2016 theme book

NHD is also generously supported by:

Kenneth E. Behring

This Publication is Sponsored by:

Editor Lynne M. OHara

Copy Editor Nan Siegel, HISTORYNET

NHD is Endorsed by: American Association for State and Local History American Historical Association Federation of State Humanities Councils Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation National Association of Secondary School Principals

National Council for History Education National Council on Public History National Council for the Social Studies Organization of American Historians Society for American Archivists

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2015 National History Day. May be duplicated for educational purposes. Not for resale. IBSN: 978-0-9962189-0-0

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Editors Notebook

What is National History Day?

Theme Narrative

Sample Topics List

Cultural Exchange and the Olympic Games

From Calcutta to the Canefields of the Caribbean: How Exploration, Encounter, and Exchange Shaped the Indo-Caribbean Experience

Food for Thought: Exploration and Exchange, Congressional Archives, and Legislative History

Complex Encounters, Continuing Exchanges: Exploring Varied Stories of Immigration Using Primary Sources

To Provide for the Enjoyment for Future Generations: The First 100 Years of the National Park Service

Immigrant Women and the American Experience

Alumni Search

Reform Begins in the United States

An Empire in the East?: The Philippine Annexation Debate

At the Crossroads of World War I and the Bureau of Indian Affairs: A Case Study of American Indian Participation on the Home Front and Abroad

Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History: Using Multimedia Resources to Explore the 2016 National History Day Theme

Table of Contents

2

3

4

ESSAYS

7

9

14

18

24

31

36

44

LESSON PLANS

46

52

57

63

Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History

NATIONAL HISTORY DAY 20162

Human history is a story of exploration. Humans are always looking for new opportunities, new frontiers, and new avenues to get there. Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History is a National History Day (NHD) theme that fundamentally explores the nature of humans across time, space, and geography. It asks students to consider what it means to take a risk and go somewhere new (exploration), what do they find when they are there (encounter), and how these connections influence the people, societies, cultures, and geographies that are connected (exchange).

The 2016 theme book includes the annual theme narrative and topics list, as well as a series of articles and lessons that combine the experience of NHD teachers and coordinators with the resources of our partner organizations.

Several NHD teachers have shared their classroom expertise with us this year. Rona Johnson and Chris Carter have developed lesson plans to help teachers explore the theme of Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History in both U.S. and world history classrooms.

Several of NHDs generous partner organizations have contributed articles to this years theme book. Kim Gilmore offers multimedia resources from HISTORY to help students understand the scope of the theme. Teri Hedgepeth, an archivist for the United States Olympic Committee, explores the theme through the lens of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, while Kristin Schenck from the Bob Dole Archive discusses the ways in which food exchange have shaped the career of Senator Bob Dole.

Immigration is a source of inspiration for teaching activities and case studies from Rebecca Newland, from the Library of Congress, and Elizabeth Mauer, from the National Womens History Museum. Murali Balaji, from the Hindu-American Foundation, writes about encounters between Indians who traveled to the Caribbean in the British empire, and Jessica Hopkins, from the National Archives, explores the ways in which archival documents can open the stories of Native American boarding schools from the early twentieth century. Finally, 2016 marks the 100th anniversary of the National Park Service. This article features lessons from the Teaching with Historic Places program to help history come to life across the nation.

National History Day is a leader in professional development for teachers that has a positive impact on student achievement and critical thinking. The 2016 theme book is a component of this outreach. For each article that you find in this theme book, a variety of teaching resources is accessible to teachers to print, save, edit, copy, post, or distribute at www.nhd.org/themebook.htm.

Happy Researching! Lynne M. OHara, NBCT, James Madison Fellow

Editors NotebookLynne M. OHara, Director of Programs, National History Day

EXPLORATION, ENCOUNTER, EXCHANGE IN HISTORY 3

What is National History Day?

National History Day (NHD) is a nonprofit organziation that creates opportunities for teachers and students to engage in real historical research. NHD is not a predetermined by-the-book program but an innovative curriculum framework in which students learn history by selecting topics of interest and launching into a year-long research project. The purpose of NHD is to improve the teaching and learning of history in middle and high schools. When studying history through historical research, students and teachers practice critical inquiry: asking questions of significance, time and place. Through careful questioning, history students become immersed in a detective story too engaging to stop reading.

Beginning in the fall, students choose a topic related to the annual theme and conduct extensive primary and secondary research. After analyzing and interpreting their sources and drawing conclusions about their topics significance in history, students then present their work in original papers, exhibits, performances, websites, and documentaries. These projects are entered into competitions in the spring at local, state, and national levels, where they are evaluated by professional historians and educators. The program culminates with the national competition held each June at the University of Maryland at College Park.

Each year National History Day uses a theme to provide a lens through which students can examine history. The theme for 2016 is Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History. The annual theme frames the research for both students and teachers. The theme is intentionally broad enough that students can select topics from any place (local, national, or world) and any time period in history. Once students choose their topics, they investigate historical context, historical significance, and the topics relationship to the theme by conducting research in libraries, archives and museums, through oral history interviews, and by visiting historic sites.

NHD benefits both teachers and students. For the student, NHD allows control of his or her own learning. Students select topics that meet their interests. Program expectations and guidelines are explicitly provided for students, but the research journey is created by the process and is unique to the historical research. Throughout the year, students develop essential life skills by fostering academic achievement and intellectual curiosity. In addition, students develop critical-thinking and problem-solving skills that will help them manage and use information now and in the future.

The students greatest ally in the research process is the classroom teacher. NHD supports teachers by providing instructional materials and through workshops at the affiliate and national levels. Many teachers find that incorporating the NHD theme into their regular classroom curriculum encourages students to watch for examples of the theme and to identify connections in their study of history across time.

NHD breathes life into the traditional history curriculum by engaging students and teachers in a hands-on and in-depth approach to studying the past. By focusing on a theme, students are introduced to a new organizational structure of learning history. Teachers are supported in introducing highly complex research strategies to students. When NHD is implemented in the classroom, students are involved in a life-changing learning experience.


Adrienne Harkness, Contest Manager, National History Day Lynne M. OHara, Director of Programs, National History Day

National History Day welcomes you to explore the theme, Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History, during the 2015-2016 academic year. This theme is broad enough in scope to encourage investigation of topics ranging from local to world history and across any geographic area or time period. Consider this theme an invitation to look across time, space, and geography to find examples in history of when people took a risk and made a change.

You can begin brainstorming for possible topics by thinking about subjects you are interested in, whether it is science, sports, art, travel, culture, or even specific people. Make note of any areas of interest, creating a list of possible subjects. Talking with your classmates, teachers, and parents about your list can help you narrow down your selection. Throughout this process, keep in mind that your topic must relate to Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History and must be historical, not a current event.

A million ideas flood your mind when you think about exploration, encounter, and exchange, especially because they can mean many different things. So let us first look at them one at a time.

Exploration

Exploration likely conjures up visions of travelers setting out on a journey to discover new lands. Consider the voyages of Vasco da Gama, Hernn Cortz, or Ferdinand Magellan. Certainly we can see this in Christopher Columbus attempt to find a quicker sea route to the Indies, where spices and other desired goods could be found and then sold back in Europe. Of course, we know that while the original goal of that exploration was not achieved, Columbus and his party did succeed in transforming the Americas, Europe, and Africa forever. Can you think of other examples where exploration led to unforeseen consequences?

Exploration also can be examined in the field of science. Researchers are constantly undertaking scientific explorations to find new medications or possible cures for diseases such as cancer. How did Jonas Salks exploration into a vaccine for polio lead to better industry standards in producing vaccines? How did the work of Francis Watson and James Crick in exploring the structure of DNA lead to cracking the code of the human genome? Consider Sigmund Freuds exploration of psychoanalysis and the developments of various theorists in the field of psychology.

The search for new modes of movement has captivated humans since the beginnings of recorded time. This form of exploration has resulted in the invention of a variety of vehicles that could make excellent topic choices. From the invention of the wheel to the development of the space shuttle and the International Space Station, there is a range of explorations, encounters, and exchanges. How did the design of the longships affect the Vikings encounters with non-Vikings? Ships, trains, cars, airplanes, and rockets each dramatically transformed ideas about what kinds of exploration were possible. In addition, new routes, pathways, and roads played a pivotal role in helping certain transportation options grow in usefulness or popularity. How

National History Day 2016 Theme: Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History


did the Erie Canal increase encounters and exchanges between different areas within the United States? Once the interstate highways were built, how did they affect travel in the United States?

