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__________________________1Submitted to RAeS Rotorcraft Conference: The Future Rotorcraft Enabling Capability Through the Application

of Technology, London, UK, 1516th June 2011.University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK (corresponding author: M. Jump, [email protected], + 44 (0) 151 7946845)Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Lausanne, SwitzerlandEidgenssisch Technische Hochschule,_Zrich, Switzerland*Karlsruher Institut fr Technologie, Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, Karlsruher,Germany

**Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft und Raumfahrt, Braunschweig, GermanyMax-Planck-Institut fr biologische Kybernetik, Tbingen, Germany (Project Coordinator: H. Blthoff,[email protected], +49-7071-601-601 )

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myCopter: Enabling Technologies for Personal Air

Transport Systems1

M. Jump, G.D. Padfield, & M.D. White, D. Floreano, P. Fua, J.-C. Zufferey &

F. Schill, R. Siegwart & S. Bouabdallah,

M. Decker& J. Schippl*, M. Hfinger**, F.M. Nieuwenhuizen & H.H. Blthoff

Abstract

This paper describes the European Commission Framework 7 funded projectmyCopter (2011-2014). The project is still at an early stage so the paper starts with thecurrent transportation issues faced by developed countries and describes a means tosolve them through the use of personal aerial transportation. The concept of personalair vehicles (PAV) is briefly reviewed and how this project intends to tackle the

problem from a different perspective described. It is argued that the key reason thatmany PAV concepts have failed is because the operational infrastructure and socio-economic issues have not been properly addressed; rather, the start point has been thedesign of the vehicle itself. Some of the key aspects that would make a personal aerialtransport system (PATS) viable include the required infrastructure and associatedtechnologies, the skill levels and machine interfaces needed by the occupant or pilotand the views of society as a whole on the acceptability of such a proposition. ThemyCopter project will use these areas to explore the viability of PAVs within a PATS.The paper provides an overview of the project structure, the roles of the partners, andhence the available research resources, and some of the early thinking on each of thekey project topic areas.

Nomenclature

2D 2-dimensional3D 3-dimensionalATS Air Transport SystemCBD Central Business DistrictDLR Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft-

und RaumfahrtEC European CommissionsEPFLCVLab Federal Institute of

Technology (colePolytechnique Fdrale )Lausanne, Computer VisionLaboratory

EPFLLIS Federal Institute ofTechnology (colePolytechnique Fdrale )Lausanne, Laboratory ofIntelligent Systems

ETHZ Eidgenssische TechnischeHochschule Zrich

FHS Flying Helicopter SimulatorGA General AviationGPS Global Positioning System

HQ Handling QualitiesHMI Human-Machine InterfaceIMU Inertial Measurement Unit


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KIT-ITAS Karlsruher Institut frTechnologie - the Institute forTechnology Assessment andSystems analysis

MTE Mission Task ElementsMPI Max Planck Institute for

Biological Cybernetics

NASA National Aeronautics andSpace Administration

PATS Personal Air TransportSystem

PAV Personal Air VehiclePPL Private Pilots LicenseSLAM Simultaneous Localisation

and MappingUAV Unmanned Aerial VehiclesUoL University of LiverpoolVTOL Vertical Take-Off and

Landing

1. BackgroundThere has been concern both within and beyondthe aerospace community regarding the state ofinnovation to support future air transportdevelopment. In the fixed-wing arena forexample, at first glance, a Boeing 707, firstflown in the 1950s looks very much like anAirbus A380 of the modern era, Figure 1. Inthe rotary-wing world, the configuration of themodern Agusta-Westland AW-101 is notdissimilar from that of the Sikorsky Sea-Kingfrom 40 years earlier, Figure 2. Of course,

there are good reasons for this evolutionarydevelopment; it carries much less risk thanrevolutionary development, and looks can bedeceiving - significant innovations have goneinto these vehicles at the individual componentlevel, conferring greater efficiency,

performance and safety upon them. To try tocounteract this perceived trend, the EuropeanCommission (EC) funded the Out of the Box

project to identify potential new concepts andtechnologies for future air transport [1], lookingahead to the second half of the 21 st century.The first part of this project generated 100 ideasthat might stimulate new technologies andconcepts within the air transport field. These100 ideas were then reduced to a final 6 in thesecond phase of the project. The intention was

to choose ideas that were radical rather thanevolutionary; were forward-looking rather thanhave an immediate application or meet animmediate demand; had specific technologychallenges; and, of course, offered potentiallysignificant impact and benefits to the AirTransport System (ATS) [1]. Therecommendations from Ref. [1] were then usedto help inform the direction of EC SeventhFramework Programme (FP7) research calls.One of the successful candidate ideas in [1] wasfor a Personal Air Transport System (PATS).This paper introduces one of the FP7 projectsestablished to investigate the enablingtechnologies that surround a PATS - myCopter[2]. The paper is constructed as follows.Section 2 introduces the transportationproblems that exist today, the previous conceptsthat have been put forward for personal airvehicles (PAVs) and how the myCopter projectintends to move the topic forward. Section 3provides more detail on how the project isstructured, the project partners and the facilities

that each of these provide access to. Section 4details some of the early outcomes of theproject. Section 5 concludes the paper.

