2 chapter two - quality management

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QUALITY MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER TWO



• Inspection Vs Quality

• Seven Stages of Quality

• ISO 9000 and ISO 14000

• Seven Tools of Quality Circles

Pareto Chart, Cause and Effect Diagram, Histograms, Stratification, Scatter

Diagram, Control Charts, Check Sheets• Concept of Total Quality Management and Problems

• Excellence in all the sub-systems leading to Organizational Excellence

• Introduction to SIX SIGMA, QFD and FMEA and POKAYOKE

• Vendor Quality Rating

• Cases – How to Improve Quality

Contents of the Chapter



Inspection Vs QualityInspection:

The Act of determining the conformance or non-conformance of the expected performance is the function of Inspection.

Quality :Quality is the performance of the product as per thecommitment made by the producer to the consumer.

Quality is a written or non-written commitment to a knownor an unknown consumer.



QualityQuality is Uniformity to Requirements, not goodness – P B Crosby

Quality is fitness for use or purpose – J M Juran

Distinct Features of Quality:

1. Fitness for use

2. Grade

3. Degree of Performance

4. Degree of Excellence

5. Conformity to requirements



Quality CirclesQuality Circles are small groups of employees who meetregularly for solving different problems related mainly

with cost, quality, efficiency, equipment, tools, morale, process control, missed work, safety, learning andmaintenance, etc.

Quality Circle is a small group that voluntarily performsquality control activities within the shop, where itsmembers work, the small group carrying out its work continuously as part of a company wide programme of quality control, self development, mutual development,flow control and improvement within workshop.



The Structure of Quality Circles1. Steering Committee

Provide overall guidance, suggest problems for the circles to address,receive recommendations from the circles and follow up on theimplementation

2. FacilitatorsFacilitators provide training for the leaders and support the training

programs for the members.

3. Circle LeadersLeaders have responsibilities like, training the members in problem

identification and solution methods, preparing an effective presentation for the management.

4. Circle Members

These are volunteers from the regular work force.



Developing a Quality Circle ProgramPhase Activity Destructive Force

Start - Up Publicize. Obtain funds andtrain volunteers

Low Volunteer rate.Inadequate fundingIn ability to learn

Initial Problem Solving Identify and Solve Problems Disagreement on ProblemsLack of Knowledge of

Operations Approval of InitialSuggestions

Present and have initialsuggestion accepted.

Resistance by Staff groupsPoor Presentation /Suggestion

Implementation Relevant Groups . Act on Suggestions.

Prohibitive CostsResistance by Groups

Expansion and ProblemSolving

Form New GroupsOld Groups Continue

Member, Non-MemberConflictRaised AspirationsLack of Problems

Decline Fewer Groups Meet Cynicism about programmsBurnout



Benefits of Quality Circle Programme1. Collecting ideas for work improvement from those closest to the work

itself

2. Providing opportunities for problem-solving

3. Dealing with special projects on a temporary basis

4. Enhancing personal and professional; growth of Quality Circlemembers

5. Team Building

6. Helping the Organization make the transition to a more participativeculture.



Towards Better Quality Circles Programmes1. Obtain Managerial Support and Involvement for the Programme

2. Identify Goals for the Programme and evaluation criteria.

3. Do not expect the QC program to solve all the problems in the organization.4. Make sure that the managers realize that any change will take time.

5. Inform all employees about the Philosophy and Goals of the programme.

6. Keep the programme voluntary

7. Select group members based on their technical expertise and their support of the programme’s goals.

8. Prepare individuals for their new roles in a Participative Culture

9. Provide on going training for managers as leaders.

10. Provide training for support staff who will serve as facilitators

11. Start with a pilot test for the programme in a supportive department

12. Implement the suggestions made by employees

13. Provide recognition for the employees’ efforts



ISOINTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION

Location : Geneva, Switzerlandisos (Greek) : Equal, Homogenous or Uniform.

ISO is an attempt to bring in uniformity in the quality standards prevailing -each pertaining to different country.