Exploration does not need to be literalthink of exploration as a new idea, concept, or theory that is tested. This idea can come from the fields of politics, economics, or military science. Consider the ways that political campaigns explored the use of radio, and later television and the internet, to introduce candidates to the public. How did the economic theory of mercantilism drive the exploration of the Americas and exploitation of the resources found there? How did new advancements in both strategy and technology influence the outcome of the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II?

Encounter

Exploration, of course, almost always leads to encounterswith different peoples, unfamiliar environments, and new ideas. Encounters are often unexpected and unpredictable, and they reveal much about those involved. When Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began exploring western North America in 1804, Americans knew little of the vast territory west of the Mississippi River. The explorers encounter with that region, however, was shaped in part by individuals like Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman who understood the land and its inhabitants, and served as a guide and translator for Lewis and Clark. How did she influence the expeditions encounters with other Native Americans? With the plants and animals they encountered along the way? How did Lewis and Clarks notes and drawings of the geography, wildlife, and inhabitants influence the encounters of later Americans?

Many times encounters involve peoples, plants, and animals that have not previously interacted. How did Matteo Riccis efforts at understanding Chinese culture affect his encounter with the Chinese intelligentsia? Consider the major effects on world history resulting from the Columbian Exchange, when people, plants, microbes, animals, food, religions, and cultures moved across continents.

Often exploration leads to occupation or subjugation of other groups of people. Consider the encounters between the Romans and the Germanic tribes of Europe. How did the Mongols, Aztecs, or Incas interact with their neighbors? What factors influence whether a new encounter is seen as a positive exchange or as a disastrous occurrence? Consider the event from both sides and analyze the perspectives of both the conquerors and the conquered.

Encounters also occur between familiar parties. How did the political, social, and cultural differences between the Athenians and the Spartans, differences with which each side was familiar, affect the way the Peloponnesian Wars were waged? How do military encounters differ from environmental and cultural encounters in their consequences? How have these encounters remained the same across time, and how have they varied with changing historical circumstances? How did the horrific encounter with trench warfare in World War I lead to new strategies ranging from bombing campaigns to blitzkrieg?

Exchange

It is impossible to make a journey of exploration, encounter new ideas, and not have some ideas exchanged between the groups of people.Encounters can lead to many types of exchanges, whether it be goods, food, ideas, disease, or gunfire. The Silk Road, a series of ancient routes connecting the lands bordering the Pacific Ocean to those of the Mediterranean Sea, formed a means of exchange between European, Eurasian, and Asian peoples for more than a thousand years. The Silk Road brought gunpowder,


the magnetic compass, printing press, and silk to the West. To China, it brought precious stones, furs, and horses. One of the roads best known travelers, Marco Polo, recorded his observations in his Travels of Marco Polo. But as we know, exchange is not necessarily mutually beneficial.

When Europeans were exploring the New World, they brought with them diseases such as smallpox and measles that were contracted by many members of the native tribes they encountered. Having no previous exposure to these illnesses, the natives immune systems could not naturally fight these diseases, nor did native healers have the knowledge to treat them. As a result, many natives perished because of their encounter and exchange with the Europeans.

But exchanges do not happen only in the physical realm. The sharing of ideas, beliefs, and customs can have widespread consequences for the people and cultures involved. Consider the spread of any of the worlds major religions. Sometimes the exchange of new or controversial ideas within a society can have a significant effect on how that society thinks and acts. What changes occur within the society because of that exchange? How did Charles Darwins theory of evolution, for example, lead to the cultural conflicts of the 1920s?

Politics also can be an area of dramatic exchange. In 1971 the American table tennis team, in Japan for the world championships, was unexpectedly invited by the Chinese team to visit the Peoples Republic of China. At that time it had been more than 20 years since a group of Americans had been invited to China, since the Communist takeover in 1949. How did that exchange help President Richard Nixon renew diplomatic relations with China? Did it lead to future encounters and exchanges between the two countries? Establishing relationships is often a major part of new encounters and exchanges.

As you can see, all three elements in this years themeexploration, encounter, exchangeare closely related. Try to find examples of each in your chosen topic, though you should note that some topics will lend themselves to focus mainly on one area. You are not required to address all of these elements in your project. Remember that you are not just reporting the past, but you are investigating, searching, digging deeper into the research to thoroughly understand the historical significance of your topic and support your thesis. You will need to ask questions about time and place, cause and effect, and change over time, as well as impact. To truly grasp your topic, think about not just when and how events happened, but why they happened and what effect they had. Your project should be able to answer the all-important question of So what? Why was your topic important, and why should we study or understand its effects today? Answers to these questions will help guide you as you conduct your research and decide how to present your information.


New Spain and the Comanche: Encounters, Missions, and Conquests

The Spark that Ignited a Flame: Chinas Explosion into Gunpowder

Roger Williams: The Exploration to Establish Rhode Island and Provide Religious Tolerance

Mansa Musa: Exploring Africa Encounter and Exchange of Religious Ideas between

Puritans and Native Americans in New England Jesuit Missionary Matteo Ricci: Italy and China Exchange

Philosophy and Astronomy Catherine the Greats Encounters with Voltaire and

the Enlightenment Commodore Matthew Perry and Exchange with Japan The Exchange of Disease: Encounters between Europeans

and Native Americans in the Colonial Era Catherine of Siena and Gregory XI: The Exchange that

Returned the Church to Rome James Cook and the European Encounter with Oceania How the Encounter of the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair Led

to the War of 1812 Venice 1348: A Global Encounter, a Deadly Exchange Exploration and Ice: Encountering the North Pole The Silk Road and Cultural Exchange Encountering New Spain: Manifest Destiny and the Treaty

of Guadalupe Hidalgo Exploring the Galapagos: Charles Darwin and the Theory

of Evolution American Missionaries, China, and Religious Encounters Brigham Young, Mormonism, and Westward Expansion Ada Lovelace: Exploring Computer Programming in

1840s England Galileo: Exploring the Universe, Encountering Resistance Athens and Sparta: Military Encounter and Exchange Exploring the Nation: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Rudolf Roessler: The Allies Exchange with an Undercover

German Decoder An Encounter with Fanaticism: John Doyle Lee and the

Arkansas Mountain Meadows Massacre Exploring Disease: Jonas Salk and the Polio Vaccine The New York Stock Exchange: Money as Power Margaret Mead: Exploring Human Development

Diplomatic Encounter: The SALT Talks Exchange between France and the United States:

The Louisiana Purchase Exploring African-American Culture: The Harlem

Renaissance Intimate Exchange: Abigail and John Adams Expanding the Boundaries of Dance: Martha Graham Rosalind Franklin: Exploring the Human Genome,

Encountering Prejudice Exploring New Technologies: Andrew Carnegies

Steel Empire Exploring America: Immigration Nelson Mandelas Encounters with Apartheid Exploring an Empire: Hammurabis Expansion of

Mesopotamia Patterns of Exploration and Encounter: French Jesuits

in Canada Turkey and the Armenian Genocide: a Violent Encounter

of Religious Difference on Close Borders The Artistic Exploration: Bierstadt and Morans Journey

and the Creation of Yellowstone National Park The Zimmermann Telegram: The Exchange that Broke

Down American Isolationism Reynolds v. United States: The Encounter between

Polygamy and Law Encounter in Little Rock: Desegregating Central

High School Encountering Communism: The Creation of NATO Minersville School District v. Gobitis: When Idolatry

Encounters Patriotism Exchanging Musical Performance for Morale: Captain

Glenn Millers Contribution to World War II The Exchange between Congress and the Executive:

Who Decides to Fight a War? The Iran-Contra Affair and the Controversial Exchange

of Hostages for Arms Waco: The Deadly Encounter between the Branch-

Dravidians and the FBI Apollo 13: Exploration in Space Pop Art: The Exchange of Consumerism and Culture Impressment: The Unwanted Exchange between Great

Britain and the United States

Sample Topics List


Encountering a New Religion: Spanish Catholic Missionaries in the Americas

World War II War Brides: The Exchange of Cultures Peace of Westphalia: The Exchange that Ended the

Thirty Years War Roanoke: When Exploration, Encounter, and Exchange

Went Terribly Wrong Encountering a New Society: The Idea of Republican

Motherhood The Sinn Fin Party and their Exploration of Irish

Independence The Monroe Doctrine: How Isolationism Impacted the

Exploration, Encounters, and Exchanges of a New Nation Gibbons v. Ogden: Steamboat Encounters and Exploration

of the Commerce Clause

Dorothea Dix: Exploring the Injustices for Herself to Promote Institutional Reform

The Marshall Plan: Rebuilding Europes Economy through Exchange

Exploring their Rights and Encountering Change: Women of the 1920s

Disproportionate Exchange: Slaves and the Triangle Trade Political Exchange: Jimmy Carter and the Camp

David Accords The Berlin Conference: Colonization and Exploration

of Africa Encountering Two Worlds at the Berlin Wall Zheng He: How Chinas Brief Period of Exploration Led

to Centuries of Isolationism 19th Amendment Suffragettes: Exploring New Methods

of Protest

Sample Topics List Continued

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The Olympic Games, a quadrennial event that excites the blood, quickens the pulse, and fills us with vicarious glory, magnifies superlative athletes until they are larger than life. However, the Olympic Games do more than give us an opportunity to showcase our athletes; the Games also afford the casual observer the ability to encounter new cultures, explore new lands, and exchange ideas while watching the worlds premier athletes compete. For the athletes, this opportunity is like none other.