2. Introduction2.1 Problem DescriptionThe volume of road transportation continues toincrease despite the many concerns regardingthe financial and environmental impact that this

implies [3, 4]. Whilst the average number oftrips per individual has declined since 1980, the

Figure 1. Boeing 707 (left) and Airbus A380 (right).

(not to scale)

Figure 2. Sea King (top) and AW-101 (bottom, not to

scale)


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average distance travelled has remainedapproximately the same and yet the averagetime spent travelling has increased [3]. Theaverage number of occupants in a vehicle in theUK has remained approximately constant at 1.6from 1997 to 2008 [3]. Elsewhere in WesternEurope, car occupancy rates have stabilised ataround 1.5 persons per car whilst in Eastern

Europe, occupancy rates are higher but are indecline, reflecting the growth of personal carownership in that region [5]. In the period 1999to 2004, for example, this metric increased byan average of 38%, but varied from +14% to+167%, depending on country [6]. Figure 3shows these data in more detail, broken downby year and individual country. Occupancyrates for business and commuting purposes aregenerally lower than those illustrated in theFigure. For example, in the UK, 84% of bothbusiness and commuting trips had only a singleoccupant in the vehicle [3]. European datafrom 1997 suggests occupancy rates of 1.11.2for commuting to/from the workplace [7] whilstmore recent data from Germany suggests littlechange with occupancy rates of 1.2 forcommuting and 1.1 for business trips [8].

One of the net results of this low occupancyrate is the congestion on European roads. Anobvious solution to this problem would be toencourage higher occupancy rates and/or

alternative forms of transport usage. However,efforts to attempt this have struggled to find

traction. Transport in general and urbantransport in particular has become heavilydependent upon motorised individual transport -75% of journey distances are accounted for bycars in Europe [6]. The resulting congestionnot only occurs in inner cities but also on urbanring roads. Every year, approximately 100

billion Euros, which is 1% of the EUs GDP,

are lost to the European economy as a result ofcongestion [9].

None of these statistics will come as anysurprise to those drivers constrained totravelling to and from their work place at peaktimes of the day. In London, Cologne,Amsterdam and Brussels, drivers spend morethan 50 hours a year in road traffic jams. InUtrecht, Manchester and Paris, they spend morethan 70 hours stationary on the road network[10].

One radical, rather than evolutionary solution tothe existing problems (which will only becomeworse if traffic volume continues to grow aspredicted and no action is taken) is to use thethird dimension for personal transportationsystems instead of relying on 2-dimensional(2D) roads.

Of course, the third dimension is already usedfor transportation purposes. In the main,however, air transport is used very differentlyfrom ground-based systems. Journeys made byair tend to be made at higher speed and for

Figure 3. European car occupancy rates (courtesy Ref. [5])


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longer distances and the vehicle is controlled(or at least monitored) by highly trained pilots.The passengers cannot participate in this singleform of transport directly from their own home.Instead, they must travel to an airport and theadvantages of the higher speed of travel is

reduced by such requirements as having tocheck-in several hours before travelling,progressing through security etc., oftendoubling or trebling the journey time.

Perhaps the closest that private citizens come toa personal air transport system is through thegaining of a private pilots license (PPL) and

the subsequent privileges that this confers uponthem. However, numbers are very lowcompared to road usage. In 2008, just short of23,000 PPLs of one sort or another were held inthe UK (data from Ref. [11]). This is comparedwith nearly 37 million full driving licenses inGreat Britain alone (data from Ref. [12]).These represent approximately 0.04% and 60%of the population respectively. In Germany, thesituation is similar. In 2004, just over 53million driving licenses were active (64% of thepopulation at the time) [13] whilst 37,634 PPLswere active in 2008 (0.04% of the population)[14]. Some of the reasons for this are obvious:the cost of obtaining and then maintaining a

PPL are significantly greater than thoseassociated with obtaining a driving license; thebasic PPL-holder is restricted to when andwhere they can fly (in sight of the ground, clearof cloud, clear of restricted airspace etc.) andthe skill levels required to fly current generalaviation (GA) aircraft are higher than that fordriving a car. Finally, to operate an aircraft, asimilar infrastructure is required as for airlineoperations i.e. airport or at least a suitable take-off and landing area. For small aircraft, of

course, this may simply be a short grass strip.This still implies the requirement for access to anearby small field that does not have built-upenvirons to be able to operate an aircraft.

