33Ringworm infection, Scabies
57Clerodendrum infortunatum L.
Lamiaceae L 2 3 0.67Scabies, and other Skin diseases
58Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link
Lamiaceae W 1 2 0.5 Wound healing
59Plectranthus Amboinicus (Lour.) SPRENG.
Lamiaceae L 1 3 0.33 Wound healing
60
Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. var. tomentosus (Benth. ex. Emey.) Codd
Lamiaceae L 2 4 0.5
Wound healing,
Ringworm infection
61Premna serratifolia L.
Lamiaceae L 1 2 0.5 Wounds
62Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
Lamiaceae L 2 4 0.5Insect
bite,Boils
63 Vitex negundo L. Lamiaceae L 3 3 1Wound healing
, Boils, Antiinflamatory
64Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.
Liliacea L 2 10 0.2Paronychia,
Burns
65 Allium cepa L. Liliacea Bb 1 6 0.17 Psoriasis
66
Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Roem.&Schult.
Lobeliaceae R 1 3 0.33 Wounds
67Lawsonia inermis Lam.
Lythraceae L 1 8 0.13Athelets foot
disease
68Grewia tiliifolia Vahl.
Malvaceae L 1 1 1 Dandruff
69Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
Malvaceae L,F 2 9 0.22Eczema,dandruff
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
70Pavonia odorata Willd.
Malvaceae R 1 2 0.5Athelets foot
disease
71Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland
Malvaceae L 2 3 0.67Scabies,impeti
go
72Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn
Meliaceae L 3 9 0.33
Boils, Rashes during chicken
pox, Ringworm infection
73Naragamia alata Wight & Arn
Meliaceae W 1 2 0.5 Insect bite
74Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f &Thoms.
Menisperma-ceae
W 1 3 0.33 Eczema
75
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. F. & Thoms
Menisperma-ceae
L 2 6 0.33 Boils,scabies
76Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn.
Moringaceae B 1 10 0.1Against
inflamations
77Ficus racemosa L.
Moraceae F 1 2 0.5 Leucoderma
78Ficus benghalesis L.
Moraceae L,B
1 9 0.11All skin diseases79
Ficus microcarpa L.
Moraceae L,B
80 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae L,B
81Myristica fragrans Houttt.
MyristicaceaeTL,A
4 3 1.33
Scabies,Impetigo,Anti-
inflammatory,Eczema
82Jasminum grandiflorum L.
Oleaceae L 1 6 0.17Ringworm infection
83Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC.
Oxalidae W 1 5 0.2 Wound healing
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
84 Piper betle L. Piperaceae L 1 3 0.33 Dandruff
85 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae L 1 2 0.5 Psoriasis
86Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth
Plantaginaceae S 1 2 0.5 Scabies
87Cynadon dactylon (L.)Pers
Poaceae W 1 4 0.25 Eczema
88Polygonum plebeium3R. Br.,
Polygonaceae L 1 3 0.33All skin diseases
89 Ixora cocinea L., Rubiaceae F 1 8 0.13 Eczema
90Oldenlandia umbellata L.
Rubiaceae W 2 4 0.5Leucoderma,I
mpetigo
91Rubia cordifolia L.
Rubiaceae L 1 8 0.13Ringworm infection
92Spermacoce latifolia Aubl.
Rubiaceae W 1 3 0.33 Impetigo
93Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.)DC.
Rutaceae R 1 3 0.33 Psoriasis
94Citrus limon (L.)Burn.f.
Rutaceae F 1 4 0.25Tinea
infection
95Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
Rutaceae L 1 2 0.5For all skin
diseases
96Ventilago madraspatana Gaerh.,Fruct
Rhamnaceae B 2 3 0.67Tinea
infection,Scabies
97Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.
Rhamnaceae L 1 2 0.5 Impetigo
98Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.)Willd.
Rhamnaceae L 1 3 0.33 Eczema
99 Santalam album L. Santalaceae W 1 8 0.13For fairness
Species FamilyParts used
Ui n UVRecommended use from this
study
100Bacopa monnieri (L)Pennell
Scrophularia-ceae
W 1 3 0.33 Eczema
101 Scoparia dulsis L. Scorphulariceae R 2 4 0.5Itching and
inflammation
102Physalis angulata L.
Solanaceae W 1 2 0.5 Psoriasis
103Datura stramonium L.
Solanaceae L,F 1 8 0.13 Dandruff
104 Smilax china L. Solanaceae R 1 4 0.25 Wound healing
105Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour)Moore
Symplocaceae B 1 2 0.5 For fairness,
106Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch
Ulmaceae TL 2 3 0.67Eczema,Impetigo
107Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew
Urticaceae L 1 2 0.5 Dandruff
108Cissus quadrangularis L.
Vitaceae L,S 1 4 0.25Ringworm infection
109 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Rh 1 8 0.13Ringworm infection
110Kaempferia galangal L.
Zingiberaceae Rh 2 4 0.5Leucoderma,
Corns
111Zingiber zerumbet (L) J.E Smith
Zingiberaceae Rh 1 3 0.33 Leucoderma,
112 Marsilea minuta Marsileaceae L 1 2 0.5 Wound healing
113Lygodium flexuosum L.
Lygodiaceae L 1 3 0.33Anti-
inflammatory
Ui- Total number of uses mentioned by the informants for a given species , n-
total number of informants for a given species, W-Whole plant , R-Root, L-Leaves, Tl
-Tender leaves, S-Stem, B-Bark, Fl-Flower, Fr-Fruit, Rh-Rhizome, La-Latex, T-Tree
UV is calculated for all the species and the single use by the single informant is
not considered for the analysis. Higher use value (UV) indicates the importance of that
particular plant in the study area. In this study, the Use Value obtained above 0.5 were
considered as more useful for the skin diseases than the other plants. As indicated in
Table-2, The plant species, Derris scandens, Aristolochia indica scored a high UV
(1.50each), followed by Myristica fragrance (1.33each), then Vitex negundo and
Bischofia javanica (1 each ) respectively. Plant with high UV is the indication of its
importance in the herbal medicine practice. Out of 113 species, 55 species were showed
more Use value. (0.5 and above). These selected 55 plants (Plate 7-12 ) are listed
below in the showin the ethano pharmacological importance of that species (Table 4.3).
4.2.2.1.Pharmacological Importance of plants having high Use Value
Ethanopharmacological importance of all documented plants are listed in
Table.4.3.
Table.4.3.Table showing the ethanopharmacological importance of plants having high Use Value
Sl.No.
Plant NamesAnti-
microbial activity
Anti-oxidant activity
Anti-inflammatory
activity
Anti-cancerous activity
Anti-allergicactivity
Referances
1 Beloperone plumbaginifolia L. √ √ √ Rajasekharn(2012)
2Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida,
√ √ √Vijaya Chauhan Lobo (2010) , Dayanand (2012)
3Justicia beddomei (Clarke) Bennet,
√ √ √ √ George (1947)
4Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz, J.
√ √ √ √ Suman Bukke (2011)
5 Achyranthes aspera L., √ √ √ √ √ Datir et al. (2009) , Saba Hasan (2014)
6 Amaranthus spinosus L., √ √ Rajendra Kawade et al. (2010)
7 Amaranthus viridis L. √ √ √ √Samuel Joshua et al., (2010) Sravan Prasad Macharla (2011),Muhammad et al.,(2010)
8 Anacardium occidentale L., √ √ Vijayakumar Arul doss (2011)
9 Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f., Aseer Manilal (2014)
10Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.,
√ √ √ √ Kashmira J. Gohil et al.,( 2010)
11 Anethum graveolens L., √ √ Ali Esmail Al-Snafi (2014)
12Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
√ √ √ √Okwu(2004), Stary( 1998), Salah (1995), Del-Rio (1997).
Sl.No.
Plant NamesAnti-
microbial activity
Anti-oxidant activity
Anti-inflammatory
activity
Anti-cancerous activity
Anti-allergicactivity
Referances
13 Cocos nucifera L. √ √Chadeganipour , Haims (2001), Ikhide et al., (2013)
14 Areca catechu L. √ √ √Azzez et al (2007), Amol . Bhandare(2010)
15Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.
√ √ √ Bhaskar and Balakrishnan (2009)
16Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f.
√ √ √Mohamed Farook (2011), Amirghofran et al., (2000), Ravishankara et al.,(2004) Mary et al .,(1987)
17 Ageratum conyzoides L., √ √Durodola, 1977,Jagetia et al., 2003 ,Ming, (1999).
18 Vernonia cinerea (L.)Less √ √ √ Dipali Shelar et al., (2014)
19 Aristolochia indica L. √ √ √ √ Prachi et al., ,(2007),
21 Bixa orellana L. √ √ √ Akshatha Venugopalan
22 Terminalia chebula Retz. √ √ √ Prakash chandra gupta (2012)
23 Shorea roxburghii G.Don √ Tanaka et al., (2000)
24 Acalypha indica L., √ √ √ Jagatheeswari et al.,(2013)
25 Bischofia javanica Blume, √ √ √ √ √
Lingadurai Sutharson e tal,2009), Dunstan Christina Andersson et al, (1997)Von Reis (1982)
26Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt,
√ √Yerima(2009)Tabuti (2007)
Sl.No.