Athletes from around the world come together in the Olympic Village, on the playing field, and in the Olympic Stadium, transforming the Olympic Games into a microcosm of the United Nations. A kind of subliminal sharing occurs, transcending competition, as the athletes encounter one another and learn about different cultures and different lifestyles.

British athlete Philip J. Noel-Baker, Olympic silver medalist in the 1,500-meter at the Antwerp 1920 Olympic Games and the 1959 Nobel Peace Prize winner for his work with the League of Nations and the United Nations, wrote an appeal to the press in 1932, stating, It [the Olympic Games] has done muchmore perhaps even than the League of Nationsto make different peoples understand each other and to link them by bonds of common thought and feeling. Furthermore, Noel-Baker stated that the Games are breaking down the atmosphere, the beliefs, and emotions that led to war.1 The cultural exchange that occurs during the Olympic Games was as important to Noel-Baker as the competition itself.

The opportunity to explore new cultures and experience the kind of exchange that Noel-Baker mentioned are not the primary reasons why Olympic athletes gather; however, it is a byproduct. This phenomenon can be traced back to Frenchman Pierre de Coubertins ideals when he resurrected the ancient Olympic Games on June 23, 1894. In an era rife with nationalism, Baron de Coubertin wanted to improve the youth of France, to build not only individual character but also national character, and if possible foster peace among nations.2

Baron de Coubertin envisioned a regular sports competition on an international scale that fostered the spirit of chivalry, love of fair play, [and] reverence for true amateurism.3 From this ideal grew the first modern Olympic Games, held in Athens, Greece, April 6-15, 1896.4 The modern Olympic Games, held every four years, assembles athletes from all nations for a fair and

Cultural Exchange and the Olympic Games

It [the Olympic Games]

has done muchmore

perhaps even than the

League of Nationsto

make different peoples

understand each other

and to link them by bonds

of common thought and

feeling.

1 Philip J. Noel-Baker, M.P. The Olympic Games: Their Power For Good, An Appeal to the Press. Reprinted from the British Olympic Journal in Olympic News, January-February (1932): 10. 2 Fred G. Jarvis, From Vision to Victory: Americas Role in Establishing the Modern Olympic Games (New York: New York Athletic Club, 1996), 2. 3 International Olympic Committee, The International Olympic Committee and the Modern Olympic Games Charter (Lausanne: IOC, 1933), 9-10.4 According to the Official Report, the dates are March 25 April 3, 1896, using the Greek calendar. SP. P. Lambros and N. G. Polites, Official Report: Olympic Games, 776 B.C. - 1896 A.D. (New York: American Olympic Committee, 1896), 81.

Teri Hedgpeth, Archivist & Historic Steward, United States Olympic Committee


5 An abridgement of Jesse Owens speech found in Miller, The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 116.6 Allen Guttmann, The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois, 1992), 53-56.

equal competition. Gold medalist Jesse Owens stated, Its the only occasion when the young people of the world are brought together in this way. Maybe they cant speak the others language but they can live together.5

For history students, this quadrennial sporting event provides an opportunity to expand upon the theme of Exploration, Encounter, Exchange in History. All are evident within the Olympic Games, and numerous sources are available to explore these topics. The Crawford Family U.S. Olympic Archives, the repository for the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) official records and artifacts, is one such institution. Located in the headquarters of the USOC in Colorado Springs, Colorado, the archives include USOC executive and governance records, committee meeting minutes, publications of the USOC, as well as various personal collections. In addition, artifacts commemorating the Olympic Movement and official photographs of U.S. Olympic athletes are housed within the repository (www.teamusa.org).

Another entity is the LA84 Foundation, created as part of the legacy after the Los Angeles 1984 Olympic Games, to promote youth in sports in southern California. LA84 also created a sports library and an ever-expanding digital library that is easily searchable and accessible (www.la84.org). And finally the International Olympic

Committee and the Olympic Studies Center, located in Lausanne, Switzerland, contains numerous sources on Olympism as well as the official records of the IOC and Olympic organizing committees (www.olympic.org/olympic-studies-centre). Those are not all the sources available for students of the Olympic Movement; many universities in the United States contain records that can be invaluable to researchers. For example, the University of Illinois houses the collection of Avery Brundage, American Olympic Committee president from 1932 to 1952 and International Olympic Committee President from 1952 to 1972 (archives.library.illinois.edu/archon/?p=collections/controlcard&id=4719).

One way students can explore this years theme is by studying a pivotal Olympiad. A competition that highlighted the encounter and exchange aspect shared by athletes was the Berlin 1936 Olympic Games, which were held in the midst of Adolf Hitlers rise to power. Hitlers view of Aryan supremacy and his distaste for modern sports, dominated at that time by Britain and France, made Hitler reluctant to allow the Games to be held in Berlin. Hitlers propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, convinced him that the Games would provide the opportunity to demonstrate to the world Germanys superiority in not only athletic prowess but also in Germanys ability to host the finest Olympic Games to date.6

Contrary to the verification of Aryan supremacy that Hitler had desired, the Berlin 1936 Olympic Games

Its the only occasion when the

young people of the world are

brought together in this way.

Maybe they cant speak the

others language but they can

live together.

Berlin 1936 Olympic Games, Opening Ceremony. The United States Olympic Team marching into the stadium in the Parade of Athletes, August 1, 1936. Photograph by David Wilson, Sr., David Wilson Collection, Crawford Family U.S. Olympics Archives

http://www.teamusa.orghttp://www.la84.orghttp://www.olympic.org/olympic-studies-centrehttp://archives.library.illinois.edu/archon/?p=collections/controlcard&id=4719http://archives.library.illinois.edu/archon/?p=collections/controlcard&id=4719


proved to be momentous for United States African-American Olympic athletes, especially in Track and Field. The U.S. Olympic Track and Field team that went to Berlin to compete against the world included 10 African Americans who won a total of seven gold, three silver, and three bronze medals.7 Among these, the most notable was Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals in track and field events.8

Owens, the youngest of 10 children and the grandson of slaves, not only disproved the notion of German, Aryan supremacy but also afforded the world an opportunity to encounter African-American Olympians in an era teeming with racial tension. The iconic image of Owens and German Olympian Luz Long deep in conversation during the mens long jump competition at the Berlin Games illustrated that although separated by ideology, these two Olympic athletes were connected through a love of their sport. Owens later recounted that Long, although his strongest competitor in the long jump and a German athlete, advised him to adjust his run-up in the qualifying round.9 Owens made the adjustment

and went on to win the event, one of his four gold medals during the Games, while Long took the silver medal. It is said that after Owens gold medal winning jump, Long was the first to congratulate him on his victory.

The relationship that the two formed during the Berlin Games continued until Longs death in World War II at the Battle of San Pietro in 1943. However, the friendship did not die with Long. Owens subsequently took up a correspondence with Longs son. Owens later commented, In this way, our relationship was preserved.10

Of course, African-American athleticism was not the only issue that dominated the Berlin 1936 Olympic Games. At the heart of the Berlin Games was the participation of Jewish athletes, a separate topic that can also be effectively addressed in this years NHD theme. When the IOC awarded the 1936 Olympic Games to Berlin, Germany was still a republic, and the IOC wished to give Germany the opportunity to host the Games that it had lost when the

7 Miller, The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 116-117.8 Jesse Owens (USA) won gold in the 100 meters, the 200 meters, the 4x100 meters Relay and the Long Jump. The 200 meters and the 4x100 meters Relay were world records, and the long jump was an Olympic record.9 Miller, The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 116. 10 Miller, The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 116.