The current road and air transportation systemscan therefore be summarised as follows. Theroad system is a popular means of business andleisure transport. A significant proportion ofthe population hold a license to drive and this,coupled with the number of single-occupancy

journeys, combine to cause severe congestionon the roads. Air transport is used for longerhigh speed journeys but, in its current form,

would not be suitable for a daily commute.Only a small proportion of the population holda PPL and various factors surrounding theholding of such a license also prevent it frombeing considered as a viable means of transporteither for commuting or business purposes as a

replacement for the car.

A logical step would be try to combine the bestaspects of both of these systems i.e. thepossibility of door to door travel at reasonablyhigh speed and free of congestion. The ideawould be to move towards a PATS in whichPAVs would have three-dimensional (3D)space at their disposal. Unlike cars or currentpublic transportation systems, the ideal PATSwould not require any new largescale facilities

or infrastructure such as roads, rails, stations orairports, which are expensive to setup andmaintain. An ideal PATS, however, would haveto provide effective solutions to the issuessurrounding pilot-vehicle interaction, collisionavoidance, the maintenance of heavy trafficflow and environmental impact which may bein direct conflict with the first requirement. Inany event, to avoid failure of the idea, thePATS should be designed with considerationgiven to the general populations needs and

wants.

2.2 Previous WorkIt is clear, then, that to release the thirddimension for personal transportation purposes,something different has to be conceived fromthat which currently exists. PAVs, of course,are not a new idea. Indeed, it might be arguedthat the vision for GA in the United States hasalways been to have an aircraft in the garage. The following provides a brief overview ofsome of these PAV concepts.

There have been a number of attempts tocombine a car and an aircraft into a singlevehicle the so-called roadable aircraft. TheTaylor Aerocar of 1949 [15] is an earlyexample of this kind of vehicle, with theCarplane road/air vehicle [16] andTerrafugias Transition [17] bringing amodern approach to this concept. Anadvantage of this type of vehicle is that it usesexisting infrastructure and the driving element

of the operation will be familiar to existingroad-users. The key disadvantages are two-fold.


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Firstly, without careful design, the resultingvehicle is likely to be both a poor road-vehicleand a poor aircraft. This outcome results fromthe additional weight that must be carried interms of nugatory structure and equipment thatare required for the individual phases of the

journey. Secondly, for a commuting journey ofmoderate distance, even if a one-way journey ofabout one hour travel time or 50 km distance is

assumed, the benefits of having to drive to an

airfield, fly to another airfield and then drivefrom the destination airfield to the work place,in terms of time saving, are likely to be minimal.At this stage, the project definition of areference commuting journey is still to becompleted. However, a useful start point can befound at Ref. [18].

To avoid having to use traditional runways andto provide a capability that would potentiallyallow flight from the users home, one optionfor a PAV is to use a rotary wing aircraft;ideally, without having to resort to thesignificant complexity and skill levels requiredto pilot a traditional helicopter configuration.The PAL-V [19] and Carter PAV [20] conceptsboth make use of auto-rotating rotors. ThePAL-V concept combines an autogyro with aroad-going capability. Vertical flight can beachieved in the Carter PAV concept bypowering the rotor up using the vehiclesengine and then performing a jump take-off.Such a manoeuvre does put a significantamount of energy into the rotor quickly andboth careful and robust design would berequired to achieve acceptable levels ofreliability/safety. There is also a question overthe safety of the autogyro concept. Fatalaccident statistics such as those reported in Ref.[21] show that current UK autogyro operations

are far more hazardous than other means offlight. There are several reasons posited for this,mainly surrounding the previous experience ofpilots who embark upon this type of flying.This issue will need to be addressed if suchconcepts are to become a mainstream form oftransport.

A different means of providing vertical lift andtranslational propulsion is via the use of ductedfans. The Moller Skycar [22] and Urban

Aeronautics X-Hawk [23] demonstratedifferent variants of this concept. Problems

with this type of vehicle relate to its potentialinstability, marginal performance in terms ofachieving high speed and its load-carryingcapability [23]. An un-ducted fan arrangementcan be seen in NASAs Puffin concept [24], butthe reduced safety implications of un-shrouded

rotors, despite their increased efficiency whencompared to their shrouded counterparts, mightlimit their utility in any mass-produced PAVconcept.

