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Effective Communication of Indicators Effective Communication of Indicators

Tools for Civil Society to Understand Tools for Civil Society to Understand and Use Development Data: and Use Development Data:

Improving MDG Policymaking and Improving MDG Policymaking and MonitoringMonitoring

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What you will learn from this moduleWhat you will learn from this module

• How to design a tableHow to design a table

• The most useful types of diagramThe most useful types of diagram

• Which type of diagram to use in specific Which type of diagram to use in specific

circumstancescircumstances

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TABLESTABLES

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Two types of table may be distinguished:Two types of table may be distinguished:

• Reference tables Reference tables are appropriate in numerical reportsare appropriate in numerical reports.. They give as They give as much accuracy as possible, to enable secondary much accuracy as possible, to enable secondary users to make accurate use of the datausers to make accurate use of the data

• Investigative tablesInvestigative tablessacrifice accuracy for the benefit of understanding, sacrifice accuracy for the benefit of understanding, and are appropriate in descriptive reports and are appropriate in descriptive reports

Typically numbers are rounded, sometimes losing Typically numbers are rounded, sometimes losing several significant digitsseveral significant digits

Types of TableTypes of Table

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When designing a table we have to determineWhen designing a table we have to determine

• Layout of the rows and columns;Layout of the rows and columns;

• Content of the cells created by the Content of the cells created by the rows and columnsrows and columns

• Headings, labelsHeadings, labels

Table DesignTable Design

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A concise, but informative, A concise, but informative, titletitle should be given, should be given, which includeswhich includes

TitleTitle

• The date, The date,

• Place or Place or

• Whatever else is common to all the entries in the Whatever else is common to all the entries in the tabletable

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• The rows, which gives a brief description of the The rows, which gives a brief description of the variable which changes in value from row to rowvariable which changes in value from row to row

• The columns (similarly)The columns (similarly)

Row or column headings which are too cumbersome to Row or column headings which are too cumbersome to print in full in the main table may be amplified in the print in full in the main table may be amplified in the footnotesfootnotes

HeadingsHeadings

A A headingheading should be provided for: should be provided for:

e.g. ‘ICD = International Classification of Diseasese.g. ‘ICD = International Classification of Diseases’’

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UnitsUnits

The The units units of measurement should be of measurement should be given for all entries in the table, either in given for all entries in the table, either in the title or in the row/column headingsthe title or in the row/column headings

Examplesmg/mlmg/mlnumbers in thousands – numbers in thousands – OROR - ‘000 - ‘000

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• Figures should be given only to the Figures should be given only to the degree of degree of accuracyaccuracy that is appropriate for the presentation that is appropriate for the presentation

• After rounding, superfluous trailing zeros should After rounding, superfluous trailing zeros should be removed and the units of measurement be removed and the units of measurement altered accordinglyaltered accordingly

AccuracyAccuracy

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Footnotes should be used to record:Footnotes should be used to record:

• Conventions usedConventions used

• Explanation of termsExplanation of terms

• Amplification of headings/titleAmplification of headings/title

• Change in coverage or definitionChange in coverage or definition

• ExceptionsExceptions

• Differences in statusDifferences in status

• The source of the dataThe source of the data

FootnotesFootnotes

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Further explanation of terms used in the Further explanation of terms used in the table should be provided, if necessarytable should be provided, if necessary

ExplanationExplanation

e.g. ‘Includes some births, within the country, e.g. ‘Includes some births, within the country, to people resident outside the country ’to people resident outside the country ’

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Any change in the conventions used Any change in the conventions used elsewhere in the table should be elsewhere in the table should be recordedrecorded

Change in coverage or definitionChange in coverage or definition

e.g. ‘Figures for 2004 include still births, Figures for 2004 include still births, previously omitted from the statistics’previously omitted from the statistics’

e.g. ‘From 2001, ICD – 10 codes were used’‘From 2001, ICD – 10 codes were used’

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Difference in status of some entries in the tableDifference in status of some entries in the table

StatusStatus

e.g. ‘Figures for 2003 onwards are provisional’e.g. ‘Figures for 2003 onwards are provisional’

e.g. ‘* Data for 2003’e.g. ‘* Data for 2003’ – where all other data, – where all other data, as stated in the title, are for 2004as stated in the title, are for 2004

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SourceSource

The source of the data should be includedThe source of the data should be included

- This enables interested readers to gather more This enables interested readers to gather more informationinformation

- It also can give a guide to the quality of the data It also can give a guide to the quality of the data on showon show

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Template for a two-way layoutTemplate for a two-way layout