Berlin 1936 Olympic Games. President of the International Olympic Committee Count Baillet-Latur standing next to Chancellor and Dictator of Germany Adolf Hitler during the Berlin 1936 Olympic Games Opening Ceremony.Photograph by Hoffman, Munchen, Theresiienstr. 74, Crawford Family U.S. Olympics Archives

Avery Brundage, American Olympic Association/United States Olympic Association Incorporated. President, November 19, 1930 December 1, 1953.Crawford Family U.S. Olympics Archives

The Berlin 1936 Olympic Games proved to be momentous

for United States African-American Olympic athletes,

especially in Track and Field.


11 IOC, The International Olympic Committee Charter, 9-10.12 Guttmann, The Olympics, 55-65.13 Avery Brundage, Fair Play for American Athletes, (New York: American Olympic Committee, 1935), 1.14 Brundage, Fair Play for American Athletes. New York: American Olympic Committee, 1935, 1-18.15 The Committee on Fair Play in Sports. Preserve the Olympic Ideal: A Statement of the Case Against American Participation in the Olympic Games at Berlin, (New York: Committee on Fair Play in Sports, 1936), 6.16 Committee on Fair Play, Preserve the Olympic Ideal, 44-45.

outbreak of World War I canceled the Berlin 1916 Olympic Games.

However, the new Nazi regime and its persecution of races not Aryan, especially those of Jewish descent, were at odds with the Olympic Charter, which stated the Olympic Games were to conduct modern athletics in the right way, by fostering the spirit of chivalry, love of [fair play] reverence for true amateurism.11 Knowledge of the German racist policies influenced the IOC to obtain assurances from the Berlin Olympic Committee that athletes of Jewish descent would be allowed to participate. The IOC was able to extract a written guarantee from Berlin that Jewish athletes could participate and German Jews could try out for their national team. With that assurance, 21 German Jews tried out for the German national team; however, not a single German Jewish athlete made the team.12

This led to discussion of an Olympic boycott by various nations. In the United States, the president of the American Olympic Committee [AOC], Avery Brundage, and other members of the AOC had very different views regarding U.S. participation at the Berlin Games. Factions developed within the United States expressing views for and against changing the site of the Games or forcing Berlin to allow Jewish athletes to participate.

In 1935 the AOC produced a pamphlet titled Fair Play for American Athletes that promoted American participation in the Games. After Hitlers rise to power, however, concern arose regarding the American teams participation and the perceived agreement with Germanys policies if the United States sent a team to the Olympic Games.

Arguments for participation included Baron de Coubertins vision and assuring the public that the AOC did not endorse the policies of any government; it was only the desire to compete in an atmosphere of international amity and good will in a world filled with intolerance, persecution, hatred

and war that prompted the AOC to continue to advocate sending a U.S. team to Berlin.13 In addition, the pamphlet stated that those wishing the United States to boycott the Games were themselves Communists and Anti-Semitic, using propaganda to press their views upon the public.14

The other side of the issue was represented by leaders and members of the AOC who formed the Committee on Fair Play in Sports and presented their views in Preserve the Olympic Ideal: A Statement of the Case Against American Participation in the Olympic Games at Berlin. The IOC argued that although Berlin guaranteed in writing Jewish athletes could try out for the national team, these same athletes were denied the use of training facilities in Germany. Furthermore, the IOC stated that the policies of the Nazi government highlighted issues of religion and race as factors in participation in the Games, contrary to Baron de Coubertins vision.15

Images of signs forbidding Jewish access in Germany were printed along with quotes from athletes, coaches, and community leaders expressing their desire to either move the Olympic Games from Germany or not participate at all. American Olympian James Bausch, 1932 Olympic Games gold medalist in decathlon stated, I am certainly opposed to American participation in the Olympic Games if they are played in Nazi Germany, and S. Stephenson Smith from the University of Oregon Athletic Department avowed, Naziism [sic] is the negation of sportsmanship, Fascism its antithesis.16

I am certainly opposed to American

participation in the Olympic Games if

they are played in Nazi Germany.


The debate raged throughout 1935 and most of 1936. IOC President Count Henri Baillet-Latour continued to state the Organisationskomitee had the guarantee of Berlin that all athletes would be treated fairly. Avery Brundages commitment, combined with his appointment to the IOC and a fact-finding trip to Germany, solidified the AOCs intent to send a team to Berlin.17

As a side note, two members of the United States mens 100-meter relay team, Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller, were replaced the night before they were supposed to compete with two African AmericansJesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfeby coach Lawson Robertson. It was rumored that the German team had select, secret runners waiting in the wings to win this event and that coach Robertson decided to replace the slower Glickman and Stoller with two runners who were faster; however, what cannot be ignored is the fact that both Glickman and Stoller were Jewish.

As a result of the Berlin Games and the issues regarding racial tensions and the proposed Olympic boycott, the IOC clarified its stance. By 1967, the Olympic Charter clearly stated, No discrimination is allowed against any country or person on grounds of race, religion or political affiliation.18

17 Guttman, The Olympics, 57-62.18 IOC, The International Olympic Committee and the Modern Olympic Games, 9, and International Olympic Committee, The Olympic Games: Citius-Altius-Fortius (Lausanne: IOC, 1967), 11.19 Avery Brundage, Report of the President, Avery Brundage, American Olympic Committee Report, 1936 Games of the XI Olympiad, Berlin, Germany . Official Report of XI Olympiad, (New York: AOC, 1937), 27.

AOC President Avery Brundage stated in his final report for the Berlin Games, Despite the fact that the world seethes with political intrigue, social unrest, economic confusion and bitter national hatreds, for three weeks in August and for ten days in February [Olympic Winter Games] the athletic representatives of fifty-two different nations laid aside all national jealousies and rivalries and, notwithstanding the strenuous competition in which they were engaged, lived and worked together in a most friendly spirit.19

One can see that the Olympic Games affords students multiple options to delve more deeply into this years NHD theme. Possibilities abound for historical study of the cultural exchange that takes place during an Olympic Games, when athletes from around the world gather, live, and compete together. One can highlight individual athletes and analyze the challenges they encountered on their path to becoming an Olympian. And finally, one can explore race, religion, and national politics and how these affect the worlds premier sporting event, the Olympic Games.

For a complete bibliography and links to download these resources, go to www.nhd.org/themebook.


One of the most underdeveloped areas of study in world history is the legacy of the journey of Indian laborers during the British colonial era to far-off parts of the empire. The migration, which began shortly after the colonies ended the enslavement of Africans, ensured cheap labor for the British Empire. From 1838 to 1917, more than one million Indians were taken as laborers by the British to work for colonial plantations, of whom about half arrived in the Caribbean.1 But the story is more than just migration. It is a complex, sometimes painful, and often nuanced story of acclimation in a new worldone that many Indians would call home by the late nineteenth century. It is a story about the encounters, exploration of new lands, and exchange of cultures that shaped (and continues to shape) the unique history of the West Indies. National History Day participants interested in a largely untold and overlooked part of world history will find a plethora of resources to help guide them in researching the Indian Diaspora.

World history educators often express surprise that the Diaspora in countries such as Guyana, Trinidad, Suriname, Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji, and Malaysia is prominent and well entrenched, or that the importation of Hinduism to regions such as the West Indies actually allowed Hindus to define the religion on their own terms. The interactions between colonial administrators and Indians also shaped new ideas on governance, cultural exchange, and in many ways the rules of conduct among various colonial populations. The story of Indians in the Caribbean also has created new understandings about identity and the development of a hybrid culture that influences the world today.

From Calcuttas Shores: The Origins of the Indian Migration

When Europes major colonial powers announced the end of sending enslaved Africans to their colonies in Latin America, the British and the Dutch sought to fill what they believed would be a void in cheap labor. The abolition of slavery by the British in 1834 did not end the practice in some British colonies, where African slaves were bound into indentured servitude. But by the start of the 1830s, the British control over the Indian subcontinent brought with it a ready supply of laborand for thousands of Indians, the movement from their ancestral homes to shores that stretched from one end of the empire to the other. By the end of that decade, Indians (and people from modern-day Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan) began leaving the subcontinent to work in British colonies.