Plant NamesAnti-
microbial activity
Anti-oxidant activity
Anti-inflammatory
activity
Anti-cancerous activity
Anti-allergicactivity
Referances
27 Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth. √ √ √ √ Karuppannan kokila et al., (2013)
28 Derris scandens (Roxb.)Benth √ √ √Komal Kumar et al., (2012), Ganapathy (2006)
29 Pongamia pinnata (L.)Pierre √ √ √ Arote(2010)
30Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson
√ √Srinivasan et al., (2009), Padmaa et al.,2008)
31 Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link √ √ √ √ Prajapati et al., (2010)
32 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. √ √ √ √ Prakash and Neelu Gupta(2005)
33Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.)Schweinf.ex, spreng. var.tomentosus
√ √ √Muthukumarana, R et al., (2014), Ramzi et al., (2010)
34 Pavonia odorata Willd., √ √ Seems Nakhare and Garg (1992)
35Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland.
√ √ Archana Moon et al., (2010)
36 Naragamia alata Wight & Arn. √ √ Jacob Sonu (2012)
37 Myristica fragrans Houttt. √ √ √Mardiaty iryani binti Abdullah(2009),Akinboro et al.,(2010)
38 Ficus auriculata L. √ Mohamed Z. M. Salem et al.,( 2013)
39 Piper nigram L. √ √ √Pradhan et al.,(1999), Sreenivasan(2007)
40 Oldenlantia umbellata L. √ √ Sethuramani(2014)
41 Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam., √ √Fawzia Bibi Narod et al (2004),Iwasaki et al.,( 2010),
Sl.No.
Plant NamesAnti-
microbial activity
Anti-oxidant activity
Anti-inflammatory
activity
Anti-cancerous activity
Anti-allergicactivity
Referances
42Ventilago madraspatana Gaerh.,Fruct
√ √ √ √ Subhalakshmi Basu (2005)
43 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. √ Shoeb et al (2005)
44 Physalis angulata L. √ √ √ √Bastos et a,l. 2008.201 Mahalekshmi et al., (2014)
45Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth
√ √Siddhendu Bhattacharjee et al .,(2013),Mohammed Usman(2012)
4 Scoparia dulsis L. √ √ √ Krishna Murti et al., (2012)
47Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour)
√Khan et al., (2001) ChristudasSunil,(2012)
48 Grewia tilifolia Vahl √ Sheela Rani (2011)
49 Dendrocnide sinuate (Blume) √ √ √ Tanti et al.,(2010)
50Holoptelia integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch
√ √ √ √ √ Jyoti Sharma and Virendra Singh(2012)
51Clerodendrum infortunatum L.
√ √ √ √ Bhaskar das et al. (2014)
52 Premna serratifolia L.
53 Vitex negundo L. √ √ √ √Telang, (1999), Vishal and Gupta, (2005), Soriful et al ., (2013)
54 Kaempferia galangaL. √ √ √
55 Marsilea sp. √ √ √ John de britto et al., (2013)
4.2.2. The informant consensus factor (ICF)
The informant consensus factor (ICF) was used to identify the
ethnopharmacological importance of the collected plant species. ICF values will
be low (near 0), if plants are chosen randomly or if informants do not exchange
information about their use. A low value indicates that the informants disagree on
the taxa to be used in the treatment within a category of illness. Values will be
high (near or more than1), if there is a well defined selection criterion in the
community and/or if information is exchanged between informants or high value
(close to 1.0) indicates that relatively few taxa are used by a large proportion of
the informants. The ICF is calculated by the following formula..
ICF=Nur-Nt/Nur-1.
Where ‘Nur’ is the Number of use citations in each category ofskin disease and
‘Nt’ is the number of species used.
The plants having ICF value more than 1 is selected for the detailed
study .The treatment for different types of skin diseases by the herbal healers are
classified in to 16 categories and the ICF values for each category are given
(Table .4). ICF values obtained for the reported categories indicated the degree of
shared knowledge for the treatment of each category of ailment. The highest ICF
scored for Impetigo (ICF=0.58). 14 plants are used to treat this ailment and were
cited by the 32 practitioners. Most of the practitioners quoted leaves of
Aristolochia indica, Derris scandens, and Myristica fragransto treat the disease.
Boils scored the second highest value of ICF (0.36). It is a very common type of
skin infection in the study area. 13 plants with 20 citations are recorded to treat
the ailment .Leaves of Vitex negundo, Bischofia javanica and Centella asiatica
are extensively used to treat the infection. Psoriasis recorded the third highest
value (ICF=0.25). 7 plants with 9 citations are recorded to treat the ailment,
followed by Eczema recorded with ICF 0.2. Comparatively low scores are for
insect bite, Foot crack, Athelets foot disease, Tinea infection, Leucoderma,
Ringworm infection, wound healing, anti-inflammatory activity, Rashes of
Chicken pox, Scabies, Burns. They scored ‘zero’ or less than zero as the
informants did not share their knowledge to treat these ailments. ICF value is a
proportion between the uses of different plants by various herbal healers for a
particular disease category suggesting the level of sharing the knowledge about
the use of medicinal plants amongst the healers. High ICF value indicates the use
of same plants by many healers. Whereas negative value means use of different
plants by many healers and ICF value would be ‘zero’ when different plants are
employed by few herbal healers.
Table- 4.4.: Informants consensus factor for different skin diseases
Sl.No.
CategoryUse
citation(Nur)
Number of Plant
taxa used (Nt)
Nur-Nt Nur-1 ICF
1 Anti-inflammatory 5 6 -1 4 -0.25
2 Insect bite 3 3 0 2 0
3 Boils 20 13 7 19 0.36
4Ring worm infection
10 15 -5 9 -0.55
5 Wound healing 13 16 -3 12 -0.25
6 Foot crack 3 3 0 2 0
7 Dandruff 8 10 -2 7 -0.28
8 Leucoderma 5 6 -1 4 -0.25
9 Psoriasis 9 7 2 8 0.25
10 Impetigo 32 14 18 31 0.58
11 Eczema 26 21 5 25 0.2
12Athelets foot disease
5 5 0 4 0
13 Scabies 14 17 -3 13 -0.23
14 Tinea infection 4 4 0 3 0
15 Burns 2 2 0 1 0
16Rashes of Chickenpox
2 3 -1 1 -1
4.2.3.Fidelitylevel (FL)
The fidelity level is useful for identifying the inhabitants ‘most preferred,
species in use for treating certain ailments. FL values vary from 1.0% to 100%.
Generally, a FL of 100% for a specific plant indicates that all of the use-reports
mentioned the same method for using the plant for treatment. The fidelity level
(FL), the percentage of informants claiming the use of a certain plants for the
same major purpose, was calculated according to the following formula.
FL (%)=Np÷N×100
‘Np’ is the number of informants who independently suggested the use of
a plant species for a particular skin disease (Usemention); ‘N’ is the total number
of informants who mentioned the same plant for any skin diseases
Table 4.5.: Fidelity level of the plants used for treating diseases higher ICF value
Sl.No.
Plant NamesDisease with highest ICF
valueNp N Np/N FL%
1Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida,
Eczema 1 2 0.5 50
2 Achyranthes aspera L. Boils 2 3 0.66 66
3Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.
Boils 3 3 1 100
4 Anethum graveolens L. Boils 1 2 0.5 50
5Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
Psoriasis 4 4 1 100
6Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
Impetigo 1 2 0.5 50
7 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. Psoriasis, 5 5 1 100
8 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. Eczema, 2 2 1 100
9 Cocos nucifera L. Impetigo 1 2 0.5 50
10Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.
Eczema 3 3 1 100
11Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f
Eczema 2 2 1 100
Sl.No.
Plant NamesDisease with highest ICF
valueNp N Np/N FL%
12Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f.
Boils 2 3 0.66 66
13 Vernonia cinerea L. Eczema 1 2 0.5 50
14 Aristolochia indica L. Impetigo 5 5 1 100
15 Bixa orellana L. Boils 1 1 1 100
16 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Eczema 3 3 1 100
17 Terminalia chebula Retz. Eczema 3 4 0.75 75
18 Bischofia javanica Blume. Boils 6 6 1 100
19 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume. Eczema 5 5 1 100
20 Jetropha multifida L. Boils 3 3 1 100
21 Cassia alata L. Boils 2 2 1 100
22 Cassia fistula L. Eczema 3 4 0.75 75
23 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth Impetigo 5 5 1 100
24 Erythrina variegate L. Eczema 4 4 1 100
25 Mimosa pudica L. Eczema 2 3 0.66 66
26 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Psoriasis 4 4 1 100
27 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Eczema 1 2 0.5 50
28Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson
Psoriasis 2 2 1 100
29 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Boils 2 3 0.67 67
30 Allium cepa L. Psoriasis 4 4 1 100
31 Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. Eczema 2 2 1 100
32Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland.
impetigo 2 3 0.67 6
33Cyclea peltata(Lam.)Hook.f &Thoms.
Eczema 3 4 0.75 75
34Tinospora cordifolia (willd.)Miers
Boils 1 2 0.5 50
35Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn.
Boils 3 4 0.75 75
36 Myristica fragrans Houttt. Impetigo 4 4 1 100
37 Piper nigram L. Psoriasis 1 2 0.5 50
Sl.No.
Plant NamesDisease with highest ICF
valueNp N Np/N FL%
38 Cynadon dactylon (L.) Pers Eczema 2 3 0.66 66
39 Ixora coccinea L. Eczema 3 3 1 100
40 Oldenlantia umbellate L. Impetigo 1 2 0.5 50
41Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.
Psoriasis 2 3 0.66 66
42 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Impetigo 2 2 1 100
43Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.)Willd.
Eczema 1 2 0.5 50
44 Physalis angulata L. Psoriasis 2 2 1 100
45 Bacopa monnieri (L) Pennell Eczema 1 2 0.5 50
46Holoptelia integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch
Eczema 2 3 0.66 66
47 Vitex negundo L. Boils 4 4 1 100
Table 4.6.: Fidelity Level Analysis Plants Used For Treating Diseases With Lower ICF Value
Sl.No.