British Standards : BSIGerman Standards : DIN

American Standards : MIL Standards

India : BIS

European Union : EN

ISO consists of SIX standards : ISO 8402, ISO9000, ISO 9001, ISO 9002, ISO9003, ISO 9004



ISO 9000 - Content

ISO 8402 : Standardization of Quality Vocabulary

ISO 9000 : Series of Guidelines for selection and use of

appropriate system standards of ISO 9001, ISO 9002,

ISO 9003.

ISO 9000 is the road map to the entire series.

ISO 9004 : Building up a Quality System that can fit to a

specific situation.

It offers guidelines for interpreting the elements

required in ISO 9001, ISO 9002, ISO 9003.



Chapters in ISO1. Scope and Field of Application

2. References

3. Definitions

4. Management Responsibility

5. Quality System Principles (Structure of Quality System, Documentation,

Auditing)6. Economics (Quality Related Cost Considerations)

7. Quality in marketing

8. Quality in Specification and Design

9. Quality in Procurement

10. Quality in Production (Process Control)



11. Control of Production

12. Product Verification (Inspection and Testing)

13. Control of Measuring and Test Equipment

14. Non-Conformity (Control of Non- Conforming Products)

15. Corrective Action

16. Handling and Post Production Actions.( Storage, Packing, Delivery, After SalesServices)

17. Quality Documentation and Records

18. Personnel (Training)

19. Product Safety and Liability

20. Statistical Methods

Chapters in ISO



ISO 9001ISO 9001:

ISO 9001 is very difficult because it includes all the twenty elements. Thiscomprehensive certification is desired by manufacturing organizations whichdesign their own products.

ISO 9002:

ISO 9002 two of the Twenty elements are dropped (Design and Servicing) soas to focus more on manufacturing. ISO 9002 applies to firms which providegoods / services as per the design specifications given by the customer.

ISO 9003:

ISO 9003 standards drops most of manufacturing, leaving only final testing and

inspection. ISO 9003 certification is generally desired by organizations like thetesting laboratories which inspect and test the supplied products. This ISOstandard is the least comprehensive of the three.



• ISO 9000 series is a system standards and not a productquality standard.

• If a firm gets ISO 9000 certification it does notautomatically mean that the firm’s products/ Servicesare superior in quality to the other firm which has notopted for such certification.



Benefits from ISO 90001. ISO 9000 Certification is a minimum requirement for those companies

wishing to compete globally.

2. All actions in preparing for ISO 9000certification and in maintaining thecertification would result in streamlining of the quality managementsystem which may lead to improvement in product quality.

3. It can lead to significant cost reduction through reductions in rework, warranty work, repair, scrap etc.

4. ISO 9000 lays stress on customer orientation. This would result inbetter overall results for the company in addition to improvingcustomer relations.

5. There is a very good scope for improvement in Employee Relations,Employee Empowerment and Organizational Development.



Getting an ISO Certification is not all.

There are re-audits by the ISO Registrars every THREE

years.

There are Surveillance audits approximately twice a year in

order to ensure continued compliance.

ISO certification is valid not more than THREE Years.



ISO 14000ISO 14000 – Global Environmental Management Standards

ISO 14000 have no formal relationship with ISO 9000series of standards.

The intentions behind ISO 14000 is to bring about globalenvironmental considerations in all industrial and business

activities, transcending narrow national or regionalconsiderations.

Environmental Effects are Global and therefore there are severaltransnational issues.

ISO 14000 is a voluntary Certification.



Quality Control help achieve the qualitative objective of the production system by keeping a check on all the

parts of a production system that may have an impact

on the quality of product.

Quality Control



Prof. Karou Ishikawa - Father of Quality Control

He developed the Seven tools of Quality control, which can be used by a teamor an individual to interpret data and derive maximum information from it.

These are Seven Effective methods which can offer any organization the meansto collect, present and analyze most of its data and problems. They are…

1. Pareto Chart.

2. Cause and Effect Diagram

3. Histogram

4. Stratification

5. Scatter Diagram

6. Control Charts

7. Check Sheets

Seven Quality Control Tools



Pareto ChartsPareto Chart developed by Pareto (Italian Economist)

The chart recognizes that in the real world a minority of causeslead to the majority of problems.

According to Pareto Principle 80% problems can be solved bytackling with only 20% items out of all.