From Calcutta to the Canefields of the Caribbean

Today we are fairly strong.

We have fought a great

battle to prevent our

absorption....The time

is ripe to spread Indian

literature. We must know

more of our culture, of our

religion, of our customs,

and our tradition.

Balgobin Ramdeen, 1949

1 Forced Labour, Black Presence: Asian and Black History in Britain, 1500-1850, The National Archives of the United Kingdom, accessed January 13, 2015, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm.

How Exploration, Encounter, and Exchange Shaped the Indo-Caribbean Experience

Murali Balaji, Director of Education and Cirriculum Reform, Hindu American Foundation

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htmhttp://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm


2 A good source to consult is Anti-Slavery Internationals historiography, which can be found at Kaye, Mike, 1807-2007: Over 200 Years of Campaigning Against Slavery, Anti-Slavery International, accessed January 13, 2015, www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2009/1/18072007.pdf.3 Bahadur, Gaiutra, Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).

Calcutta was the primary port of departure for the British ships that would travel from the Bay of Bengal across the Indian and Atlantic Oceans to the Caribbean, or via the Indian Ocean to colonies such as Fiji. Indians migrated to the West Indies to work on the sugar plantations. Those who were taken to places such as Guyana found that their new homes, whether temporary or permanent, differed greatly from their native lands, particularly when it came to the environment and even their co-inhabitants, including Blacks, native populations, Creoles, and eventually, Chinese, Lebanese, and Syrians.

Guyana became a primary destination, given British sugar producers desire for labor. Indians were given five-year terms of indenture and were required to work 12-hour days and six days a week, though many were made to work longer. There are a number of primary source documents available online that detail the conditions, as well as the laborers and British anti-slavery crusaders protests against them.2 In some ways, Indians became indentured explorers, with some hopping from ship to ship after their terms of indenture ended, hoping to find more work in other colonies. As a result, some Indians spent years shuttling among colonies in the Caribbean, working on sugar cane plantations for little pay.

Even before the voyage, the port of Calcutta became a melting pot of the subcontinent, and in many ways would set the stage for the cultural fusion that would shape the Indo-Caribbean experience, as well as other parts of the nineteenth-century Diaspora. While some went into a life of indentured servitude, others saw the opportunity to escape oppressive economic and social conditions. Many left behind destitute circumstances in remote Indian villages. As a result, Indian laborers who might all have looked the same to their British overseers had trouble understanding one another on the crowded ships of mostly Hindi, Bengali, and Tamil speakers.

The vast majority of the Indian laborers were Hindus, though Muslimsand a few Sikhs and Christiansalso joined the ships heading to the Caribbean. On the ships, their regional, caste, and religious identities mattered little; to the ships crew, they were collectively coolies. This dynamic would

ironically serve to bond many of the arrivals in their new land, and in some ways reduced cultural, regional, and religious tensions that previously existed in the Indian subcontinent. Additionally, the shared experience of the often tortuous journey, as well as encounters with others who were sometimes hostile, forged a collective identity among the Indians, one they would pass down to subsequent generations.

As author Gaiutra Bahadur notes in her book Coolie Woman, the journey to and arrival in the Caribbean was especially dangerous for women, who faced constant threats of sexual violence at the hands of colonial authorities and their male cohorts, in part because of colonial policies limiting the number of women accompanying the male laborers on their voyages. While many women were exploited in the British colonies by colonial administrators and Indians, others found a new status outside of the Indian subcontinent.3

Indian women who came to the colonies discovered new ways of escaping norms such as marriages arranged in childhood or abusive households. They often were able to choose their own partners. Some even achieved economic privileges that would have seemed unfathomable to them in India. This also is an important subject within womens history, an area of study that brings out previously marginalized voices during the colonial period.

Beyond gender dynamics, race played a significant role in the socialization and acculturation of Indians, as well as their exchange with other populations in the West Indies. Indians were immediately put into close quarters with formerly enslaved blacks in addition to members of indigenous tribes, meanwhile vying for social standing in a hierarchy where the British were unquestionably at the top. There also was the question of how Indians, the overwhelming majority of whom were Hindu, would be able to practice their religion, given the systematic discouragement of non-Christian religions by colonial authorities.

But the exchange between the British and subjects also led to new exchanges of ideas on governance, culture, and the

http://www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2009/1/18072007.pdf


formation of civil society in a colonial structure. Bahadurs Coolie Woman, using primary sources from the United Kingdom, highlights how British governance changed as a result of the influx of Indians into the colonies.

For example, due to the conditions in early sugar cane plantations, British authorities affected changes that were designed to make the daily lives of indentured Indian laborers easier. Among British colonial administrators, easing the daily burdens of Indians had multiple purposes: aspiring to the British ideal of being a civilizing force in the colonies; making Indian workers more loyal to the plantations in which they worked; and allowing for increased inroads for Christian missionaries through avenues such as healthcare and education.4

Gradually, Indians in the West Indies forged a new identity and would shape the regions culture. Despite racial hostilities during the first phase of settlement, the exchanges between Indians and Blacks in the British West Indies would dramatically change as the nineteenth century progressed and the twentieth century dawned.

The Second Phase: Acculturation and Exchange

During the first few decades of the migration of Indian workers to other parts of the British Empire, many workers returned to India after their terms of servitude ended. However, an increasing number of them, including those who had served previous terms of indenture, remained. Despite unequal conditions and the frequent tensions with other groups in the colonies, Indians found opportunities to make a living that had been denied or unavailable to them in their homeland. As a result, many Indians in the West Indiesthough still considered unequal to the Britishembraced their new identities, and some went as far as to consider the term coolie, once a source of shame and denigration, as a badge of honor.

By the late nineteenth century, the Indian population in the West Indies had become a distinct group, collectively neither truly Indian nor truly assimilated into their new homes. Interactions with Blacks also became more complex, particularly in places such as Jamaica, where male Indian workers often married Afro-Caribbean women. Similarly, a distinct Eurasian class also was emerging in places such as Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad, where British administrators would have children with Indian women. While the children were frequently not recognized by their British fathers or by colonial authorities as legitimate, also were often afforded social access denied to Indians and Blacks.5

While the exchange of cultures helped to acclimate Indians into the West Indies, life in Caribbean colonies such as British Guiana, Trinidad, and Jamaica still proved challenging on a number of fronts. For starters, while British colonial authorities relaxed rules on how Indians could practice their religion, they still continued to place restrictions of access. Aggressive Christian proselytizing in Jamaica greatly reduced the number of Hindus. At one time numbering nearly 100,000, many Hindus either converted for free education and jobs or left Jamaica altogether. Meanwhile the Indians who came from different language and cultural backgrounds had paved the way for a new generation that had none of the linguistic ties of their predecessors. Most West Indians now speak only English, with some Hindi words peppered into local dialects.

As scholar Basdeo Mangru explained to Hinduism Today, Indians introduced a rich note of cultural differentiation in the Caribbean. The culture they brought to the region was a blend of various local practices, but soon the Bhojpuri tradition dominated. This was epitomized in language by Bhojpuri and in literature by the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It was these two works which defined culture ideals in the Indian community.6 After independence, Indians played a significant role in shaping the political, social, and cultural dimensions of the post-colonial West

4 To learn more, see Hollet, David, Passage from India to El Dorado: Guyana and the Great Migration (Madison: Farleigh Dickinson, 1999). and Mangru, Basdeo, The Elusive El Dorado (Lanham: University Press of America, 2005).

5 There are some good sources that highlight these social conditions, including David Dabydeen and Brinsley Samaroo, India in the Caribbean (London: Hansib Publishing, 1987).6 Dabydeen and Samaroo, India in the Caribbean and Mangru, The Elusive El Dorado.


7 Lavina Melwani, What are Over 200,000 Guyanese Hindus Doing in New York State?, Hinduism Today August 1995, www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3520.

Indies. Some great sources on these developments include the website for former British colonies, which includes easy-to-navigate stories of how nations such as Guyana and Trinidad emerged from their colonial past.