Scientific nameDisease with Lower ICF
valueNp N Np/N FL%
1 Beloperone plumbaginifolia L. Insect bite 1 2 0.5 50
2Hemigraphis colorata Hallier f.
Wound healing
2 3 0.67 67
3Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida,
Anti-inflammatory
4 5 0.8 80
4Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz, J.
Athelets foot disease
4 4 1 100
5 Amaranthus spinosus L.Athelets foot disease
1 2 0.5 50
6 Amaranthus viridis L.Ringworm infection
2 2 1 100
7 Anacardium occidentale L. Foot crack 1 2 0.5 50
8 Anacardium occidentale L. corn 3 4 0.75 75
9 Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f. Foot crack 2 2 1 100
10Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart.
Dandruff 1 2 0.5 50
Sl.No.
Scientific nameDisease with Lower ICF
valueNp N Np/N FL%
11 Anethum graveolens L. Leucoderma 2 3 0.67 67
12 Areca catechu L.Tinea infection
3 4 0.75 75
13 Eclipta prostrate (L.) L. Dandruff 2 2 1 100
14 Elephantopus scaber L.Ringworm infection
2 3 0.67 67
15 Commelina erecta L. Scabies 3 3 1 100
16 Calycopteris floribunda Lam.Wound healing
3 4 0.75 75
17 Acalypha indica L. Scabies 1 2 0.5 50
18 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume, Scabies 1 1 1 100
19Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt.
Ringworm infection
2 2 1 100
20 Phyllanthus emblica L. Dandruff 1 2 0.5 50
21 Cassia alata L. Scabies 4 4 1 100
22 Cassia fistula L.Ring worm infection,
1 2 0.5 50
23 Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. Leucoderma 2 3 0.67 67
24 Desmodium triflora (L.) DC Scabies 1 2 0.5 50
25 Pongamia pinnata (L.) PierreRingworm infection
1 2 0.5 50
26Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) SPRENG.
Wound healing
1 2 0.5 50
27 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Burns 3 3 1 100
28Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth exRoem.&Schult.,
Wounds 1 1 1 100
29 Pavonia odorata Willd.,Athelets foot disease
2 3 0.67 67
30Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland.
Scabies 2 2 1 100
31Tinospora cordifolia (willd.)Miers
scabies 3 3 1 100
32Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn.
chicken pox 2 3 0.67 67
33 Naragamia alata Wight & Arn. Insect bite 4 4 1 100
Sl.No.
Scientific nameDisease with Lower ICF
valueNp N Np/N FL%
34Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn.,
Anti-inflammtory
1 2 0.5 50
35 Jasminum grandiflorum L.Ringworm infection
4 4 1 100
36 Piper betle L. Dandruff 2 3 0.67 67
37 Rubia cordifolia L.Ringworm infection
2 4 0.5 50
38 Citrus limon (L.)Burn.f.,Tinea infection
2 3 0.67 67
39 Smilax china L.Wound healing
1 2 0.5 50
40Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth
Scabies 1 2 0.5 50
By analyzing the disease categories to highlight the most important plant
species in each category of skin disease in terms of fidelity level. It is calculated
for the plants which are used to treat most frequently reported ailment categories
for both higher ICF values (ICF=0.2and above) and lower ICF values (ICF=0.00),
as both have scored a highest fidelity value (50% or above). The plants cited only
once by a single informant are not considered for the Fidelity level analysis. In the
higher ICF category 6 plants for boils, 5 plants for Impetigo, 6 plants for
Psoriasis, and 2 plants for Eczema scored100% fidelity level. On the other hand
only 5 plants for Scabies, 3 plants for Ringworm infection scored 100% fidelity
level in case of lower ICF category (Tables 4.6 and 4.7 ).
4.2.3.1. Correlation between fidelity level and Use mention (Np) of the plants
Comparative analysis of the data is an important criterion for evaluating
the medicinal value of a particular plant. A correlation between FL and Np
revealed that, plants with highest FL may score low Np and such plants are of less
significance . Whereas, plants which score high FL and high Np for a particular
disease are worth taking up for further phyto chemical analysis. (Table 4.7).
Table-4.7. Correlation between fidelity level (FL) and Use mention(Np) of the plants.
A)plants with high fidelity level and low use mention for a particular disease
Sl.no Plant Names Np FL% Disease
1 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban in Mart. 3 100 Boils
2 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. 2 100 Eczema,
3 Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. 3 100 Eczema
4 Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Ait.f 2 100 Eczema
5 Bixa orellana L. 1 100 Boils
6 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. 3 100 Eczema
7 Jetropha multifida L. 3 100 Boils
8 Cassia alata L. 2 100 Boils
9 Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson 2 100 Psoriasis
10 Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. 2 100 Eczema
11 Ixora coccinea L., 3 100 Eczema
12 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. 2 100 Impetigo
13 Physalis angulata L. 2 100 Psoriasis
14 Terminalia chebula Retz. 3 75 Eczema
15 Cassia fistula L. 3 75 Eczema
16 Cyclea peltata(Lam.)Hook.f &Thoms. 3 75 Eczema
17 Azadirachta indica Wight & Arn. 3 75 Boils
B)plants with high fidelity level and high use mention for a particular disease
Sl. no Plant Names Np FL% Disease
1 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz 4 100 Psoriasis
2 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb)R.Br. 5 100 Psoriasis,
3 Aristolochia indica L. 5 100 Impetigo
4 Bischofia javanica Blume. 6 100 Boils
5 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume. 5 100 Eczema
6 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth 5 100 Impetigo
7 Erythrina variegate L. 4 100 Eczema
8 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 4 100 Psoriasis
9 Allium cepa L. 4 100 Psoriasis
10 Myristica fragrans Houttt. 4 100 Impetigo
11 Vitex negundo L. 4 100 Boils
Different parts of medicinal plants were used as medicine by the local
traditional healers to treat skin diseases. Among the different plant parts, the
leaves were most frequently used for the treatment of diseases. External
applications were more preferred and used than the internal consumption of the
preparations for the treatment of skin related diseases . It was observed that, most
of the remedies consisted of single plant part and more than one method of
preparation. The study represents a contribution to the existing knowledge of folk
remedies that are in current practice for the treatment of skin diseases amongst the
rural population because of their inaccessibility to modern health care centers.
However, this mode of application of plants to cure aliments is safe with no side
effects, if taken as per the directions of the Nattuvaidya. It is hoped that, this
information will be a useful lead for phytochemists and pharmacologists. Once the
efficacy of these herbal drugs in treating skin diseases is scientifically established,
popularization of these remedies can be recommended to the healthcare provides
for wider application among the rural mass The survey indicated that, the study
area has plenty of medicinal plants to treat a wide spectrum of skin diseases.
As a result of survey report , review of literature and quantitative analysis
of data ,five traditionally important plants which score high FL and high Np for a
particular disease (Impetigo and Boils) are selected for further scientific validation
.
4.3. VALIDATION
4.3.1. PLANTS USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF IMPETIGO
4.3.1.1.Genus Aristolochia . Family Aristolocaceae
4.3.1.1.A. Description
Aristolochia indica L.,
This endangered medicinal plant, locally known as Isharamulla
(Malayalam) is a shrub with long twinning stem. Twining perennial herbs;
branchlets slender. Leaves simple, alternate, 3.5-8 x 2-3.5 cm, ovate-lanceolate or
ovate-oblong, base truncate, apex acute to acuminate, glabrous; 3-5-nerved at
base; petiole to 2.5 cm long. Flowers in few-flowered axillary racemes; pedicels
7 mm long, elongate in fruits. Bracts c. 1.5 mm long, lanceolate. Perianth tube
dull brown, 1-1.5 cm long, bulbous base 3-5 mm across, green; limb 2-2.5 cm
long, linear-oblong, rounded at apex, greyish-green. Stamens 6. Ovary c. 2 mm
long; stigmas 6, fleshy. Capsule 1.5-3 x 1.5-2 cm, globose-pyriform, 6-ridged,
dehiscing from the base, after dehiscence parachute-like; seeds 4-6 mm across,
broadly deltoid, flat, winged (plate.13.1)
Flowering and fruiting season - July –March
Distribution
In India, it is distributed especially in tropical and sub-tropical regions of
India from Bengal, Chittagong, Bihar, Orissa, Gaya hills and all districts of South
India.
Common names
Eng : Indian birthwort
Hindi : Isarmul
Sanskrit : Iswari, Gandhanakuli
Mal : Eshwaramulla,Ishwaramulli
Tam : Isvaramulisedi
Kan : Sannajali-hullu,Iswar
Parts selected for the study
Leaves are used for detailed study
4.3.1.1.B. Pharmacognostic studies
4.3.1.1. B.1.Macroscopic characteristics
Leaves simple, alternate, ovate-oblong to lanceolate, entire, glabrous,
truncatae to subcordateat base, acuminate at apex. Dried leaf posses a pungent
smell without any charazcteristic taste.
4.3.1.1.B. 2. Histological studies
Microscopic studies of petiole
The T.S is slightly oval in shape with a small wide, concave depression or
flat at the adaxial side with two lateral upward projections. Lower side of the
petiole is convex or -+with two small projections forming a shallow notch in the
centre. There are three large and two small bundles arranged in the form of a
crescent. Each bundle shows radially arranged xylem vessels towards the adaxial
side and phloem towards the abaxial side. A single layer of chlorenchymatous
cells partially encircles or borders the bundles towards the lower side. Epidermis
single layered and is followed by 4-5 layers of collenchymatous hypodermis.