2.3 myCopter ApproachSo, the question remains as to why, if all ofthese vehicles are in development, are PAVsnot already in widespread use? Ref. [1]provides a number of possible explanations.Previous and more recent attempts at PAV

design have concentrated on the vehicle itself.The surrounding issues, for example, concept ofoperations, infrastructure, business models andthe target user(s) have been given much lesscoverage in the publications. The myCopterproject therefore has a different starting point;that of the operational concept and thetechnology that will be required to deliver theoperational infrastructure. As such, three keychallenges will be addressed. Firstly, thedesired level of interaction between driver or

pilot and vehicle will be established, includingthe level of training that will need to beemployed. It is anticipated that PAVs willfeature significant automation/autonomoustechnology but also a degree of occupantinvolvement in the flight management. There isa broad spectrum range of definitions ofautonomy, from a vehicle simply following apre-programmed function to sentient machinesinterpreting their internal states as well as theirenvironment to enable them to make decisionsabout future plans to achieve pre-programmedor even learned goals [25]. The myCopter

projects autonomy focus is likely to be at a

level between these two extremes. The level ofautonomy in a PAV will be considered as apartnership between the human and the machinesuch that the human can provide the strategicgoals whilst the machine converts them intooptimal tasks which are carried out to achievethem [25]. In this model, the level of authorityshared between the operator and machine canbe varied and this will be discussed in more

detail later in the paper. Secondly, thetechnology required to deliver the desired level


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of autonomy will be investigated. This willinclude guidance and navigation throughcluttered environments, choosing safe-arrivallanding positions, mid-air collision avoidanceand formation flying to facilitate smooth trafficflow. Finally, the socio-economic impact of a

PATS will be examined. Within this aspect ofthe project, questions surrounding theexpectations of potential users and how thepublic would react to and interact with such asystem will be addressed.

3. myCopter Project Overview3.1 Aims and ObjectivesThe aim of the project is to ascertain the typesof technologies and system(s) that would need

to be in place to allow a PATS to beimplemented. To support this aim, the projecthas the following objectives:

1. develop a concept of operations for aPATS;

2. investigate and test technologies thatsupport the envisaged concept ofoperations;

3. demonstrate a selection of the keyrequired technologies and,

4. examine the potential wider social andtechnological impact if a PATS wereto become reality.

These objectives map onto the projects 3 key

research themes:

1. PAV modelling, pilot training andhuman-machine-interaction (HMI)requirements;

2. Automation of the PAV and,3. Social and economic impact of a

PATS.

These research themes are discussed in moredetail in the remainder of the paper.

3.2 Project PartnersIn order to deliver the project, a Europe-wideconsortium of 6 partners has been formed.

1. The project is led by The Max PlanckInstitute (MPI) for BiologicalCybernetics in Tbingen, Germany.

MPI specialise in studying thepsychophysical and computational

aspects of visual and hapticrecognition, sensorimotor integrationand spatial cognition. MPI isresponsible for the overall projectmanagement. Its research activitieswill primarily focus on understanding

the perceptual underpinnings of thedesign of an effective HMI using theirknowledge in the area of humanperception and human-machineinteraction.

2. The Flight Simulation Group based inthe School of Engineering at TheUniversity of Liverpool (UoL) willprovide specialist knowledge in theaeronautical disciplines of flightdynamics, control, simulation and

handling qualities design andassessment. UoL is responsible formodelling the vehicles that will beused in this project (PAV concepts,micro unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)and medium scale unmanned aerialvehicles). UoL will work towardsunderstanding how to make flying asaccessible as driving and developingan efficient paradigm to train peoplewith a range of skills and abilities tomake this happen.

3. The Laboratory of Intelligent Systemsat the Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology (cole PolytechniqueFdrale), Lausanne (EPFL-LIS) usesprinciples of biological self-organisation for the design oftechnological artefacts withautonomous and adaptive intelligence.It is engaged in the fields of flyingrobotics, collective intelligence, andadaptive systems. The EPFL

Computer-Vision Laboratory (CVLab)focuses on shape and motion recoveryfrom video sequences. This includeshuman body modelling, fast objectdetection, and real-time reconstructionof deformable 3D surfaces. Theresults from an example algorithm isillustrated in Figure 4 and furtherdetail on typical algorithms to be usedin the project can be found in Refs [26,27]. EPFL-LIS will develop control

strategies for mid-air collisionavoidance and formation flying. They


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will also contribute to unmannedplatform development. EPFL-CVLabwill develop image-based algorithmsfor automated landing and take-off,including field selection, obstacleavoidance, and guidance during final

approach. A subset of such algorithmswill be integrated into a full-scalehelicopter test-bed for validationpurposes.

4. The Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology (EidgenssischeTechnische Hochschule Zrich),Zrich (ETHZ) autonomous systemslaboratory designs vehicles such aswheeled locomotion systems,autonomous micro-aircraft and

autonomous cars with 3D navigationand mapping capabilities in roughterrain. Their major research areas arecognitive mapping, feature-basedsimultaneous localisation and mapping(SLAM) using multiple modalities andpath planning in highly dynamicenvironments. ETHZ will also defineand develop control strategies forautomating the flight of a single PAVincluding automatic take-off,navigation and landing.