The practice of Hinduism, which is still the majority religion among Indians in Guyana and strongly present in Trinidad, also changed as a result of the interactions of diverse Indian groups and with both British authorities and Afro-Caribbean people. Many Caribbean Hindus embraced a reform movement based on the Vedas, called Arya Samaj. Others, however, brought their narrative and ritual traditions to the West Indies, eagerly explaining them to subsequent generations. Mangru notes that Hinduism in Guyana and among Guyanese expatriates in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom is among the most devoutly practiced religions in the world. Moreover, in countries such as Guyana, Trinidad, and Suriname (a former Dutch colony), the celebration of Hindu religious days such as Diwali and Holi (known as Phagwa in the West Indies) are national holidays.7

Additionally, the Indian influence on Caribbean culture extended to popular music traditions such as reggae, calypso, and regional forms such as chutney and soca. Moreover, Hindu devotional songsdistinct from those in Indiaplayed an outsized role in the Indian community, and in some cases transcended a solely Hindu audience in the Caribbean.

Today the Indo-Caribbean community continues to embody the migration of culture and the creation of distinct cultural identities. Students keen on learning how the West Indies developed through more than two centuries of exploration, encounter, and exchange are encouraged to explore the diverse history of the Indian experience that started at the port of Calcutta nearly 200 years ago.

For a complete bibliography and more resources, go to www.nhd.org/themebook.

Waterloo Temple in Trinidad

Map of the Colony in Berbice located in Guyana

http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3520http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3520


Food for ThoughtExploration and Exchange, Congressional Archives, and Legislative History

Kristine Schenk, Education Specialist, Dole Archive & Special Collections, Dole Institute of Politics, University of Kansas

Exchanging food is an activity inherent in the human experience. Food sharing is found across cultures and plays an integral role in many encounters across the globe. The Silk Road and the Columbian Exchange are examples of how groups across continents have adopted new food and technologies as the result of conquest and trade. Today the exchange of food is influenced by political, social, and economic forces, locally, nationally, and internationally.

Several U.S. government programs have had a large impact both domestically and internationally in the last 60 years. Some of this activity is documented in the collections of the Robert J. Dole Archives & Special Collections (dolearchives.ku.edu/) at the University of Kansas, as former Senator Bob Dole was a key contributor to agricultural policy during that same period.

Senator Dole represented the state of Kansas in the U.S. Congress for 36 years, from 1961 to 1996. The longest-serving Republican leader to date, he was the 1996 Republican nominee for president and President Gerald Fords vice-presidential candidate in 1976. Though a partisan conservative, Dole engaged in many bipartisan initiatives throughout his career, representing a broad range of issues including those promoting food security in the United States and beyond. Since retiring from the Senate in 1996, Dole has worked as an advocate for local and global programs that fight food insecurity.

Exploration and Exchange in the Legislative Process

The legislation mentioned hereor any piece of legislationis a product of both exchange and exploration. The legislative process is a long and complex give-and-take between many different interests, roles, individuals, and groups, formal and informal. Whether or not legislation addresses exchange as a literal activity, studying the process through official government documents and archives can reveal a dynamic interplay.

Likewise, legislators and their staffs are constantly exploring new ideas and solutions to todays problems. What you will not find in the official records of government is much insight into how a legislator forms his or her opiniononly the actions taken and public statements on the issue. A congressional archive takes you behind the scenes, into layers of exploration and analysis, all information to be weighed by the legislator as he or she makes crucial decisions. You will find yourself asking, What would I do in this situation?

Former U.S. Senator Robert J. DoleCourtesy Dole Institute of Politics

http://dolearchives.ku.edu/


Pick a topic you like, find a related piece of legislation (the good news is there are thousands from which to choose.), and prepare to engage in an enriching research experience. You will take away knowledge of the legislations content, but also gain a new awareness of, and hopefully interest in, the process of the peoples branch of government.

U.S. Domestic Food Exchange

Many experience food sharing in their day-to-day lives without giving it much thought. It can be as simple as students exchanging an apple for carrots during their lunch break or putting a few items in the food donation bin at the grocery store. It also can be be complex, as implemented in government programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). There are many federal programs that focus on the distribution of food and other basic commodities. Laws affecting those programs come under review periodically and can be changed to fit a new situation. Tracking changes to those laws can demonstrate changes in the political climate as well as the social situation.

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, formerly the Food Stamp Program, helps low-income families and individuals purchase food. SNAP is the largest nutrition assistance program within the federal social safety net. Despite the name change in 2008 and the changeover from stamps to an electronic system, many Americans still refer to SNAP as the Food Stamp Program.1

The Food Stamp Program started in the late 1930s in response to an unprecedented situation where the United States had both farm surpluses and hundreds of thousands of hungry people. In the early version of the program, people

purchased stamps on a dollar-for-dollar ratio, but also received additional stamps that entitled them to buy foods designated as surplus at local stores for a reduced price.2 The program lasted until 1943, when the escalation of World War II resulted in both decreased surpluses and reduced unemployment. In 1961 Congress reestablished the Food Stamp Program as part of Lyndon Johnsons War on Poverty, to assist thousands of undernourished Americans.3

With passage of the Food Stamp Act of 1964, the program became permanent, but it was not until 10 years later, in 1974, that Congress required participation from all states nationwide. Senator Dole had been peripherally involved with the program throughout his time in the House of Representatives (1961-1968) and early Senate career, but in 1977 he took a leadership role in shaping the Food Stamp program.4

With Senator George McGovern (D-South Dakota), who Dole widely credited for opening his eyes to issues of domestic food insecurity, Dole worked to address two of the main problems associated with food stamps: cumbersome purchase requirements and lax eligibility standards. The Senators initiative succeeded in designing a program that eliminated the need for individuals to make a required minimum payment to obtain food stamp coupons, which many could not afford. Dole and McGovern continued to work on food issues together for decades.5

Women, Infants and Children (WIC)

Women, Infants, and Children, provides supplemental foods, health care referrals, and nutrition education to low-income pregnant and breastfeeding women and children.6 WIC was created in response to pregnant women with nutritional deficiencies who visited doctors. Often doctors would supply these women with food vouchers, so that they could get the food they needed for a healthy

1 Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service, last modified 2014, accessed August 20, 2014, www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap.

2 A Short History of SNAP, United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service, accessed November 10, 2014, www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/History_of_SNAP.pdf.

3 Food Stamps, Robert J. Dole Archive and Special Collections at the Dole Institute at the University of Kansas, dolearchives.ku.edu/topics_foodstamps.4 Ibid.5 Ibid.6 Women, Infants and Children (WIC), United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Services, last modified March 10, 2014, accessed November 10, 2014,

www.fns.usda.gov/wic/about-wic.

http://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snaphttp://dolearchives.ku.edu/topics_foodstamps


pregnancy.7 The idea for such a program arose during a White House conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health in 1969.8 In 1972 WIC was created as an amendment to the Child Nutrition Act of 1966. The program continues to be successful, helping more than 50 percent of infants in the United States.9

Years after the passage of WIC, Senator McGovern recalled how he and Dole dominated the legislative field related to nutrition during the 1970s. In 1974 they pushed WIC through the Agriculture Committee and to the Senate floor.10 Throughout the length of his Senate career, Dole advocated for WIC each time it came up for reauthorization.

International Food Exchange

The exchange of food goes beyond Americas domestic borders. Food is traded across political borders and economies across the globe. Senator Dole, like many others, recognized that U.S. agricultural surpluses could be used on a global scale.

North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trade agreement between the governments of Mexico, Canada, and the United States. Signed during the Clinton administration, the agreement went into effect on January 1, 1994. NAFTA eliminated trade barriers such as tariffs, increased profits for businesses, and reduced prices for consumers. It created the worlds largest free-trade area, linking 450 million people and producing $17 trillion worth of goods and services, including food.11

First negotiated by President George H.W. Bush, NAFTA received strong support from President Bill Clinton as well as

all the living former presidents.12 Senator Dole, as Republican Leader, also supported NAFTA because he believed that the agreement would increase the number of jobs for U.S. workers. However, American labor organizations opposed NAFTA because they feared that jobs for U.S. workers would be sent to Mexico.13

The exchange of agricultural products has been a contingent issue within NAFTA from the beginning. Unlike with trading initiatives on other commodities, which are signed by all three countries together, agreements on the trade of agricultural products are signed between nations. The trade agreement between Canada and the United States applies restrictions and tariff quota on products such as sugar, poultry, and dairy. The MexicoU.S. agreement allows for fewer regulations, but has included phase-out periods within the agreement.