Lateral projections are composed of collenchymatous cells. The ground tissue is
parenchymatous arranged loosely with intercellular spaces(plate.13.2)
Microscopic studies of Leaf lamina
T.S of leaf shows a dorsiventral nature with distinct lower and upper
surface. Upper and lower side of the midrib is convex with single layered
epidermis and collenchymatous hypodermis. In the upperside collenchymatous
hypodermis forms a patch just below the epidermis. The extension of palisade
cells enters in to the midrib up to collenchymatous patch. Centre of the midrib is
encircled by a large bundle with many xylem vessels arranged in scattered
manner. Just below the xylem occurs the phloem patch. A few thin walled
pericycle fibers are seen outside the phloem. A small patch of wide
sclerenchymatous cells present above the vascular bundle. Ground tissue is
parenchymatous with intercellular spaces(Plate.13.2)
T.S of lamina shows a single layer of comparatively large epidermal cells
with thick cuticle. Upper epidermis is followed by a single layer of compactly
arranged palisade cells. Spongy parenchyma is 4-5 layered and loosely arranged.
Spongy cells are oval and tangentially arranged. Lower epidermis is single layered
and possess uniseriate multicellular trichome with hook shaped tips. Lower
epidermis possess anomocytic stomata(Plate.13.2)
Histochemical studies
Histochemical study for lignin showed the presence of xylem vessels as
lignified cells in petiole.In leaf lignin is present in the xylem vessels and phloem
fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle.
In petiole starch grains are present in the cells that forms a border around
the bundle.While in leaf starch grains are seen in mesophyll region.Tannin cells
are very few in petiole,but it is comparatively more in leaf (Plate.13.2)
4.3.1.1.B. 3. Powder characteristics
Powder study shows fragments of upper epidermis with cells having
straight walls, fragments of lower epidermis with anomocytic stomata and wavy
walled epidermal cells, surface view of lower epidermal cells with trichome base
fragments, spiral trachieds, spongy parenchyma, longitudinal view of fibers,
fragments of spiral vessels, spiral and reticulate vessels, Cluster crystals of
calcium oxalate, surface view of epidermal cells of petiole, epidermal cells with
characteristic trichome, groups of sclerieds (Plate.13.3)
4.3.1.1. C. Phytochemical studies
4.3.1.1. C.1. Preliminary phytochemical screening
The preliminary phytochemical test of the ethanol extracts of leaf
showed the presence of cardiac glycosides, alkaloids (Wagners test), steroids,
saponins and tannins. It was performed by the standard methods. Anthraquinone
Glycosides, flavanoids are totally absent in the test solution. (Table 4.8)
Table.4.8. Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of Aristolochia indica L.,
Chemical compounds
Reagent
Aristolochia indica L.
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Alkaloids
Hagers Reagent + + +
Dragendroffs Reagent + + +
Mayers Reagent + + +
Wagners Reagent + + +
Carbohydrates andGlycosides
Fellings Reagent + + +
Benedicts Reagent + + +
SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +Salkowski Reagent + + +
Saponin Foamtest + + +
Phenolics andTannin
Fecl3 Sol. + + +Lead acetate + + +
AnthraquinoneGlycoside Borntragers Reagent - - -
FlavonoidsLead Acetate - - -Extract+NH3 - - -
Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -
Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard - - -( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.
4.3.1.1. C.2. HPTLC Studies
HPTLC identity test
a) Extraction of drug
Extracted 5 g powdered leaf with ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus for 4 h.
The extract after complete siphoning of the respective solvent in to round bottom
flask (RBF) is distilled over water bath (1000 C ) to remove the solvent and final
traces of solvent removed under vaccum in a rotavapor .Weights of extract is
noted.
b) TLC profiling
Test solution
Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10
ml.
Solvent system
Toluene: Ethyl acetate : Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)
Procedure
Applied 3 μl of test solution on a precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E.
Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm. Developed the plate in the solvent system
in a twin trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm.
Visualization
Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and record the
Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.9, Plate No.14). HPTLC
profile of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also after
derivatisation.
Table 4.9. TLC Details of Test Solution of Aristolochia indica L.
Detection/visualisation
Under UV 254 nm Under UV 366 nm After Derivatised
Track 1,2&3
Rf valueColour of the
bandRf value
Colour of the band
Rf valueColour of the
band0.09 Greenish black 0.09 Red .09 Brown0.16 Greenish black 0.16 Red .14 Violet
0.29 Greenish black 0.20 Pale green .22 Violet
0.56 Greenish black 0.36 Red .49 Violet
.66 Greenish black .30 Red Violet
.55 Red
.62 Red
.65 Pale blue
.78 Ash colour
4.3.1.1.D. Biological activities
4.3.1.1.D.1. Anti -microbial studies of fresh juice of Aristolochia indica L
Anti-bacterial studies
In the present study, the aquous extract of leaf showed maximum
inhibitory activity against test organisms in different degrees except against
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ( MTCC 741) (Plate no.15) given in Table 4.10.
Table.4.10. Anti bacterial property of Fresh juice of Aristolochia indica L. leaf
Test MicroorganismZone of inhibition in mm
25 µl 50 µl 75 µl 100 µlGentamicin
50 µlStaphylococcus aureus(MTCC 3160)
10 13 15 17 30
Bacillus subtilis ( MTCC 441)
10 15 17 20 31
Escherichia coli(MTCC 401)
nil 4 8 10 25
Klebsiella pneumoniae( MTCC 3384)
nil nil 5 8 25
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 741)
nil nil nil nil 26
4.3.1.2. Genus -Derris : Family- Fabaceae
4.3.1.2.A. Description
Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.
The plant is a large woody climbing shrubs; branchlets brown, lenticellate.
Leaflets 5-11, 2-5x1-2.5 cm, elliptic, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, apex obtuse,
acute sometimes emarginated, base rounded to cuneate, sub coriaceous, lateral
nerves 7-9 in pairs, slender. Racemes axillary, 8-25 cm long, with flowers
clustered on brown-pubescent rachis. flowers 7-9 mmlong,pedicelsc.4mm long,
slender. Calyx 2.5-3mm long,shortly adpressed tomentose,lobes obscure.Petals
pink or white; standard 7-8 mm long;ovate-orbicular. Stamens 10, alternate ones
short. Pods .5-6.5x1-1.4 cm, oblong, narrowly winged on the upper suture,
minutely adpressed tomentose, seeds 2-4 ca.8 mm long, reniform, compressed
dark brown(plate no.16.1)
Distribution
It is found to occur in the forests of Assam, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and
southern India.
Common names
Eng : Jewel vine, Hog creeper
Hindi : Gonj
Mal : Thodan valli
Tam : Koti-p-punki
Kan : Hallebilu
Parts selected for the study
Leaves of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth is selected for the study.
4.3.1.2.B. Pharmacognostic studies
4.3.1.2. B.1. Macroscopic characteristics
Leaflets 5-11, 2-5 x 1-2.5 cm, elliptic, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, base
rounded to cuneate, apex obtuse, acute, sometimes emarginate, subcoriaceous;
lateral nerves 7-9 pairs, slender. Dried leaf shows prominent mid rib with bark
brown in the abaxial side and light brown in the adaxial side without any
characteristic taste or smell.
4.3.1.2. B.2. Histological studies
Microscopic studies of petiole
T.S of petiole is rounded in shape with wavy margin and possesses many
multicellular tricomes. Epidemis is single layered with thick cuticle. Epidermis is
followed by a broad chlorenchymatous cortex composed of thick walled round or
polygonal cells with small intercellular spaces. Centre is occupied by a single
vascular bundle. Xylem vessels are seen in radial rows and are arranged in the
shape of deep U. Inner and outer phloem present. Outer phloem consist of solitary
or small groups of fibres. Most of the chlorenchyma cell contains prismatic
crystalas of calcium oxalate (plate no.16.2)
Microscopic studies of Leaf lamina
Detailed T.S of leaf shows a single layer of upper and lower epidermis
with a thin layer of cuticle .Cells of the upper epidermis are large oval or round in
C.S and devoid of stomata . Cells of the lower epidermis are comparatively small
in size with a few unicellular finger like trichomes and a number of anisocytic
stomata. In the midrib portion just below the upper epidermis 1-2 layers of
collenchymatous cells are seen in between palisade cells which extends in to the
midrib. In the lower region collenchymatous cells are seen in single layer just
inner to the lower epidermis crescent shaped vascular bundle is embedded in the
parenchymatous tissue . Vascular bundle consist of single row of xylem vessels
arranged in radial rows towards the lower side. Medullary rays are uniseriate. The
vascular bundle covered by 3-4 layers of sclerenchymatous bundle sheath. Many
of the parenchyma cells of the midrib contains large prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate .
In the lamina portion palisade cells are in two layers and are followed by
4-5 layers of spongy mesophyll. At intervals vascular strands are present with
sclerenchyatous covering which extends upto the upper epidermis towards the
upper side (plate no. (plate no.16.2)).
Histochemical studies
In histochemical studies lignified cells are represented as a continuous
band of Phloem fibers and xylem vessels in petiole.In leaf lignin is present in
the xylem vessels and phloem fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle.
In petiole a few starch grains are present in the ground parenchyma cells of
midrib and petiole . (plate no.16.2))..
4.3.1.2.B.3. Powder characteristics
Powder microscopy shows fragments of upper and lower epidermis in
surface view. Fragments of upper epidermis seen associated with underlying
palisade cells; Lower epidermis possess anisocytic stomata; Groups of crystals
fibres associated with xylem elements; cross sectional view of fragments of
epidermis with palisade cells; entire and fragments of trichomes, fragments of
scleried, prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate seen scattered throughout the
section. Powder shows fragments of upper and lower epidermis in surface view.