5. The Institute for TechnologyAssessment and Systems Analysis atthe Karlsruher Institut fr Technologie(KIT-ITAS) creates, evaluates andcommunicates knowledge on theimpact of human action with respect tothe development and use of newtechnologies. Its work focuses onenvironmental, economic, social,political and institutional issues. For

this purpose, the institute applies anddevelops methods of technology

assessment, systems analysis andtechnology foresight. KIT willcontribute to explore the socio-technological context, theinfrastructural environment, thepotential impact on society and social

expectations of a PATS.6. Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und

Raumfahrt (DLR) DLR is Germany'snational research centre for aeronauticsand space. It will contributeknowledge on various aspects ofvertical lift aircraft and UAVs.Specialist research topics includemodelling, simulation, flight testing ofnew approaches to improve handlingqualities and pilots situational

awareness, as well as functionalities toincrease vehicle autonomy andautomation. DLR operates the variablestability experimental helicopter, theEC-135 Flying Helicopter Simulator(FHS). DLR will provide the FHS as asimulation platform for evaluation ofexperimental PAV dynamics andtechnologies developed in the projectin a manned flying vehicle.Furthermore, DLR will support thedevelopment of dynamic models andexperimental displays for evaluation atUoL and MPI.

3.3 Key FacilitiesThe project consortium has been devised suchthat each of the partners provides a facility orcapability that will enable the project aims andobjectives to be achieved. The followingSection briefly outlines some of the keyfacilities that will be used during the project.

UoL will be developing flight dynamics modelsof typical PAV configurations to share with theproject partners. These will be developedinitially using FLIGHTLAB software [28].

Figure 4. Automated image-based airfield

localization developed by CVLab for the EU

Figure 5. UoL Simulation Facilities


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This allows integration for real-time pilotedsimulations with UoLs HELIFLIGHT [29] andHELIFLIGHT-R simulators, Figure 5. It isplanned that MPI will make use of these modelsto test HMI concepts in their CybermotionSimulator [30], which is based on ananthropomorphic robot arm. It has can providemotion in 6 degrees of freedom with its 7actuated joints, features an stereoscopicprojection system, and uses active controlloading devices to provide participants withhaptic cues and adjustable control devicedynamics and is shown in Figure 6.

EPFL-LIS and ETHZ have state of the artrobotics, electronics and computing facilitiesthat will allow development of algorithms and

vehicles on which to test them. EPFL-LIS havedeveloped a fleet of ten autonomous fixed-wingUAVs that can operate as a flock, Figure 7;both ETHZ and EPFL-LIS also have a range ofVTOL UAVs for indoor and outdoor use.Existing vehicles will be utilised where possibleand appropriate. For the Experimental and

Simulation Research phase of the project,

ETHZ will develop a VTOL system incollaboration with EPFL to specifically exploreselected automation issues surrounding the

vertical phases of flight.

Whilst computer and piloted simulation andsmall-scale aerial vehicle testing are an

important part of the project work, one of theexciting aspects of the planned work is that themost promising concepts from the variousresearch themes will be flight tested usingDLRs Flying Helicopter Simulator (FHS) [31],shown in Figure 8.

The FHS has several unique features whichmake it ideal for the myCopter project. First, itshighly flexible experimental system set-up andthe corresponding safety concept will allow theintegration, testing and evaluation of newalgorithms, HMI designs and control laws inflight. Second, DLR has experience with testingany new sensor technology requirements whichwill feed in to the proposed PAV automationarchitecture defined primarily by EPFL and

ETHZ. Finally, they have the safety protocols,the trained pilots, and the flight operationsorganisation necessary to conduct suchoperations.

The technological aspects of the project areclearly important. However, the paper hasalready stressed the equally important socio-economic aspects of a PATS. At KIT, theexisting know-how and data for the modellingof PAV integration into the transport systemwill be used to provide quantitative support fordifferent PATS scenarios (see Refs [32, 33] forexamples).

3.4 ScheduleThe myCopter project commenced on 1stJanuary 2011 and is planned to be of 4-yearsduration. The outline schedule is shown inFigure 9.

The Sharing Information Phase will start witha requirements capture exercise to establish

what it is that a PATS and a PAV will beexpected to do. This will inform the process

Figure 6. MPIs Cybermotion Simulator

Figure 7. EPFL-LIS autonomous UAVs

Figure 8. DLRs Flying Helicopter Simulator


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that will eventually define possible HMIs, theequipment needed for any autonomous controland the training parameters that will need to beused later in the project. An initial list ofinterest groups and industry partners will begathered for the purpose of socioeconomic

assessment. At Milestone M1, the results willreviewed and the components to be included inthe modelling phase will be determined.

During the Modelling Phase, information willbe shared between the project partners to allowPAV system dynamics to be modelled insimulation. Navigation algorithms will beprepared to begin the envisaged advancedautomation research. In parallel, there will bean initial overview of the sociotechnological

key issues.