As the effects of NAFTA are evaluated, more than 20 years since its implementation doubts exist about the agreements benefit to Mexico. Of significant concern is the import of low-priced U.S. governmental subsidies, which has forced many small-scale Mexican farmers to sell their land and go out of business. Despite lower costs of U.S. food imports, the price of food in Mexico has risen; many there lack access to basic food and suffer from malnutrition. Some also argue that, post-NAFTA, food insecurity in Mexico has contributed to the influx of illegal immigrants from Mexico to the United States.14, 15

Food for Peace

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Food for Peace Program (originally the Agricultural Trade Development Assistance Act) into law in 1954. The act was created in response to U.S. agricultural surpluses, and costs

7 Oliveira, Victor, et al, The WIC Program Background, Trends, and Issues (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Services, 2002), www.ers.usda.gov/media/327957/fanrr27_1_.pdf.

8 White House Conference of Food, Nurtition, and Health: Final Report. (Washington, D.C.: White House, 1969), 1-16, www.nns.nih.gov/1969/full_report/White_House_Report2_S1a.pdf.9 Women, Infants and Children (WIC), United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Services. 10 Jake H. Thompson, Bob Dole: The Republicans Man For All Seasons (New York: Donald I. Fine, 1994). 11 North American Free Trade Agreement, Office of the United State Trade Representative, Executive Office of the President, modified 2013, accessed November 10, 2014,

www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta.12 Thompson, Bob Dole. 13 Ibid.14 The Failures of NAFTA, Washington Report on the Hemisphere, 2012, 1-3. www.coha.org/the-failures-of-nafta/.15 Carlsen, Laura. Under Nafta, Mexico Suffered, and the United States Felt Its Pain, New York Times, November 24, 2013. www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/11/24/what-

weve-learned-from-nafta/under-nafta-mexico-suffered-and-the-united-states-felt-its-pain.

http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/327957/fanrr27_1_.pdfhttp://www.nns.nih.gov/1969/full_report/White_House_Report2_S1a.pdfwww.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-naftahttp://www.coha.org/the-failures-of-nafta/www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/11/24/what-weve-learned-from-nafta/under-nafta-mexico-suffered-and-the-united-states-felt-its-painwww.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/11/24/what-weve-learned-from-nafta/under-nafta-mexico-suffered-and-the-united-states-felt-its-pain


16 Food for Peace, U.S. Food Aid and Security, accessed January 14, 2015, foodaid.org/food-aid-programs/food-for-peace/. Food for Peace, Robert J. Dole Archive and Special Collections at the Dole Institute at the University of Kansas, accessed January 14, 2015, dolearchives.ku.edu/topics_foodpeace.17 John F. Kennedy, Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Corn Palace, Mitchell, South Dakota, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, September 22, 1960, accessed

January 14, 2015, www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/JFK-Speeches/Mitchell-SD_19600922.aspx.18 Food for Peace, Robert J. Dole Archive and Special Collections at the Dole Institute at the University of Kansas.19 Ibid.20 Press Release, 29 April 1969. Senate Papers-Press Releases, Series 9, Box 1, Folder 73, Dole Archives, Dole Institute of Politics, University of Kansas, dolearchivecollections.ku.edu/

collections/press_releases/690429foo.pdf.21 McGovern-Dole Food for Education Program, United States Department of Agriculture, accessed January 14, 2015,

www.fas.usda.gov/programs/mcgovern-dole-food-education-program.22 2008: Dole and McGovern, The World Food Prize, accessed November 10, 2014, www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/20002009_laureates/2008_dole_and_mcgovern/ 23 About the Prize, The World Food Prize, accessed November 10, 2014, www.worldfoodprize.org/en/about_the_prize/.

associated with storing the excess food as it slowly spoiled. The program, known as Public Law 480, benefited the United States by decreasing food surpluses and creating new markets for its agricultural products, while also providing aid to food-deficit countries. By its 50th anniversary in 2004, the Food for Peace Program had served 3 billion people in 150 countries, and its work continues today.16

In 1961 President John F. Kennedy expanded Public Law 480, renaming it Food for Peace. During his presidential campaign he stated: Food is strength, and food is peace, and food is freedom, and food is a helping hand to people around the world whose good will and friendship we want.17

Senator Doles involvement with the program started in 1966, when he worked on an amendment that called for a Bread and Butter Corps of U.S. farmers to travel to developing countries and teach the technical skills needed to grow and sustain crops. Later renamed Farmer-to-Farmer, the new provision was written into the 1966 reauthorization of Food for Peace. The provision required recipient countries to use the money from the sale of donated American food surpluses to increase their self-sufficiency.18

Communism was considered a threat throughout most of Senator Doles political career. His constituents made it known that they did not want food from the U.S. aiding communist countries. Senator Dole strongly advocated that Food for Peace legislation use clear language that would support the U.S. anti-communist stance. The bill barred food sales to countries that conducted any type of commerce with North Vietnam, and also banned sales to countries that provided Cuba with strategic or military materials.19

Dole believed that the Food for Peace program benefited both the Kansas farm families he represented and people facing hunger in food insecure countries. He commented: This constructive use of U.S. farm abundance is one of the most inspiring activities ever undertaken by any country in world history.The program has helped the U.S. maintain its position as the worlds leading exporter of food and fiber and shares U.S. abundance with friendly peoples abroad, effectively supplementing world agricultural trade.20

McGovern-Dole Food Program

The McGovern-Dole International Food for Education and Child Nutrition Program was established under section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949. The program was named after Senators Dole and McGovern to honor their decades of work trying to eradicate hunger. The McGovern-Dole Programs primary goal is to reduce hunger and improve literacy in food-deficit countries. It provides training for teachers and school meals using donated U.S. agricultural commodities. The program has primarily benefited girls, who are more likely to attend school if they are provided a meal.21

Although the program is part of the Agricultural Act of 1949, the McGovern-Dole Program was not signed into law until May 2002 by President George W. Bush.22 Both McGovern and Dole were out of office by then, but their efforts to end childhood hunger persisted past their time in Congress.

In 2008 McGovern and Dole received the World Food Prize, which honors individuals who have made an outstanding contribution to improving the quantity, quality, or availability of food around the globe.23 It is one of the highest honors in the world of food insecurity. At the time, the McGovern-Dole program had provided over 22 million meals to

http://foodaid.org/food-aid-programs/food-for-peace/http://dolearchives.ku.edu/topics_foodpeacedolearchivecollections.ku.edu/collections/press_releases/690429foo.pdfdolearchivecollections.ku.edu/collections/press_releases/690429foo.pdfhttp://www.fas.usda.gov/programs/mcgovern-dole-food-education-programhttp://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/20002009_laureates/2008_dole_and_mcgovern/


schoolchildren in 41 countries around the world. Today it continues to help provide students with physical as well as mental nourishment.24

As the world population grows, food exchange is imperative. Countries around the world still have issues feeding their residents, including even the most affluent. Legislation and programs that fight to feed people play an important role in the fight to end hunger both domestically and internationally.

Food insecurity is not a new problem; it can be traced throughout history. Although the basic problem remains the same today, current discussions address the discrepancy between the types of food being eaten by people at different income levels; the prevalence of processed food; the rise, and possible effects of, genetically modified organisms (GMOs); and also cutbacks in funding for programs like SNAP and WIC.

24 Henry C. Jackson, Dole, McGovern school program awarded World Food Prize, USA Today, October 14, 2008.

About the Dole Archive

Senator Robert J. Doles personal papers are held by the Robert J. Dole Archive and Special Collections at the Dole Institute of Politics, University of Kansas. The Dole Archive is one of the nations largest collections of papers and artifacts for a nonpresidential politician. The Dole Collection covers U.S. politics during the latter part of the twentieth century. The Dole Archive has several online resources, including more than 20 History Day modules featuring scanned primary sources dealing with the selected topic, 2,000 press clippings (1969-1995), over 6,000 press releases (1961-1996), and 72 oral histories available for download and classroom use.

To access these materials and more, visit dolearchives.ku.edu.To learn more about the Dole Institute of Politics, please visit www.doleinstitute.org.

Statement of Senator Bob Dole, Wednesday, July 10, 1974. Food for Peace: 20 Years of Sharing. Senate Papers Press Releases, Series 6, Box 19, Folder 15, Dole Archives, Dole Institute of Politics, University of Kansas, http://dolearchivecollections.ku.edu/collections/press_releases/740710foo.pdf

For a complete bibliography and more resources, go to www.nhd.org/themebook.

http://dolearchives.ku.eduhttp://dolearchivecollections.ku.edu/collections/press_releases/740710foo.pdfhttp://dolearchivecollections.ku.edu/collections/press_releases/740710foo.pdf

http://www.nche.net/conference


Links to access and download all of these documents can be found at www.nhd.org/themebook.