45%

17%16% 13% 5% 4%

% Rejects

Rejects Causes



Cause and Effect DiagramCause and Effect Diagram or the Fish Bone Diagram

The Cause and Effect diagram is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a particular effect. The effect being examinedis normally a troublesome aspect of product or service qualitysuch as a machined part not to specification, delivery times

varying too widely, excessive number of bugs in software underdevelopment, etc.

IncorrectDeliveries



Developing a Cause / Effect Diagram

Developing a CE diagram in a team meeting is a very

effective technique for:-Concerning team members’ attention on a specificproblem.

Pooling, and reflecting back, team thinking.

Constructing a picture of the problem at hand

without resorting to the tight discipline of a flow chart.



How to Draw CE DiagramConstructing a CE Diagram is a THREE Step Process:

Step 1:Write down the effect to be investigated and draw the backbonearrow to it.

Step 2;

Identify all the broad areas of enquiry in which the causes of theeffect being investigated may lie.

Step 3:

Each cause identified should be fully explored for further morespecific causes which, in turn, contribute to them.



Histogram A Histogram is graphic summary of variation in a set of data. It enables usto see patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers.

Histograms can be analyzed to draw conclusions about the data set. A Histogram is a graph in which the continuous variable is clustered intocategories and the value of each cluster is plotted to give a series of bars.

Categories of Continuous Variables

N u m

b e r

Lower Spec Limit Nominal Spec Upper Spec Limit



StratificationStratification is stratifying or Categorizing of data in somemeaningful categories. Categories can be determined byequipment, by operator, by operation method or by raw materials.

The groups might include data relative to the environment, the people involved, the machine or the machines used in the process, materials, and so on.

Grouping of data by common element or characteristic makesit easier to understand the data and to pull insights from it.

right stratification leads to the root cause of the problem. Onlyif the root cause is corrected will the problem be solved.



Scatter DiagramScatter Diagram is a figure applied to visualize the relation of two variables. The Scatter diagram is used to determine the

correlation (Relationship) between two characteristics(Variables).

A Scatter Plot is effectively a line graph with no line. The pointintersections between the two data sets are plotted but noattempt is made to physically draw a line.

C o

l o r

Age of Bread



Control ChartsControl Charts is an instrument to be used in the production,specification and Inspection. It tells us at a glance whether ornot a process is within the tolerance limits. A typical controlchart consists of a central line, upper control limit and lowercontrol limit.

Sample Number

Q u a

l i t y S c a

l e

Control Limit ( μ )

μ - 3 σ

μ + 3 σ

Lower Control Limit

Upper Control Limit

T f C l Ch



Types of Control ChartsControl Charts are generally grouped into two parts.

1. Control Charts for Variables.1. Control Chart for Mean2. Control Chart for Range3. Control Chart for Standard Deviation

2. Control Charts for Attributes1. Number of defectives Chart for constant sample size n.(np

chart)2. Fraction Defective Chart for varying sample size ( p chart)3. Number of defects chart for constant sample size. (c chart)4. Number of defects per unit chart for varying sample size.

(u chart)



Check SheetsCheck Sheet is a tool applied in the data collection

phase. There are various cells in the check sheets thatcorrespond to the data categories. A check sheetcontains drawings or designs to check locations of failure occurrences.

The purpose of the check sheet is to make it easy tocollect for specific purposes and to present it in a waythat it facilitates conversion from data to usefulinformation.



Quality Control ProcessIn general the quality control process involves the following

steps:

1. Preparation of Policies regarding Quality.

2. Fixation of Quality Standards relating to materials andProcesses.

3. Designing the Productive System.

4. Inspection and Control of Materials.

5. Inspection and Control of Processes.6. Production of Goods and Services.

7. Inspection of Final Products / Services

f



Objectives of Quality Control• Increased Sales Volume

• Increased Profits

• Improving the Company Image

• Improving The Production System• Better Procurement of the Materials

• Analyzing and doing away with the deviations

• To reduce the cost of Inspection and Losses



Advantages of Quality Control• Consumer Satisfaction

• Quality Consciousness• Job Satisfaction to Workers

• Reduction in Inspection Costs and Savings in Wastage and Scrap

• Better Utilization of Resources• Reduction in Production Cost

• Increased Sales

• Better Industrial Relations• Uniform Products

• Facilitates Price Fixation



Total Quality Management



Total Quality Management A more enlightened approach to quality, emphasizesbuilding quality into the product by studying andimproving activities that effect quality, frommarketing through design to manufacturing.