The Preliminary Results Phase relates to theconsideration of the level of occupantinteraction with the flight management system.The design of psychophysical tests to establishthe types of control and visual displays to beused in a PAV will be started. At MilestoneM3, the selected aspects of the project to beused to collect more detailed results in thefollowing two phases will be determined. Thismilestone also includes the reporting ofpreliminary results. First, for the HMI andtraining studies, some initial designconsiderations will be reported. For theautomation theme, preliminary tests of midaircollision avoidance in simulation and automaticflight based on Global Positioning System (GPS)and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)technology will be performed. Finally, initialdocumentation and reports from interviewstowards evaluating the socioeconomic issueswill be created.

The Experimental and Simulation ResearchPhase will cover the experimental tests for boththe HMI and training scenarios, resulting in apreliminary description of the training paradigm,control dynamics and a potential human-machine interface for PAVs. Also, all

automation algorithms will be tested insimulation and prepared for the installation andtests on a model UAV in the next phase. Apreliminary assessment of which of theautonomous algorithms and parts of the HMIwill be able to be integrated into the plannedsimulated and actual flight tests will be made.

The Final reports and UAV Test Phasecovers the reporting of all of the innovationsmade in the project. Novel HMI components

for use in PAVs based on psychophysicalexperiments will be reported. Design criteria foracceptable PAV components and an overallPATS will be produced. Plans for integratingthe successful autonomous algorithms and partsof the humanmachine interface into themodelled PAV concept(s) for final evaluationwill be made.

The Dissemination and Final Test Phase isprimarily concerned with the evaluation andvalidation of the final myCopter results in theform of reports and tests in the projectsimulators and test aircraft. Potentialtechnology route maps to bring PAVs to themarket place, perception-based guidelines forHMI variants, and guidelines for vehiclehandling qualities and pilot/driver training willbe produced. In addition to the main testing ofpotential PAV handling qualities on thehelicopter flight test aircraft, there will be testsof the automation algorithms includingformation flying (up to 4 unmanned vehicles)

and simulations of various scenarios involving

Figure 9. myCopter outline schedule


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up to 40 PAVs per cubic kilometre (an averagevalue posited by Ref. [1]).

4. Initial ProgressAlthough the project is still in its initial phase,this Section outlines the progress made in each

of the research themes. Of course, these themesare not independent and will be runningconcurrently and so the results in one topic willinevitably impact on the others. For example,the social expectation might be for fullautomation of a PAV in the belief that thisensures a specified level of safety. Thisrequirement implies demands not only for the

robustness of the technologies to be used toprovide this level of automation but also on theinformation that a display system might provide

to a PAV occupant and on the level of skill thatthis individual might then need for normal andabnormal operation of the vehicle. As such,whilst the following sub-Sections are basedaround the individual research themes, theinteractive and iterative nature that will beneeded to satisfy the PATS/PAV requirementsshould not be forgotten or underestimated.

4.1 Modelling, Training and User-CentredHMI

The approach being taken in the modelling ofPAVS is to start in the abstract and refine to thespecific as required. This will also meanstarting with simple conceptual models anddeveloping them into more complex andsophisticated (i.e. more realistic) models as theproject demands. UoL expertise resides inflight dynamics and control and handlingqualities (HQ) assessment and it is thisbackground that will inform the modelling andtraining aspects of this research theme. As such,

UoL is developing a basic vehicle flight modelwith variable dynamic characteristics. Thismodel will be used to establish the envelope ofparameters that define the vehicle handlingcharacteristics that a PAV pilot can successfullycope with. Boundaries for a range of typicalskill levels will be established for theparameters i.e. it is expected that a skilled pilotwould be able to cope with more complexdynamics than a less skilled pilot. Thedynamics model has been developed to offer arange of possible response typesrate response,attitude response and translational rate response,as reported in Ref. [34]. The rotational

dynamics are modelled using first order transferfunctions for the rate response and second ordertransfer functions for the attitude response. Thetranslational rate response type is created byclosing a feedback loop around the attituderesponse transfer function. The Euler angles

and rates thus calculated are fed into themodels translational dynamics, where they are

combined with aerodynamic damping andgravitational effects to determine the vehicles

translational accelerations.

The normal process in handling qualitiesengineering is for the predicted handlingparameters such as attitude bandwidth andquickness to be evaluated based on the vehicleresponse, or, in the case of a simple simulationmodel, the models parameters [35]. For themyCopter handling investigations, it is of

benefit to be able to reverse-engineer thisprocess; that is, to determine the modelparameters based on the desired vehiclehandling qualities. An example result of thisprocess is shown in Figure 10, where thedesired roll bandwidth has been varied between4.0 rad/s and 2.0 rad/s for the model in attituderesponse mode. The second order transferfunction allows this to be accomplished whilemaintaining the same overall sensitivity to

control inputs.

