RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS

Define ResearchProblem

Review Concepts

And theories

Review PreviousResearchfindings

Formulatehypothesis

DesignResearch

(IncludingSampleDesign)

CollectData

(Execution)

AnalyseData(Test

Hypothesisif any)

Interpretand

report

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Feed Back

Feed Forward

Review the literature

Statement of Research Objectives

Defining Problem, Results inClear Cut Research Objectives..

Analysis of the Situation

Symptom Detection

Problem Definition

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

Research Objectives are the specific components of the research problem, that you’ll be working to answer or complete, in order to answer the overall research problem. - Churchill, 2001

The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the expected results / outcome of the study.

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research as they directly assist in answering the research problem.problem.

The objectives may be specified in the form of The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions.either statements or questions.

Generally, they are written as statements, using the Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. ) determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

FORMULATION FORMULATION OF OF

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an assumption about A hypothesis is an assumption about relations relations between between variables.variables.

Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationshiprelationship between two or more between two or more variables variables expressed expressed in the form of a testable statement.in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the the network of associations established in the theoretical frameworktheoretical framework formulated for the research formulated for the research study.study.

VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.

Note:Note: The values can differ at various times for the The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different same object or person (or) at the same time for different objects or persons.objects or persons.

Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).variable (qualitative).

For example; For example; The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male

and Female.and Female. The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Disagree.

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Explanatory vs Extraneous VariableExplanatory vs Extraneous VariableThe variables selected for analysis are called explanatory The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory

variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are extraneous.of the study but may affect the dependent variable are extraneous.

Dependent vs Independent VariableDependent vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in The variable that changes in relationship to changes in

another variable(s) is called another variable(s) is called dependent variabledependent variable..The variable whose change results in the change in another The variable whose change results in the change in another

variable is called an variable is called an independent variableindependent variable.. OROR

An independent variable is the one that influences the An independent variable is the one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.

What is the DV & What is the IV?In a study of the effects of different types of

legal arguments on jurors’ perceptions of the guilt or innocence of a defendant, subjects were randomly assigned to hear an argument which related to their daily experiences or to an argument of a more abstract and idealistic nature. After listening to one of these legal arguments, subjects were asked to rate the guilt or innocence of the defendant on a twelve-point scale.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an relates an independent variableindependent variable to a to a dependant dependant variable.variable.

Hypothesis must contain at least one Hypothesis must contain at least one independent variable and one dependent variable.independent variable and one dependent variable.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. solution of the problem.

Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.in the study.

Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.the study.

It delimits the area of research and keeps the It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.researcher on the right track.

PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESISPROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved to be right or wrong.can be proved to be right or wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot be A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be scientifically directly tested. A problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis. hypothesis.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

Conceptual ClarityConceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise. - It should be clear and precise.

SpecificitySpecificity - It should be specific and limited in scope. - It should be specific and limited in scope.

ConsistencyConsistency - It should be consistent with the - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.objectives of research.

TestabilityTestability - It should be capable of being tested. - It should be capable of being tested.

ExpectancyExpectancy - It should state the expected relationships - It should state the expected relationships between variables.between variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

SimplicitySimplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.simple terms.

ObjectivityObjectivity - It should not include value judgments, - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.relative terms or any moral preaching.

Theoretical RelevanceTheoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or existing substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.theory.

Availability of TechniquesAvailability of Techniques – Statistical methods should – Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

Discussions with colleagues and experts about the Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.peculiarities.

Review of similar studies.Review of similar studies.

Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

Logical deduction from the existing theory.Logical deduction from the existing theory.

Continuity of research.Continuity of research.

Intuition and personal experience.Intuition and personal experience.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Descriptive HypothesisThese are assumptions that describe the

characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples: “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized

planning”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.

Examples: “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependant variable.

Null Hypothesis

When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared.

It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Example: H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and

expenditure on recreation.

Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s

prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.

Example:

HA: There is a definite relationship between

family’s income and expenditure on recreation.

FORMS OF RELATIONSHIPS

NON-DIRECTIONALNON-DIRECTIONAL

There IS a relationship There IS a relationship betweenbetween

X & YX & Y

X….linked….YX….linked….Y

Vs DIRECTIONALVs DIRECTIONAL

• If X goes up, Y ….If X goes up, Y ….• oror• As X increases, Y…As X increases, Y…• X = IndependentX = Independent• variablevariable• Y = Dependent variableY = Dependent variable

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES- “X” causes “Y” to change

If X changes If X changes (increases(increases decreases)decreases)thenthen Y will ______Y will ______ (increase or(increase or decrease)decrease)a causal linka causal link

DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

If X increases, Y increasesIf X increases, Y increases A A POSITIVEPOSITIVE relationship relationshipIf X increase, Y decreasesIf X increase, Y decreases A A NEGATIVE NEGATIVE or or INVERSE INVERSE relationship relationshipAs X changes, Y does NOT change...>As X changes, Y does NOT change...> No Change...>No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIPNO RELATIONSHIP

NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES - the weakest form

There IsThere Isa relationshipa relationshipbetween X & Ybetween X & Y

non-causalnon-causalcorrelational statementcorrelational statement X…..YX…..Y

Positive correlation

When the values of When the values of TWO variablesTWO variables““go together”go together”ororvalues on X & Yvalues on X & Ychange in SAMEchange in SAMEDIRECTIONDIRECTION 0

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CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIPCORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Negative Correlation

When the values of When the values of two variablestwo variables

CO-VARY CO-VARY in Opposite directionin Opposite direction

(as one goes up,(as one goes up,the other goes down)the other goes down)

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FUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESISFUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS

It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the study.

It determines the data needs. It specifies the sources of data. It suggests which type of research is likely to be more

appropriate. It determines the most appropriate technique of

analysis. It contributes to the development of theory.