Total

etcetc

Category A2Category A2

Category A1

etcetcCategory B2Category B2Category B1Category B1

Factor BFactor BFactor A

TotalTotal

Source

Geographical and time coverageGeographical and time coverage Units Units

FootnotesFootnotes

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ExampleExample

Distribution of employed by age groups in Belarus 2006 (end of year; per cent of total)

of which Total

men women under 25 11,7 12,5 11,0

25-29 12,2 12,1 12,3 30-39 24,0 22,9 25,0 40-49 28,2 26,7 29,6

50-54 12,8 12,3 13,1 55 and over 11,1 13,5 9,0

Total employment 100 100 100

Source: Ministry of Statistics and Analysis

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FontsFonts

Different type faces (‘fonts’) may be used Different type faces (‘fonts’) may be used to provide discrimination;to provide discrimination;

For example, use of For example, use of boldbold type or type or italicsitalics

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Vertical OrientationVertical Orientation

Numbers are easier to compare when the table has Numbers are easier to compare when the table has a a vertical orientationvertical orientation

The eye can make comparisons more easily when The eye can make comparisons more easily when reading down the page than when reading acrossreading down the page than when reading across

This is especially true when the variables are This is especially true when the variables are recorded to varying numbers of significant digitsrecorded to varying numbers of significant digits

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ExampleExample

Main demographic indicators in Belarus

1959 1970 1979 1989 1999 2006

Population – total, thsd. 8055.7 8992.2 9532.5 10151.8 10045.2 9714.5

of which:

urban population 2480.5 3890.6 5234.3 6641.4 6961.5 7074.8

rural population 5575.2 5101.6 4298.2 3510.4 3083.7 2639.7

Source: Ministry of Statistics and Analysis

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ExampleExample

Main demographic indicators in Belarus

Population

total urban rural

1989 10151.8 6641.4 3510.4

1999 10045.2 6961.5 3083.7

2006 9714.5 7074.8 2639.7

Source: Ministry of Statistics and Analysis

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Be Consistent!Be Consistent!

Tables should have consistentconsistent appearanceappearance throughout the report

Conventions for labellinglabelling and orderingordering rows and columns, for example, should remain the same, as far as possible

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Don’t Interchange!Don’t Interchange!

A common fault is to A common fault is to interchangeinterchange the rows and the rows and columns of tables within the reportcolumns of tables within the report

For instance, For instance, - When one table in the report has sex labelling the When one table in the report has sex labelling the

rows and age group labelling the columnsrows and age group labelling the columns

- Whereas another table has sex labelling the - Whereas another table has sex labelling the columns and age group labelling the rowscolumns and age group labelling the rows

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NumberingNumbering

The most successful way of doing this in a The most successful way of doing this in a long report is to use a two-part number within long report is to use a two-part number within the chapter the chapter

((e.ge.g.. Table 10.5 is the fifth table in Chapter 10) Table 10.5 is the fifth table in Chapter 10)

Tables should be numbered in order, so Tables should be numbered in order, so that they can be referred to in the textthat they can be referred to in the text

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Use of AppendicesUse of Appendices

Any table which is not required so as to be able to Any table which is not required so as to be able to follow the written text, but yet is important to follow the written text, but yet is important to include, should be placed in the include, should be placed in the appendicesappendices

If there is a set of tables that should logically appear If there is a set of tables that should logically appear together, perhaps because they are all very similar, together, perhaps because they are all very similar, then they should appear in the appendicesthen they should appear in the appendices

Distractions from the narrative are thus preventedDistractions from the narrative are thus prevented

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Tables from the first draft are often replaced by Tables from the first draft are often replaced by diagrams diagrams in the final reportin the final report

This will be because the diagram is easier to This will be because the diagram is easier to understandunderstand

Also reference tables will very often be converted to Also reference tables will very often be converted to investigative tables on revisioninvestigative tables on revision

Replace with a Diagram?Replace with a Diagram?

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DIAGRAMSDIAGRAMS

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DiagramsDiagrams

The table is the simplest way to present numerical data

Diagrams cannot show numerical information as precisely, but they may be easier to understand, and thus more powerful as a descriptive tool

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All Diagrams Should Have …..All Diagrams Should Have …..

• A titleA title

• Axis labels (including units of measurement, Axis labels (including units of measurement, where appropriate)where appropriate)

• Tick marks on axesTick marks on axes

• Labels for some tick marksLabels for some tick marks

• Labels for subgroups (where appropriate)Labels for subgroups (where appropriate)

• Reference to the source of the data shownReference to the source of the data shown

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OrderingOrdering

When When natural orderingnatural ordering is possible, this is is possible, this is recommendedrecommended:

• For instance, the bars of a barchart may be For instance, the bars of a barchart may be arranged according to sizearranged according to size

Compare the next two examplesCompare the next two examples• Which gives the clearest message?Which gives the clearest message?