The concept of operations or mission analysis,will be de-constructed into mission phases andthen mission task elements (MTEs) as definedin Ref. [36]. For each of the MTEs, a number ofaspects that relate to the PAV will have to beconsidered. Firstly, the piloting task andfunctions will need to be understood. It isconsidered unlikely that the envisagedpilot/driver ofa PAV will be able to cope with

a bare airframe rotorcraft of any description.However, a highly stabilised or augmentedvehicle may allow the pilot to drive the

vehicle easily in 3D, if this is deemednecessary; in handling qualities parlance, thismight be described as achieving Super Level-1HQ. Secondly, the vehicle dynamics andassociated operational and safe envelopes willhave to be considered. Whether the PAV is tobe flown manually or automatically, thevehicles dynamic characteristics will have tobe such that the control system can keep thevehicle safely within its flight envelope, whilstnot limiting performance. Of particular interest


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here will be how the pilot-vehicle systeminteraction changes in response to, for example,system failures. Finally, and related to this lastpoint, the pilot and the required flightmanagement information will need to beconsidered carefully. What, when and how to

display information will be considered. Withinthe project, various sources of informationtransfer will be investigated. Not only willconventional visual displays with aircraft stateinformation be considered, but also hapticfeedback and perspective displays will be usedsuch that the HMI is as intuitive as possible.This will allow a pilot to interact with the PAVsuch that car drivers with a typical range ofabilities can safely guide and navigate it.

All of the considerations mentioned above willhelp to define the type of training required toreach a given level of proficiency in a particularMTE. Once this has been established, a meansto reach the integrated piloting competency willbe formulated and tested.

4.2 PAV AutomationIt is tempting to think that a future PAV will befully automated and the driver will actually be

a passenger, perhaps only entering a destination

into the navigation system. For some journeys,this may well be the case and may provide extra

time in the day to catch up on work, read thenewspaper etc. Full automation is currentlyachieved for some unmanned vehicles inspecific scenarios, but the integration of PAVsinto densely populated airspace and theassociated requirements for collision avoidance

and vehicle motion coordination are stillunsolved research topics.

However, not all journeys are taken for solelypragmatic reasons. Car and motorcycle ownersmay simply go for a drive/ride. PPL-holderswill sometimes simply go flying for the sheerpleasure of the experience, not actually goinganywhere particular in the process. Users ofPAVs may actually want to fly the vehicle (or,at least, be given the illusion of flying the

vehicle). Whilst these may not be the primarydesign drivers for a PATS and/or PAV, it mightbe argued that a manual flight option could bemuch quicker, in some instances, than using anavigation-level interface and may, therefore,be more suited to spontaneous journeys wherethe destination is not precisely known inadvance. One possible solution would be afully automated system with a selected level oftransparency, allowing the user to steer thevehicle interactively whilst maintaining stabilityand hence safety in the background.

Figure 10. Sample results of initial variable handling qualities simulation model


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One further related question that arises is, in theevent of an emergency, if the human occupantis not engaged in at least the monitoring andmanagement of the journey, will they be able toengage with the vehicle/situation sufficientlyquickly to make a difference to the outcome?

In conventional aviation it is recognised that thepiloting skill required to deal with flight failurerelated emergencies is at a higher level than fornormal operations. This suggests that a PAVoperational concept that relies on the occupanttaking control in emergencies is perhapsunrealistic.

The brief discussion above points to a possiblerequirement for variable levels ofautomation/autonomy to be available in a PAV.There will almost certainly be an underlyingstabilisation system operating but the higherlevel guidance, navigation, decision-makingand planning flight management functions maybe made by either the human or the PATSsystems (which may or may not be on board thePAV). One means to quantify the level ofdelegation of authority that the human will giveto the PATS is via the Pilot Authority andControl of Tasks taxonomy [37]. Thistaxonomy supposes that the pilot makes aPACT contract with the autonomy by allocating

tasks to PACT modes and levels of automationaiding [38]. The original PACT taxonomy hassince been modified to add more granularitybetween the top two levels of delegation ofauthority. The refined PACT levels, taken fromRef. [38] are shown in Table 1. One area ofstudy therefore will be to ascertain what is theminimum level of autonomy/automation thatcan safely be tolerated for a given missionphase or even MTE. For example, it may bethat the take-off, climb and transition to cruise

is always PACT level 5b (computer doeseverything autonomously) whilst the cruiseitself may be PACT level 3 (computer suggestsoptions and proposes one of them e.g. a headingchange). If during the cruise, an emergencycollision avoidance manoeuvre is required, thePACT level 5a (computer chooses action,performs it and informs human) might thenneed to be invoked until the emergency is over.The discussion above is important because itwill impact across the whole of the project, for

example:

informing the training requirements fora given mission phase/autonomy level;

defining the information that an HMImight be required to convey and thelevel of human-machine interactionrequired

defining the design requirements forthe on-board automation and

establishing the acceptability of agiven level of automation in aPAV/PATS that society as a whole arecomfortable with.