Fragments of upper epidermis is seen associated with underlying palisade cells.
Lower epidermis possess anisocytic stomata
Histochemical study for lignin showed the presence of xylem vessels as
lignified cells in petiole. In leaf lignin is present in the xylem vessels and phloem
fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle.
In leaf starch grains are seen in mesophyllregion.Tannin cells are very few
in petiole,but it is comparatively more in leaf (plate no.16.3).
4.3.1.2.C. Phytochemical Studies
4.3.1.2.C.1. Preliminary phytochemical screening
Ethanol extract of Derris scandens leaf showed the presence of
carbohydrates, steroids, tannins,terpinoids, anthraquinoes, flavonoides. Alkaloids
are totally absent in the extract. (Table.4.11)
Table.4.11. Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth
Chemical compounds
Reagent
Ethanolic extract of Derris scandens Benth
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Alkaloids
Hagers Reagent _ _ _
Dragendroffs Reagent
_ _ _
Mayers Reagent _ _ _
Wagners Reagent _ _ _
Carbohydrates and Glycosides
Fellings Reagent + + +
Benedicts Reagent + + +
SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +
Salkowski Reagent + + +
Saponin Foamtest _ _ _
Phenolics and
Tannin
Fecl3 Sol. + + +
Lead acetate + + +
Anthraquinone
GlycosideBorntragers Reagent
+ + +
FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +
Extract+NH3 + + +
Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -
Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH + + +
Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard + + +
( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.
4.3.1.2.C.2. HPTLC Studies
i) Ethanol extract of leaf of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.,
Extraction
Extracted 5 g powdered leaf with ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus for 4 h.
Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10 ml.
Standard solution
Dissolved 1 mg of standard umbelliferone in Ethanol.in a 10-ml
volumetric flask and make up the volume.
Solvent system
Toluene: Ethyl acetate: Formic acid ( 7 : 3 : 0.2) were selected as best
solvent system among different combinations.
Procedure
Applied 3 μl of test solution and 1 μl of standard solution separately on a
precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E. Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm.
Developed in automatic developing chamber using solvent system in a twin
trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm with relative humidity 49.4%.
Scanning were done at 366 nm.
Visualization
Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and recorded
the Rfvalue and colour of the resolved bands (Plate 17 ).
Evaluation
A band (Rf 0.45) corresponding to umbelliferone is visible at 366 nm in
both the standard and test solution tracks.( Table.4. 12)
Table.4. 12. TLC Details of Test Solution of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth
leaf.
At 254 nm At 366 nm
Rf value Colour of the bandRf
valueColour of the band
0.2 Greenish black 0.22 Red
0.34 Greenish black 0.32 Red
0.43 Greenish black 0.34 Red
0.50 Greenish black 0.45 Blue
0.57 Greenish black 0.68 Red
0.64 Greenish black 0.74 Red
0.75 Greenish black 0.80 Red
0.84 Greenish black 0.84 Red
Calibration curve
Apply 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 μl of the standard solution (corresponding to 0.1,
0.2, 0.3, 0. 4 and 0.5 μg of umbelliferone per spot) on the TLC plate. Developed
the plate in the solvent system in a twin trough chamber to distance of 8 cm. Dried
it and scannned densitometrically at 366 nm. Recorded the respective peak areas
and prepare a calibration curve by plotting peak area vs concentration of
umbelliferone applied.
Estimation of umbelliferone in the drug
Applied 3 μl each of the test and standard solutions on the TLC plate.
Develoed the plate in the solvent system to obtain the chromatogram and
determine the area of the peak corresponding to that of umbelliferone in the test
solution as described above for the calibration curve. Calculated the amount of
umbelliferone present in the sample from calibration curve of umbelliferone
applied.
The estimation is carried out in triplicate. The percentage of umbelliferone
ranges from 0.041 to 0.045 in the samples analyzed.
4.3.1.2. D. Biological activities
4.3.1.2.D.1.Anti-microbial property of Derris scandens Benth
In the present study the ethanolic extract of leaf showed inhibitory activity
against test organisms in different degrees. The result clearly indicate that gram
positive strains Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis are highly susceptible
to ethanolic extract of leaf of D. scandens in well diffusion method. The gram
negative strains, Klebsiella pneumoniae shows moderate activity. The strains
Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Escherichia coli are resistant to ethanolic extract of
leaf of D. scandens. Compared to gentamicin it is showing moderated activity
(Table.4.13)(plate.18)
Table.4.13.Anti bacterial property of leaf Ethanol extract of Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.leaf
Test 30mgMicroorganism
Zone of inhibition in mm
10 mg(µl)
20mg(µl)
30 mg (µl)
40 mg(µl)
Gentamicin 50 µl
Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 3160
10 13 17 20 30
Bacillus subtilis|MTCC 441
2 4 8 12 31
Escherichia coliMTCC 401
nil nil nil nil 25
Klebsiella pneumoniae MTCC 3384
nil nil 3 4 25
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC741
nil nil nil nil 26
4.3.1.3.Genus Myristica ; Family Myristicaceae
4.3.1.3. A. Description
Myristica fragrans Houtt .
Myristica fragrans Houtt., commonly known as Jaiphal and Javitri in
India, belongs to the family Myristicaceae. It produces two spices, nutmeg and
mace. Nutmeg is the seed kernel inside the fruit and mace is the fleshy red, net
like skin covering (aril) on the kernel. It is a spreading aromatic evergreen tree
usually growing to 5 to 13 metres high, occasionally 20 metres. Leaves simple,
alternate, estipulate; petiole 9-15 mm long, slender, grooved above, glabrous;
lamina 9-18 x 2.5-6 cm, elliptic, elliptic-lanceolate, elliptic-oblanceolate or
elliptic-obovate, base acute or attenuate, margin entire, glabrous, shiny above and
glaucous beneath, coriaceous; lateral nerves 10-14 pairs, pinnate, prominent,
intercostae reticulate. Flowers unisexual, yellow; male flowers: 3-5 in axillary
cymes, urceolate; pedicels drooping; bracts deciduous; bracteoles persistent;
peranth 3-lobed, tawny villous; stamens 9-12, connate in to a central stipitate
coloum; female flowers: urceolate, larger than the male, few in axillary cymes;
pedicels drooping; bracts deciduous; bracteoles persistent; perianth 3-lobed, tawny
villous; ovary superior, ovoid, 1-celled, 1-ovuled; stigmas connate, 2-lobed. Fruit
a capsule, yellow to 5 cm long; aril red, lacinate; seed brown, shiny seed (nutmeg)
surrounded by a red aril (mace). Seeds (nutmegs) are broadly ovoid (2 to 3 cm
long), firm, fleshy, whitish and traversed by red-brown veins. When fresh, the aril
(mace) is bright scarlet becoming more horny, brittle and a yellowish-brown
colour when dried (Purseglove, 1968). The trees do not give flowers until around
9 years old, but once start flowering they continue to do so for further 75 years.
The trees bear 2 to 3 crops a year. The seeds (nutmegs) need 3 to 6 weeks to dry
before they are ready for use (Plate. 19.1)
Flowering and fruiting season - Dec-August
Distribution
It is indigenous to the Moluccas and Banda islands in the south pacific
although it is seldom found truly wild. It is now cultivated in tropical regions,
especially in Indonesia, Grenadain the West indies, India and Srilanka.
Common names
Eng : Nutmeg tree, Mace tree
Hindi : Jayphal
Sanskrit : Jatiphalah,Jati
Mal : Jattikka
Tam : Jatimaram
Kan : Jajik
Parts selected for the study
The tender leaves of Myristica fragrans Houtt. is selected for the study .
4.3.1.3.B. Pharmacognostic studies
4.3.1.3.B.1. Macroscopic characteristics
Myristica fragrans Houtt.has pointed dark green leaves (5x15 cm,2x7
cm)are arranged alternately along the branches and are born on petiole about 1
c.m long. Upper leaf surface is shiny and lower portionnerved. Dried leaf turns
brown and posses an aromatic oily smell and characteristic taste.
4.3.1.3. B.2. Histological studies
Microscopic studies of petiole
The T.S of petiole is more or less round with a concavity in the adaxial
side. In the centre large 3 large bundles are seen. Epidermis is single layered
with a wide parenchymatous ground tissue with centrally arranged vascular
bundle. Towards the adaxial side parenchymatous cells of the ground tissue is in
barrel or rectangular shaped. It is arranged in a linear manner. Large oil cells are
seen embedded in the ground tissue towards the periphery. Vascular bundle
shows a few xylem vessels towards the adaxial side and phloem towards the
abaxial side. A few starch grains containing cells seen scattered in the ground
tissue (Plate 19.2)
Microscopic studies of Leaf lamina
Leaf shows a dorsiventral nature with distinct upper and lower side.
Midrib of the leaf is convex on both sides. Epidermis is single layered with one or
two cells of collenchymatous hypodermis. In the adaxial side hypodermis is
followed by 2-3 layers of palisade like chlorenchymatous cells which is the
extension of palisade cells of the lamina. Oil cells are scattered in the ground
tissue. In the centre a large number of vascular bundles are arranged in the
horizontal band. T.S of lamina is also exhibit dorsiventral nature with distinct
upper epidermis and lower epidermis. Upper epidermis is followed by 2-3 layers
of short radially elongated palisade cells and a wide zone of spongy mesophyll
cells composed of tangentially elongated large cells with wide intercellular space
towards the lower side and 2-3 layers of polygonal cells in the middle. Large oil
cavities are present in the mesophyll. Lower epidermis possess sunken
anomocytic stomata and peltate trichomes (Plate 19.2)
Histochemical studies
Histochemical study for lignin showed the presence of xylem vessels as
lignified cells in petiole. In leaf lignin is present in the xylem vessels and phloem
fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle.