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Per capita expenditure on health, 2002 Per capita expenditure on health, 2002 (international dollars)(international dollars)

Source: WHOSource: WHO

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

Switherland France Denmark Belarus Russia Ukraine Moldova

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Per capita expenditure on health, 2002 Per capita expenditure on health, 2002 (international dollars)(international dollars)

Source: WHOSource: WHO

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Switherland

France

Denmark

Belarus

Russia

Ukraine

Moldova

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Diagrams: Plus PointsDiagrams: Plus Points

• Good for communicating non-specific quantitative Good for communicating non-specific quantitative comparisonscomparisons

• Attractive to look at: make a report look more Attractive to look at: make a report look more interestinginteresting

• Likely to appeal more to a general audience than Likely to appeal more to a general audience than a table of figuresa table of figures

• General time trends can be shown and compared General time trends can be shown and compared more effectively using line graphs than using more effectively using line graphs than using tablestables

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Example: Per capita expenditure on Example: Per capita expenditure on health (international dollars)health (international dollars)

total public private

Belarus 464 402 62

Moldova 100 56 44

Russian Fed. 454 310 144

Ukraine 176 120 56

Denmark 2.503 2.063 440

France 2.567 1.951 616

Switzerland 3.322 1.897 1.425

Source: WHO

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The Pie ChartThe Pie Chart

Source: WHOSource: WHO

Moldova

public

private

BelarusRussia

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The Grouped Bar Chart The Grouped Bar Chart (Per capita expenditure on health(Per capita expenditure on health,,

international dollars)international dollars)

Source: WHOSource: WHO

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Sw

ither

land

Fra

nce

Den

mar

k

Bel

arus

Rus

sia

Ukr

aine

Mol

dova

public

private

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The Component Bar Chart The Component Bar Chart (Per capita expenditure on health(Per capita expenditure on health,,

international dollars)international dollars)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Belarus

Moldova

Russian Fed.

Ukraine

Denmark

France

Switzerland

public

private

Source: WHOSource: WHO

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Line Chart (Moldova)Line Chart (Moldova)

Source: UNICEFSource: UNICEF

infant mortality rate

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 2006

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The Bar Chart (Moldova)The Bar Chart (Moldova)

Source: UNICEFSource: UNICEF

infant mortality rate

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 2006

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The Layer GraphThe Layer Graph

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1990/91 1995/96 2000/01 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07

10-11 (12) grades

5-9 grades

1-4 grades

Number of pupils in public day-time institutions Number of pupils in public day-time institutions providing general secondary education by grade providing general secondary education by grade groups (Belarus)groups (Belarus)

Source: National Statistical Committee of the Republic of BelarusSource: National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus

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MAPSMAPS

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MapsMaps

• Maps are an excellent medium for displaying data Maps are an excellent medium for displaying data according to geographical areaaccording to geographical area

• Many software packages (e.g. DevInfo) have Many software packages (e.g. DevInfo) have automatic plotting procedures and extensive map automatic plotting procedures and extensive map portfoliosportfolios

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GINI CoefficientGINI Coefficient

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Which chart for which comparison?Which chart for which comparison?

1.1. Components as Components as part of a wholepart of a whole

Pie chart. Component bar chart.

Type of comparisonType of comparison Possible Chart Possible Chart

2.2. Differences in Differences in composition of composition of a wholea whole

3.3. Sizes of related Sizes of related measurementsmeasurements

Component bar chart Component bar chart (vertical or horizontal bars). (vertical or horizontal bars). Layer graph. Multiple pie Layer graph. Multiple pie charts. charts.

Grouped bar chart Grouped bar chart (vertical or horizontal). (vertical or horizontal).

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Which chart for which comparison? Which chart for which comparison?

4. Changes over time in 4. Changes over time in one or more related one or more related measurementsmeasurements

Line graph. Line graph. Vertical bar chart.Vertical bar chart.Pictograms.Pictograms.

5. Change in ranked Change in ranked order of a set of order of a set of measurementsmeasurements

6. Relationship between two Relationship between two sets of measurementssets of measurements

Grouped bar chart.Grouped bar chart.

Scatter diagram.Scatter diagram.

Type of comparisonType of comparison Possible Chart Possible Chart

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Why use text to describe Why use text to describe quantitative results?quantitative results?

Because many peopleBecause many people

• Prefer plain language to tablesPrefer plain language to tables

• Need assistance in understanding tables and Need assistance in understanding tables and diagramsdiagrams

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Three General RulesThree General Rules

• Don’t send the reader to sleep!Don’t send the reader to sleep!

• Take care!Take care!

• Check your work!Check your work!

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Practical 13Practical 13

Tables & Diagram Tables & Diagram

Please answer all questions in the word Please answer all questions in the word document provideddocument provided