Complex Encounters, Continuing ExchangesExploring Varied Stories of Immigration Using Primary Sources

Rebecca Newland, Library of Congress 2013 15 Teacher in Residence

One view of exploration, encounter, and exchange is fairly linear, describing an order of operations of sorts. A group or individual designates a location to explore. When the explorers reach their destination, they encounter indigenous peoples, flora, and fauna. In the best-case scenario, these encounters result in a mutually beneficial exchange of goods or information.

A close look at the historical record, however, reveals more complex examples of encounters between peoples. During the great immigration surge of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, for example, the process of exploration, encounter, and exchange was multisided and ongoing. New arrivals to the United States explored the geography and culture of their new home, while longtime residents responded to the initial encounter and explored the practices of their new neighbors. As the years passed and immigrant communities took root, encounters between immigrant and incumbent peoples continued and deepened, and exchanges took place that had lasting effects on local and national cultures alike.

Primary sources have tremendous power to complicate seemingly straightforward stories, and are an essential part of every National History Day project. These historical artifacts come in a variety of formats, including newspapers, political cartoons, charts, broadsides, and posters, and are widely available from many different sources, including the online collections of the Library of Congress (www.loc.gov).

When beginning to work with primary sources, students may be most comfortable with text-based items, since they will already have skills in reading informational text from textbooks and other secondary sources. Build on that experience to help students be successful in analyzing text, images, and other formats. Consider focusing their practice with a topic-specific guiding question, such as: How can primary sources help us examine one cultural or ethnic groups exploration of the United States as a new home and the ensuing encounters and exchanges with those already living here?

Begin to look at the ways in which cross-cultural encounters are depicted with this political cartoon published in Puck magazine in 1880. Select questions from the Analyzing Political Cartoons Teachers Guide from the Library of Congress (www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/guides.html) to prompt analysis and build skills in visual literacy.


To move them into a deeper analysis, ask students:

What story does this item tell? How has the artist represented people from different

nations and cultures? Why? Who is included in the cartoon? Who is missing? What clues are there about why people came?

Whose perspective of the encounter is being depicted in this cartoon? Is the perspective positive or negative?

How does our view of the cartoon today differ from how it might have been seen in 1880?

Students could note the nations and cultures represented by the cartoon, and then choose one to explore further. Also, this document can provide information about patterns of immigrationduring this period. For example, they might analyze additional primary sources to gather information about immigrants from China as a way to trace their experiences and deepen student understanding of encounters and exchanges.

The process of encounter also can be documented through representations of numerical data. The pie charts on this page can be found in a Statistical atlas of the United States, based upon the results of the eleventh [1890] census, produced by the United States Census office.

Ask students to consider the significance of the fact that this detailed information about the nationality of immigrants to the United States appeared in the statistical atlas based on the 1890 census, but not in comparable publications for 1870 (www.loc.gov/item/05019329/) or 1880 (www.loc.gov/item/a40001834/). Also, this document can provide information about patterns of immigration during this period. For example, note the numbers of Chinese immigrants and the areas in which they were settling.

Expand the conversation with questions such as:

What does this information add to what you gleaned from the political cartoon?

What other resources might we look for to investigate the encounters and exchanges in areas where Chinese immigrants were living?

Welcome to all!, 1880Library of Congresswww.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002719044/

Composition of the foreign born population: 1890. Library of Congresswww.loc.gov/resource/g3701gm.gct00010/?sp=36

http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002719044/http://www.loc.gov/resource/g3701gm.gct00010/?sp=36


This four-page document from 1903 presents information on the encounter between new immigrants and resident populations using both tables and informational text. Work with students as they analyze it and then compare it with the previous items.

Select questions from the Analyzing Books and Other Printed Texts Teachers Guide (www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/guides.html) to facilitate an analysis. Students will use skills in reading both informational text and tables.

Ask question related to the document to promote close reading:

Who created this document? What evidence is there that the purpose of this item is different from that of the previous two? What demographic information about immigrants is missing from this document? Why might the creators have chosen to

include some statistics and exclude others? Compare the perspective of this document to the attitudes expressed in the cartoon and census records.

Immigration figures for 1903.Library of Congress.hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/rbpe.07902500

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/rbpe.07902500


Analyzing and gathering information from the political cartoon, pie charts, and leaflet encourages students to examine responses to immigration on a national level. However, primary sources also can provide opportunities to investigate encounters and exchanges on a local level. These approaches to primary sources documenting the particular experiences of Chinese immigrant communities can serve as models for students as they explore similar experiences within their own communities.

Consider first this 1885 map of San Franciscos Chinatown. Select questions from the Analyzing Maps Teachers Guide (www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/guides.html) to facilitate an analysis.

Focus on what information can be gathered about Chinatown from the map:

In what ways is the map evidence of exploration? Encounter? Exchange? Who is recording the exploration? If this map were the only source of information you had about San Franciscos pre-1900s Chinatown, what would you know

or believe about the area and its inhabitants? In what ways might the map be different if it had been produced by the inhabitants of Chinatown?

Much of the city of San Francisco, including Chinatown, was destroyed by an earthquake and resultant fires on Wednesday, April 18, 1906. While this was a devastating tragedy, it was also an opportunity to rebuild and renew.

Official map of Chinatown in San Francisco, 1885Library of Congresswww.loc.gov/resource/g4364s.ct002129/

http://www.loc.gov/resource/g4364s.ct002129/


Questions from the Analyzing Photographs & Prints Teachers Guide www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/guides.html may help to focus students analysis of the photos individually and as parts of a story about Chinatowns evolution. Consider adding another layer to the discussion with this short film from Chinatown in 1903. www.loc.gov/item/00694411/

Ask:

What can you learn from the photographs and film that is different from what can be learned from the map? What differences can be seen between Chinatown in 1866 and 1929? How are these differences evidence of encounter and

exchange?

San Francisco, Calif. - China Town, Sacramento St., 1866Library of Congress www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002719264/

In the heart of modern Chinatown, San Francisco, Calif., c. 1929Library of Congresswww.loc.gov/pictures/item/89716184/

The Heart of Chinatown, San Francisco, Cal., c. 1906Library of Congresswww.loc.gov/pictures/item/det1994011906/PP/

Use these three photographs to generate a discussion of pre- and post-earthquake Chinatown.

http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002719264/http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/89716184/http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/det1994011906/PP/


Complete your investigation of encounters and exchange as illustrated by San Franciscos Chinatown with two news items documenting two different possible fates for the neighborhood after the earthquake. Historical newspapers offer insight into the past that is different from any of the previous primary sources, concisely presenting both fact and opinion using text, graphs, charts, and images.

First, have students note the headlines from each article. Continue by offering both full stories.

As students react to the text, ask:

What can you learn about San Franciscos Chinatown that is different from what you learned from the 1885 map and the photographs?

Speculate: What might have happened between the dates these two articles were published to explain the different approaches described?

In what way do the articles add to the story of encounter and exchange in San Franciscos Chinatown? What new questions do they raise?

Throughout this process students have looked at items individually as well as in reference to each other. Lead a discussion of the items as a set, in order to help students synthesize an answer to the guiding question: How can primary sources help us to examine one cultural or ethnic groups exploration of the United States as a new home and the ensuing encounters and exchanges with those already living here?

Ask:

When viewed together, what story do the items tell about how exploration, encounter, and exchange related to the experiences of immigrants during the late 1800s and early 1900s?

What aspects of the story will you need to research further in order to form a more complete picture? What do you still want to know?

Why is it important to consult a variety of formats, as well as varied points of view, when creating a National History Day project?

Visit the Library of Congress collections at www.loc.gov/ to find primary sources related to the experiences of immigrants to America throughout history. You can also find items related to exploration, encounter, and exchange from a variety of points of view to aid with your National History Day project. In addition, resources for teachers working with National History Day students can be found on the Librarys website for teachers: www.loc.gov/teachers.

The San Francisco Call, May 17, 1906Library of Congresschroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1906-05-17/ed-1/seq-1

The San Francisco Call, May 24, 1906 Library of Congresschroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1906-05-24/ed-1/seq-14/

For a complete bibliography and links to download these resources, go to www.nhd.org/themebook.

http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1906-05-17/ed-1/seq-1http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1906-05-17/ed-1/seq-1http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1906-05-24/ed-1/seq-14/http://chr

2016 theme book

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