This new approach is referred to as Total Qualitymanagement (TQM).

It is an active approach, encompassing a company wide operating philosophy and system forcontinuous improvement of quality. It demandscooperation from the top management down to the

workers.



Origin of TQM

TQM owes its origin to two Americans –

W Edward Deming and J M Juran – wholaunched it first in Japan which was onthe process of rebuilding its economydevastated by World War II.

b l



Key Contributors to Quality Management

h h l h



The Deming PhilosophyDeming made the initial insight that a firm could neverinject quality into a product. A quality productcombines a good design with effective productionmethods . Only by meeting both these conditions coulda firm assure quality.

Deming advocated a never ending cycle of productdesign, manufacture, test and sales, followed by marketsurveys and then redesign and so forth. He claimed thathigher quality leads to higher productivity, which in turnleads to long term competitive strength. The Deming“chain reaction” theory summarizes this view.

D i ' Ch i R i Th



Deming's Chain Reaction TheoryImprove Quality

Costs decrease because of lessrework, fewer mistakes, fewerdelays and snags better use of

time and materials

Productivity Improves

Capture the Market with BetterQuality and Low Price

Stay in Business

Provide Jobs and More Jobs

D i ’ 14 P i f M



Deming’s 14 Points for Management 1. Create constancy of purpose for continual improvement of product and service.

2. Adopt the new philosophy for economic stability.

3. Cease dependency on Inspection to achieve Quality.

4. End the practice of awarding business on price tag alone.

5. Improve constantly forever the system of production and service.

6. Institute training on the job.

7. Adopt and institute modern methods of supervision and leadership.

8. Drive out fear.

9. Breakdown barriers between departments and individuals.

10. Eliminate the use of slogans, posters and exhortations.

11. Eliminate Work Standards and Numerical Quotas.

12. Remove the barriers that rob the hourly of the right to pride in workmanship.13. Institute a vigorous Program of education and retraining.

14. Define Top Management’s permanent commitment to ever improving quality andProductivity.



Deming’s Seven Deadly Diseases and Sins 1. Lack of Constancy of purpose

2. Emphasis on short term profits.

3. Over reliance on Performance appraisals.

4. Mobility of Management.

5. Over Emphasis on visible figures.

6. Excessive Medical Costs for employee health care.

7. Excessive costs of Warranty and Legal Costs.

D i ’ P i



Deming’s Prize Recognizing Deming’s Important effect on the

performance of Japanese firms, the JapaneseGovernment instituted the Deming Prize in 1951. Thisannual award recognizes a company or individual foractive contributions to the development of QualityManagement Tools or to the spread and implementationof quality improvement programs.

The Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE)awards Deming Prize to a company or its division basedon the distinctive performance improvements achievedby it through the application of Company Wide QualityControl (CWQC)

The Deming Application prize Checklist



The Deming Application prize ChecklistItems Check Points

Policies •Management, Quality and Quality Control / Management

Policies•Methods of Establishing Policies

• Appropriateness and Consistency of Policies•Utilization of Statistical Methods

•Communication and Dissemination of Policies

•Checks on policies and status of their achievement

• Their Relationship to short and long term plan

The Organization and its Operations •Clarity of Authority and Responsibility

• Appropriateness of Delegation of Authority •Inter-departmental coordination

•Committee Activities

•Utilization of Staff •Utilization of QC Circle Activities

•Quality Control Management Diagnosis



Items Check Points

Education and Dissemination •Education plan and Results

•Consciousness of Quality, Quality Control Management

•Education on Statistical Concepts and Methods

•Grasp of Effects

•Education of Associated Companies

•QC Circle Activities

• The system of Improvement, Suggestions and its status.