A few starch grains are seen in the parenchyma cells of petiole and
midrib.Oil cavities are present in the lamina (Plate 19.2)
4.3.1.3.B.3..Powder characteristics
Powder study shows fragments of upper epidermis with beaded and wavy
walls, fragments of lower epidermis with sunken stomata and peltate hairs and
scattered small groups of sclerieds, oil cavity, fragments of thick walled epidermal
cells of petiole in surface views with stomata, oil cells with oil globules (Plate
19.3).
4.3.1.3.C. Phytochemical analysis
4.3.1.3.C.1.Preliminary phytochemical screening
Ethanol extract of Myristica fragrans Houtt leaf showed the presence of
carbohydrates, steroids, tannins,terpinoids and flavonoides. (Table 4.14)
Table.4.14. Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts
Chemical compounds
ReagentMyristica fragrans
Sample.1 Sample.2 Sample.3
Alkaloids
Hagers Reagent - - -
Dragendroffs Reagent - - -
Mayers Reagent - - -
Wagners Reagent - - -
Carbohydrates and Glycosides
Fellings Reagent + + +
Benedicts Reagent + + +
SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +
Salkowski Reagent + + +
Saponin Foamtest - - -
Phenolics andTannin
Fecl3 Sol. + + +
Lead acetate + + +
AnthraquinoneGlycoside
Borntragers Reagent- - -
FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +
Extract+NH3 + + +
Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -
Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -
Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard + + +
( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.
4.3.1.3.C.2. HPTLC identity test
Extraction
Extracted 5 g powdered leaf with ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus for 4 h.
Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10 ml.
Solvent system
Toluene :Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)
Procedure
Applied 3 μl of test solution on a precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E.
Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm. Developed the plate in the solvent system
in a twin trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm.
Visualization
Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and record the
Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.15 Plate 20). HPTLC profile
of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also aftr
derivatisation. (Plate.21)
Table.4. 15. TLC Details of Test Solution of Myristica fragrans Houtt.
At 254 nm At 366 nm Derivatised
Rf
valueColour of the
bandRf
valueColour of the
bandRf value
Colour of the band
0.17 Dark Green 0.17 Red .09 Violetl0.22 Dark Green 0.22 Red .14 Violet
0.27 Dark Green 0.27 Red .27 Violet
0.30 Dark Green 0.30 Red .57 Violet.72 Dark Green .64 Red .79 Violet
83 Dark Green .70 Red
.74 Red
.78 Red
.82 Red
4.3.1.3.C.3. GC/MS analysis of essential oil of Myristica fragrans Houtt leaf.
Hydrodistillation of leaf yield 0.05% of essential oil. GC/MS analysis is
performed on GC instrument : 6850 network gc system, agilent technologies. MS
: 5975c vlmsd with triple axis detector, agilent technologies (column : HP 5 MS
Nominal length: 30.0 m Nominal diameter: 250.00 μm, nominal film thick0 ness:
0.25 μm)and temperature programmed as 600-1500 at 20 C rise/mins. And 150-
2500 at 5 rise per minute. The carrier gas is He at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min and the
split mode at a ratio of 1:20.The injection port is set at 2200 C. Quadrupole MS
operating parameters were at interface temperature 2400 C ;electron impact
ionization at 70 eV with scan mass range of 50-500 m/z at a sampling rate of
1.0.scn/s.
About 41 compounds were identified in leaf oil, of which α-pinene
predominates in the oil with 13.78%. 4-terpeneon (6.81%), Terpenolen (5.22),
Elemicin (4.54%) were the other major compounds present in the oil analysed.
Minor compounds included β-myrcene, α- phellandrene, δ-3-carene, α-terpinene,
α- terpinolene, α-terpineol, t-2-menthen-1-ol and myristicin. Madhavan et al.
(1991) also reported similar composition of leaf oil of M. fragrans. (Plate.22).
The percentage, composition of essential oil in Myristica fragrans Houtt is given
in Table 4.16.
Table.4.16. Percentage, Composition of Essential Oil from Myristica fragrans:
Retention Time
(minutes)n-alkane index Compounds
Abundance (%)
5.87 902 α - Thujene 1.087
6.10 948 α-Pinene 13.78
6.53 943 Camphene 0.885
8.04 958 β-Myrcene 3.03
8.52 969 α- Phyllandrene 2.76
8.78 948 3 Carene 4.52
9.03 919 4-Carene 2.75
9.32 104 p-Cymere 0.774
10.41 976 β-Cis-ocimene 2.82
10.92 998 - Terpinen 3.97
12.35 1052 Terpenolen 5.22
12.98 1082 Linalool 2.23
13.95 11094-Isopropyl-1-methyl-2-
cyclohhexeneol0.36
17.27 1137 4-Terpeneon 6.81
17.94 1143 α-Terpeneol 2.15
23.42 1277 Bornyl acetate 0.28
23.56 1327 Saffron 0.604
27.25 1344 α-Cubebene 0.701
28.88 1221 Copane 2.98
29.66 1339 β-cubebene 0.002
29.81 1398 β-Elemen 0.031
30.78 1361 Methyl eugenol 0.023
31.39 1494 Caryophylene 0.977
35.04 1471 β-Cuebene 1.496
35.93 1465 -Elemen 0.796
36.21 1440 α-Muurolene 0.275
36.31 1379 Methyl isoeugenol 0.041
36.93 1435 - Muurolene 0.012
36.59 1440 Cardinene 0.014
36.78 1500 β-Bisbolene 0.051
37.72 1516 Myristicin 3.917
Retention Time
(minutes)n-alkane index Compounds
Abundance (%)
38.03 14404-Isopropyl-1,6-dimethyl-
1,2,3,4,4a,7-hexahydronaphthalene
0.025
40.01 1550 Elemicin 4.54
40.57 1536 Sapputhenol 0.021
40.90 1530 Globulol 0.032
41.32 1530 Ledol 0.009
41.80 1614 Champacol 0.012
42.28 1581 Methoxy eugenol 0.045
43.58 1626 -eudesmol 0.032
44.17 1580 Tau-cardenol 0.281
44.43 1580 Delt-cardenol 0.022
44.55 1593 β-eudesmol 0.024
44.69 1598 α- eudesmol 0.013
44.87 1580 α- cardenol 0.238
45.02 1568 Iso-elemiane 0.468
45.52 1664 Bulnesol 0.015
55.17 1968 Hexadecanoic acid 0.098
56.22 1978 Manoyl oxide 0.041
56.73 1789 Caurene 0.011
58.32 2045 Phytol 0.067
58.83 2175 Oleic acid 0.065
4.3.1.3.D. Biological activities
4.3.1.3.D.1. Anti-microbial property of Myristica fragrans Houtt leaf
In the present study, the aquous extract of tender leaf showed inhibitory
activity against test organisms in different degrees. The result clearly indicate that
gram positive strains staphylococcus aureus is highly susceptible. Bacillus subtilis
shows less activity compared to staphylococcus aureus. The gram negative
strains Escherichia coli, gram positive strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa shows
moderate activity. Klebsiella pneumoniae is resistant to aquous extract of leaf of
Myristica fragrans.(Plate.23)
Table.4.17.Anti bacterial property of Fresh juice of Myristica fragrans Houtt. leaf
Test Microorganism
Zone of inhibition in mm
25 µl 50µl 75 µl 100 µlGentamicin
50 µl
Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 3160
2 4 7 9 30
Bacillus subtilis MTCC 441
nil 6 8 12 31
Escherichia coli MTCC 401
nil nil 6 8 25
Klebsiella pneumoniaeMTCC 3384
nil nil nil nil 25
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC741
nil nil 2 4 26
4.3.2. PLANTS USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF BOILS
4.3.2 1. Bischofia javanica Blume Family : Euphorbiaceae
4.3.2.1.A. Description
Bischofia javanica Blume
Bischofia javanica blume is a large deciduous tree with tall cylindrical
trunk and a girth of 1.5-2.5m usually with a spreading crown. It is commonly
known as Bishop wood found in the sub-Himalayan forests from Kumaun
eastwards throughout eastern India. Only two species are found Bischofia
javanica Blume and B. Polycarpa. B. javanica is grown as an ornamental tree.
Deciduous trees, up to 30 m high; bark brown, thin, scaly; exudation red,
watery; branches spreading. Leaves 3-foliate, alternate, 5.5-18 x 3-9 cm, elliptic,
elliptic-ovate, ovate, obovate or orbicular, base acute or round, apex acuminate,
margin serrate, glabrous, membranous; stipules lateral, cauducous; rachis 7-20 cm
long, stout, grooved above, glabrous; petiolule of lateral leaflets 3-20 mm long, of
terminal leaflet 15-40 mm long, slender, glabrous; lateral nerves 6-9 pairs,
slender, prominent, intercostae reticulate, faint. Flowers unisexual, green, in
axillary and lateral pedunculed paniculate racemes. Male flowers: 2-3 mm across;
pedicels very short, slender; tepals 5, obovate, concave, imbricate, concealing the
anthers; stamens 5, filaments short; anthers globular; pistillode short, broad.