4.3 Social and Economic ImpactThe success or failure of any innovation to atransport system not only depends on therelevant technological aspects but also on the

demand patterns, travel habits, the expectations,perceptions and attitudes of relevant actors (e.g.

PACT Locusof Authority

ComputerAutonomy

PACTLevel

Level of HMI

ComputerMonitored by

pilot

Full 5b Computerdoes

everythingautonomously

5a Computerchoosesaction,

performs it &informshuman

Computerbacked up by

pilot

Actionunless

Revoked

4b Computerchoosesaction &

performs itunlesshuman

disapproves4a Computer

choosesaction &

performs it ifhuman

approvesPilot backed

up bycomputer

Advice,and if

authorised,action

3 Computersuggestsoptions

and proposesone

of themPilot assistedby computer

Advice 2 Computersuggestsoptions

to humanPilot assistedby computeronly whenrequested

Adviceonly if

requested

1 Human askscomputer to

suggestoptions

and humanselects

Pilot None 0 Whole taskdone by

human exceptfor actualoperation

Table 1. Modified PACT Taxonomy


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users, environmental groups, regulators),geographical settings and many more factors.The exploration of the socio-technicalenvironment of PAVs will influence thetechnology-aspects of the project. The term co-evolution is used to describe this mutual

relationship between the socio-economicenvironment and the development of enablingtechnologies for PAVs. However, currently,little is known as to what extent the existinginfrastructure could be adapted to the needs ofPAVs, and there is no clear idea about whichgroups of society might be the main consumersof PAVs and for what purposes they will beused. There is also a lack of insight as to whatextent the design of PAVs might be adapted toexisting infrastructure and the demand and

preferences of society at large in relation toPAVs. Group interviews with potential userswill be conducted to learn more about theirexpectations towards PAVs with a special focuson the desired level of automation (see Table 1).

A common methodology in transport research isto use example scenarios and this technique willbe adopted in myCopter. The scenarios willsimulate the design of PATS in differentgeographical contexts. From the usersperspective, the PAVs in the PATS are of

utmost relevance since the PAV will be thetechnical entry point to the PATS. A roughconcept of the PAV is needed as a starting pointfor the scenario building. During the projectthese scenarios need to be further developed inan iterative process.

The Introduction to this paper illustrates that awide range of rather different visions about thedesign and mission of PAV have beendeveloped in the past. In the proposal for this

project it was specified that the main focus willbe on using a PAV for commuting or businesstravel. However, even in this context, somewhatdifferent requirements for such a vehicle can beimagined: VTOL, roof-top landing in a centralbusiness district (CBD), number of occupants,level of vehicle manoeuvrability on the ground,degree of automation, propulsion technologiesand acceptable noise levels, the vehicleownership model (aircraft in the garage,PAV-Sharing or PAV-Taxis) and so on. Toexplore these issues further, KIT-ITAS havedesigned some initial travel scenarios that focuson potential peer groups. Out of the scenarios

key requirements for the myCopter-PAVhave been identified during an internalworkshop with the project partners. ThismyCopter- PAV will be used as referencepoint during the project as a commonbenchmark, but does not prohibit other design

ideas in the project. The consortium agreed on areference PAV which would have the ability tofly under Instrument Flight Rules, with varyinglevels of automation, including full automationfor automated take-off and landings, as well asautomated collision avoidance. The vehicle willhave a 1+1 seat configuration with a VTOLcapability.

5. Concluding RemarksThis paper has described the myCopter project

which is supported by funding from the EC FP-7 programme and is currently in its formativephase. An apparent reduction in innovation inAir Transport led to a European studyproposing a number of radical, rather thanevolutionary, ideas for possible air transportsystems in the 2nd half of the 21st century. Theactual and forecast increasing use of roadtransport and the subsequent congestion andenvironmental impact that this implies led tothe idea of using the third-dimension for

personal transport. The PAV concept is not anew one but, it is argued, concentrating on thevehicle design alone is to miss out on the otherimportant issues that must be considered tomake a PATS a viable option. The myCopterproject will therefore set out to evaluateenabling technologies that will support PAVusage within a PATS under 3 main researchthemes, namely:

1. Vehicle concept modelling, trainingand HMI;

2. PAV automation and3. Socio-economic impact.

The project consortium has been described andthe role and expertise of each partner outlined.Initial progress has been described. The PATSconcept of operations will inform a handlingqualities approach to assessing acceptablevehicle dynamics for a PAV. Variable levels ofautomation will be assessed and used to informthe training needs of a PAV occupant such thatthe use of PAVs can complement the use of 2Dmodes of travel used today and envisaged forthe future. The formative requirements for a


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reference PAV that will reside within a PATSto be used for discussion purposes have beenreported.

Acknowledgements

The work reported in this paper is funded by theEC FP-7 research funding mechanism.

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