Female flowers: 2-35 mm across; pedicels longer than in the male, stout,
elongating in fruit; tepals 5, linear lanceolate; ovary superior, globose, 3-celled,
exserted, ovules 2, in each cell; style 3, linear; stigmatic through out on the inner
face. Fruit a berry, globose 7 mm across, reddish-brown; seeds 3, trigonus (plate
no.24.1)
Flowering and fruiting season - April to May
Distribution
It is common but usually found scattered in primary and old secondary dry
and deciduous forest or monsoon forest but also in evergreen forest, wamp and
teak forest, sometimes in more open places like savanna tracts. It is more frequent
on river banks, hady ravine and prefers deep loose soils such as sandy, rocky or
loamy soils with sufficient water content.
Common names
Eng : Bishop weed
Hindi : Bhillar,Paniala
Mal : Thomathari
Tam : Malachithiyan,Nannal,Thondi
Kan : Jajikayi
Parts selected for the study
Leaves are used for detailed study
4.3.2.1.B. Pharmacognostic studies
4.3.2.1. B.1. Macroscopic characteristics
The leaves of the plants are green in colour with length of 4-8 inches. The
leaves are alternate, 3-foliate (sometimes 5-foliate on luxuriant young shoots)
common petiole 3-8 inch long. The leaflets are 3-6 inch by 1.53 inch, elliptic or
ovate-oblong, acuminate, usually crenate, glabrous, terminal leaflet is much
longer. The shape is elliptical, venation is pinnate. Leaf margin is found to be
serrulate and arrangement is alternate. Odour and taste are not characteristic.
4.3.2.1. B.1. Histological studies
Microscopic studies of Rachis
The TS.of rachis shows schield shape with wavy ring of vascular bundle in
the centre having infoldings towards the adaxial side and a wavy strip of small
vascular bundle towards the comparatively large bundle on the centre. The adaxial
side of the petiole is flat and abaxial side is deeply convex. Epidermis is double
layered with thick cuticle. This is followed by a wide zone of collenchymatous
hypodermis. Ground tissue is parenchymatous with intercellular spaces. Cells are
oval to polygonal. Some of the cells contain tannin deposition and prismatic
crystals. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed. Each vascular
bundle consists of radially arranged xylem vessels towards the centre and phloem
towards periphery. Tannin depositions are more in phloem region and xylem
vessels when compared to ground parenchyma. A narrow strip of pericyclic fibers
are present external to the phloem in each vascular bundle (Plate.24.2).
Microscopic studies of petiole
Ts of petiole shows schield shape similar to rachis. A wavy ring of
vascular bundle is present in the centre having infolding towards the adaxial side
and a wavy strip of small vascular bundle towards the comparatively large bundle
on the centre. The adaxial side of the petiole is flat and abaxial side is deeply
convex. Epidermis is double layered with thick cuticle. This is followed by a wide
zone of collenchymatous hypodermis. Ground tissue is parenchymatous with
intercellular spaces. Cells are oval to polygonal. Some of the cells contain tannin
deposition and prismatic crystals. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and
closed. Each vascular bundle consists of radially arranged xylem vessels towards
the centre and phloem towards periphery. Tannin depositions are more in phloem
region and xylem vessels when compared to ground parenchyma. A narrow strip
of pericyclic fibers are present external to the phloem in each vascular bundle
(Plate.24.2).
Microscopic studies of Leaf lamina
T.S of lamina shows dorsiventral nature. Midrib is convex on abaxial and
adaxial side. A small patch of collenchymas is present just inner to the epidermis
on both side. Centre of the midrib is occupied by a discontinuous ring of vascular
bundle with radial groups of xylem towards the centre and phloem towards
periphery. Pericyclic fibres are present outer to phloem. Rosette crystals of
calcium oxalate is present in the parenchyma cells of ground tissue. Pallisade cells
are extended in to the midrib up to the collenchymas patch. Tannin cells are also
seen in the midrib portion. In the lamina portion upper epidermis is double
layered. One layered palisade tissue, where reset of the lamina portion is occupied
by oval shaped spongy parenchyma. Large tangentially elongated schizogenous
cavity lined by 2-3 rows of epithelial cells. Large rosette crystals and tannin cells
are embedded in the mesophyll region. Lower epidermis possesses a large number
of anisocytic stomata (Plate 24.2).
Histochemical studies
Histochemical study for lignin showed the presence of xylem vessels as
lignified cells in rachis and petiole. In leaf lignin cells are represented as a
continuous band of pericyclic fibers. Oil globules are present in the
trichome.Starch grains are present outer to the vascular bundle.(Plate 24.2).
Powder characteristics
Powder shows fragments of tannin deposition, longitudinal view of
pericyclic fibers, fragments of lower epidermis with stomata, rosette crystals
xylem with spiral thickening, longitudinal view of pitted tracheids, fragments of
upper epidermis (Plate 24.3).
4.3.2.1.C. Phytochemical studies
4.3.2.1.C.1. Preliminary phytochemical screening
In the present analysis positive result were obtained to alksloids,
Glycosides, steroids, Phenolics, tannins, flavonoids triterpenes, and Coumarins
and all the class of compounds posses antibacterial activity (Table 4.18).
Table.4.18 .Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts
Chemical compounds
ReagentBischofia javanica
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Alkaloids
Hagers Reagent + + +
Dragendroffs Reagent + + +
Mayers Reagent + + +
Wagners Reagent + + +
Carbohydrates and Glycosides
Fellings Reagent + + +
Benedicts Reagent+ + +
SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +
Salkowski Reagent + + +
Saponin Foamtest + + +
Phenolics andTannin
Fecl3 Sol. + + +Lead acetate + + +
AnthraquinoneGlycoside
Borntragers Reagent- - -
FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +Extract+NH3 + + +
Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -
Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -
Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard + + +
( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.
HPTLC identity test
Extraction
Extracted 5 g powdered leaf with ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus for 4 h.
Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10 ml.
Solvent system
Toluene : Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)
Procedure
Applied 3 μl of test solution on a precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E.
Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm. Developed the plate in the solvent system
in a twin trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm.
Visualization
Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and record the
Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.19, Plate 3.2). HPTLC profile
of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also aftr
derivatisation (plate.25).
Table. 4.19. TLC Details of Test Solution
At 254 nm At 366 nm Derivatised
Rf
valueColour of the
bandRf
valueColour of the
bandRf value
Colour of the band
0.07 Greenish black 0.06 Red 0.08 Blue
0.20 Greenish black 0.09 Red 0.17 Violet
0.29 Greenish black 0.19 Red 0.27 Ash
0.50 Greenish black 0.23 Red 0.30 Blue
0.63 Greenish black 0.30 Red 0.53 Violet
0.79 Greenish black 0.50 Red 0.62
Greenish black 0.63 Red 0.77
Greenish black 0.70 Red 0.83
0.74 Ash colour
4.3.2.1.D. Biological activities
4.1.1.1.D.1. Anti -microbial studies
In the present study the ethanolic extract of leaf showed inhibitory activity
against test organisms in different degrees. The result clearly indicate that gram
positive strains staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and gram negative strains
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, ,Pseudomonas aeruginosa is highly
susceptible to ethanolic extract of leaf of Bischofia javanica.(Plate.26) is given in
Table 4.20.
Table.4.20.Anti bacterial property of leaf ethanol extract of Bischofia javanica Blume
Test Microorganism
Zone of inhibition in mm
(10mg)20 µl
(20mg)40µl
(30mg)60 µl
()80 µlGentamicin
50 µl
Staphylococcus aureusMTCC 3160 10 12 15 18 30
Bacillus subtilisMTCC 441 nil 4 10 12 31
Escherichia coliMTCC 401 6 8 10 14 25
Klebsiella pneumoniaeMTCC 3384 6 10 13 17 26
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC741
610 12 13 26
4.3.2.2. Vitex negundo L. Family : Lamiaceae
4.3.2.2.A. Description
Vitex negundo L.
The plant is commonly known as Nirkundi or Nallanocci. It is an aromatic
large shrub or small tree about 3m in height with quadrangular branches and
almost found throughout India, ascending to 1500m in the outer Himalaya, fairly
common in waste lands, on road side, the banks or streams or in moist places near
deciduous forests. : Shrubs or small trees; purple pubescent all over, aromatic.
Leaves 3-5-foliolate; leaflets 6-13 x 2-5 cm, narrowly oblong or elliptic to
lanceolate, base acute, apex acuminate. Panicles terminal, 10-25 cm long. Calyx
5-toothed obconic, c. 3 mm long, teeth triangular. Corolla deep purple to violet,
ca. 7 mm across, hypocrateriform; tube 3-5 mm long, puberulent without, upper
lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed with the middle lobe larger, obovate, undulate-
margined, other lobes shorter, subequal, obtuse. Stamens 4, filaments purple.
Ovary c. 1 mm long; style purple; stigma 2-fid. Drupe 3-5 mm across, globose,
purple or black. (Plate 27.1)
Flowering and fruiting season - Feb-July
Distribution: Indo-Malesia.Moist deciduous forests, also in plains
Common names
Eng : five leaved chaste tree
Hindi : Bhillar,Paniala
Sanskrit : Nirgundi
Mal : Karinochi
Tam : Malachithiyan,Nannal,Thondi
Parts selected for the study: Leaves are used for the study
4.3.2.2. B. Pharmacognostic studies
4.3.2.2. B.1. Macroscopic characteristics
Leaves opposite, digitately 3-5 foliolate with leaflets lanceolate, glabrous
above, grey pubescnet beneath, acute or rounded at base, acuminate at apex with
characteristic odour and slightly bitter taste
4.3.2.2.B. 2. Histological studies
Microscopic studies of Rachis
T.S of rachis is circular in outline. The epidermis is covered with plenty of
trichomes .The hypodermis is collenchymatous. The hypodermis at its upperside
slightly protrudes inwardly. Xylem and phloem forms a crescent shape in the
centre and it is embedded in the parenchymatous ground tissue. The two ends of
xylem and phloem is connected to the two vascular bundles situated underneath
the chlorenchymatous band. The pericycle is discontinuous due to the presence of
lignified fibers. Cells of the pith are pitted and lignified: cluster crystals of
calcium oxalate are present throughout the parenchymatous cells of the section
(Plate 27.2).
Microscopic studies of petiole
The cross section of petiole is oval in outline. Plenty of trichomes are
present in the epidermis like that of rachis. The adaxial side of the petiole slightly
concave with two wings on either side. The hypodermis is collenchymatous. The
xylem and phloem forms a crescent shape similar to rachis. The pericycle fibers
are present in the centre of the ground tissue. Pith shows the presence of Lignified
and pitted cells .Calcium oxalate crystals are present in the parenchyma cells.
Microscopic studies of Leaf lamina
The section is strongly convex on its abaxial side and somewhat flattened
on its adaxial side .The xylem and phloem forms a U-shape in the centre. 3-5 row
of palisade cells are present in the lamina portion and it extends up to the centrally
located vascular bundle, Below the epidermis lies the collenchymatous tissue: the
remaining ground tissue of the midrib being parenchymatous. The upper
epidermis of the lamina composed of polygonal , cells devoid of stomata: thin
cuticle and bears few trichomes; the cells of lower epidermis are much smaller in
size, stomata and trichomes are plenty. Both simple, unicellular, and a few
multicellular uniseriate 2-6 celledtricomes are present.The parenchymatous cells
contain resette crystals and oil globules. (Plate 27.2).
Histochemical studies
Histochemical study for lignin showed the presence of xylem vessels as
lignified cells in petiole. In leaf lignin is present in the xylem vessels and phloem
fibers on upper and lower side of the bundle. In leaf starch grains are seen in
mesophyll region.Tannin cells are very few in petiole, but it is comparatively
more in leaf (Plate 27.2).
4.3.2.2.B.3. Powder characteristics
It shows various types of plenty of trichomes consisting of simple,
unicellular, short, conical, with pointed or blunt apex, collapsed or warty,
multicellular trichomes are 2-7 celled ,often abruptly bendt at its apex, collapsed
or warty, occasionally branched ;glandular trichomes are sessile with globular 4
celled or one celled head, or stalked one, with unicellular head and unicellular
stalk and unicellular stalk with bicellular head; occasionally transversely cut
fragments of an arc of epidermis covered with trichomes ,fragments of
transversely cut lamina, upper epidermal thick cells of lamina devioid of stomata,
lower epidermal cells in surface view with plenty of anomocytic stomata and
trichomes are present. Rectangular parencymatous cells of the rachis containing
calcium oxalate crystals, lignified pitted pith cells of the rachis, vascular strands
of the rachis with pitted squarish cells of the parenchyma are seen (Plate 27.3).
4.3.2.2.C. Phytochemical studies
4.3.2.2.C.1. Preliminary phytochemical screening
The preliminary phytochemical test of the ethanolic leaf extract of Vitex
negundo shows the presence of carbohydrates , alkaloids, steroids, flavanoids,and
terpenoids..It was performed by the standard methods (Table . 4.21 )
Table.4.21.Preliminary Phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts
Chemical compounds
ReagentVitex negundo
Alkaloids
Hagers Reagent
Sample .1 Sample.2 Sample.3
+ + +
Dragendroffs Reagent + + +
Mayers Reagent + + +
Wagners Reagent + + +
Carbohydrates and
Glycosides
Fellings Reagent + + +
Benedicts Reagent+ + +
SteroidsMolischs Reagent + + +
Salkowski Reagent + + +
Saponin Foamtest - - -
Phenolics andTannin
Fecl3 Sol. + + +Lead acetate + + +
AnthraquinoneGlycoside
Borntragers Reagent- - -
FlavonoidsLead Acetate + + +Extract+NH3 + + +
Quinone Extract+conc.H2SO4 - - -Coumarins Ex tract+10% NaOH - - -
Triterpenoids Libermann Burchard + + +( + ) denotes presence and ( - ) denotes absence.
4.3.2.2.C.2. HPTLC studies
a) Extraction of drug
Extracted 5 g powdered leaf with ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus for 4 h.
The extract after complete siphoning of the respective solvent in to round bottom
flask (RBF) is distilled over water bath (1000 C ) to remove the solvent and final
traces of solvent removed under vaccum in a rotary evaporator . Weights of
extract is noted.
b) TLC profiling
Test solution
Filtered and concentrated the extract under reduced pressure to around 10
ml.
Solvent system
Toluene :Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (7 : 3 : 0.3)
Procedure
Applied 3 μl of test solution on a precoated silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (E.
Merck) of uniform thickness of 0.2 mm. Developed the plate in the solvent system
in a twin trough chamber to a distance of 8 cm.
Visualization
Observed the plate under UV light at 254 nm and at 366 nm and record the
Rf value and colour of the resolved bands (Table 4.9, Plate No…...). HPTLC
profile of the species shows specific band under 254 & 366 nm and also after
derivatisation.
Table.4. 22. TLC Details of Test Solution of Vitex negundo L.
At 254 nm At 366 nm Derivatised
Rf
valueColour of the
bandRf
valueColour of the
bandRf value
Colour of the band
0.19 Dark Green 0.17 Red 0.09 Violetl0.27 Dark Green 0.22 Red 0.14 Violet
0.34 Dark Green 0.27 Red 0.57 Violet
0.48 Dark Green 0.30 Red 0.64 Red0.64 Dark Green 0.49 Red 0.79 Violet
0.71 Dark Green 0.52 Red 0.82 Violet
0.78 Dark Green 0.57 Dark
0.83 Dark Green 0.64 Red0.71 Red0.74 Red0.78 Red0.83 Red
4.3.2.2.C.3. GC/MS analysis of essential oil of vitex negundo L. leaf.
Hydrodistillation of leaf yield 0.03% of essential oil. GC/MS analysis is
performed on GC instrument : 6850 network gc system, agilent technologies. MS
: 5975c vlmsd with triple axis detector, agilent technologies (column : HP 5 MS
Nominal length: 30.0 m Nominal diameter: 250.00 μm, nominal film thickness:
0.25 μm)and temperature programmed as 600-1500 at 20 C rise/mins. And 150-
2500 at 5 rise per minute. The carrier gas is He at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min and the
split mode at a ratio of 1:10.The injection port is set at 2200 C. Quadrupole MS
operating parameters were at interface temperature 2400 C ;electron impact
ionization at 70 eV with scan mass range of 50-500 m/z at a sampling rate of
1.0.scn/s.
About 39 compounds were identified in leaf oil, (Table 4.23) of which
Ledol predominates in the oil with 17.14%., Caryophyllene 13.77 % , β-
Phyllandrene (7.39%), the other major compounds present in the oil
analysed.(Plate.29).
.Table.4.23. Percentage, Composition of Essential Oil from Vitex negundo L.
Retention Time
n-alkane index Compounds Abundance (%)
5.8 928 α-Thujene 0.55
6.01 931 α-Pinene 0.67
7.29 1030 β-Phyllandrene 7.39
Retention Time
n-alkane index Compounds Abundance (%)
7.46 959Amyl vinyl carbanol
1.70
7.72 952 Amyl ethyl ketone 0.07
7.88 979 β-myrcene 0.98
8.06 985Amyl ethyl carbenol
0.06
8.90 1008 α-Terpenen 0.56
9.23 1076 O-cymene 0.91
9.41 1020 D-limonene 0.87
9.53 1023 Eucalypteol 0.67
10.07 1048Benzene
Acetaldehyde0.56
10.76 1047 -Terpenon 0.43
12.18 996 3-carenen 0.58
12.82 1081 β-Linalool 3.1
13.11 1094Isovaleric acid isopentyl ester 0.08
13.26 1093 Amyl iso valerate 0.07
17.01 1161 4-Terpeneol 1.3
17.80 1172 Terpeneol 0.32
21.66 1215 Nerol 0.11
29.41 1361 β-demaceone 0.46
29.84 1387 β-elemen 0.74
30.76 1436 α-gurjunene 0.87
31.38 1424 Caryopyllene 13.77
33.34 1456 α- Caryopyllene 1.08
39.11 1535 Elemol 1.11
40.79 1576Caryophyllene
Oxide1.01
41.44 1597 Ledol 17.14
43.60 1627 α-Eudesmol 0.12
44.55 1644 β-Eudesmol 0.25
4.3.2.2.D Biological Activities
4.3.2.2.D.1. Antimicrobial Studies
In the present study the ethanolic extract of leaf showed inhibitory activity
against test organisms in different degrees. The result clearly indicate that gram
positive strains staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and gram negative strains
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes susceptible to aquous extract of leaf of
Vitex negundo . The gram negative strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa is resistant
to aqueous extract of Vitex negundo. The details is given in Table 4.24.
Table.4.24. Anti bacterial property Fresh juice of Vitex negundo L. leaf
Test Microorganism
Zone of inhibition in mm
25µl 50µl 75µl 100 µlGentamicin
50 µl
Staphylococcus aureusMTCC 3160 nil 3 9 12 30
Bacillus subtilisMTCC 441 nil 2 5 10 31
Escherichia coliMTCC 401 nil nil 6 7 25
Klebsiella pneumoniaeMTCC 3384 nil nil 5 8 25
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC741 nil nil nil nil 26