Information Gathering,Communication and its utilization •Collection of External Information.•Inter-Departmental Communication

•Utilization of Statistical Methods

•Information Processing, Analysis and Utilization of Information

Items Check Points



Analysis •Selection of Important Issues and Improvement Themes

• Appropriateness of Analytical Methods

•Utilization of Statistical Methods•Linkage with Industry Intrinsic technology

•Quality Analysis and process Analysis

•Utilization of Analysis results• Action Taken on Improvement Suggestions

Standardization •System of Standards•Methods of establishing, Revising and Abolishing Standards

• Actual Performance in establishing, Revising and Abolishing Standards•Contents of Standards•Utilization of Statistical Methods

• Accumulation of Technology

•Utilization of Standards

tems ec o nts



Control / management •Management Systems for quality and other relatedelements.

•Control Points and Control Items

•Utilization of Statistical Methods and concepts.

•Contributions of QC Circle Activities

•Status of Control Management Activities

•In-Control Situations

Quality Assurance •New Product and Service Development Methods•Preventive Activities for Safety and Product Liability

•Degree of Customer Satisfaction•Process Design, Process Analysis and Process Control• Process Capabilities

•Instrumentation and Inspection

•Management of facilities, vendors, procurement, services

•Quality Assurance System

•Quality Evaluation and Audit.



Items Check Points

Effects •Measurement of Effects

• Tangible effects such as quality, service, delivery, cost,profit, safety and environment.

•Intangible Effects

•Conformity of actual performance to planned effects

Future Plans •Concrete Understanding of Current Situation

•Measures of solving defect problems

•Future Promotion Plans

•Relationship between future plans and long term plans.

Deming Wheel



Deming Wheel To successfully practice TQM in a firm, top managers must take the firststep; accepting and committing themselves to the guidelines and points

that form the basis of TQM. The firm can then begin to implement TQMusing the Deming Wheel.

The Deming Wheel or Deming’s Cycle which is also known as the PDCA Cycle is a problem solving process adopted by firms engaged inContinuous Improvement

TQM Triangle



TQM Triangle TQM needs the establishment of the following THREE fundamentalCharacteristics…

1. Commitment (to never ending quality improvement and Innovation)

2. Scientific Knowledge (of the proper tools and techniques for the technical change)

3. Involvement (All in One team, for the social change)

Deming on Slogans



Deming on SlogansUseless and Meaningless Slogans1. Be a Quality Worker2. Zero defects

3. Take Pride in your Work 4. Do it right first time5. Safety is up to you6. Target for the month : 95% success7. Increase Productivity8. Increase sales by 10%9. We believe in Quality10. Quality is our Motto.Useful and Constructive Announcements1. Better Maintenance2. Better Training3. Better Purchased Material4. More statistical Aids5. Never Ending Improvement6. Long term Survival, not only short term profits7. Work Smarter, not harder

Six Basic Concepts of TQM



Six Basic Concepts of TQM1. A committed and involved management to provide long

term top – to – bottom organizational support.

2. An unwavering focus on the customer, both internallyand externally.

3. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire workforce.

4. Continuous Improvement of the business and production process.

5. Treating suppliers as Partners

6. Establish performance measures for the processes.

What is TQM



What is TQM• Intense Focus on customer – both external and

Internal

• Concern for Continuous Improvement – Quality canalways be Improved

• Improvement in the quality of everything theorganization does.

• Accurate measurement of every critical performance

variable in the company’s operations. • Empowerment of Employees

EIGHT Essentials of TQM Focus



EIGHT Essentials of TQM Focus1. Customer Satisfaction

2. Leadership

3. Quality Policy

4. Organizational Structure

5. Employee Involvement

6. Quality Cost

7. Supplier Selection and Development

8. Recognition and Reward

Seven Underlying Principles of TQM



Seven Underlying Principles of TQM1. Strive for Quality in all things

2. The customer is the criterion of Quality

3. Improve the process or system by which products are produced.

4. Quality Improvement is Continuous, never endingactivity.

5. Worker Involvement is Essential.

6. Ground decisions and actions in knowledge.

7. Encourage Team Work and Cooperation.

Necessity for Total Quality Management



Necessity for Total Quality Management1. TQM adds value to the services offered to the

customer2. All personnel are involved, which improves

motivation and commitment.

3. TQM provides assurance that performance andprocesses are well understood.

4. TQM is economic in the long term to both thecompany and its customers.

Why TQM Programs Fail



Why TQM Programs Fail The most common causes for TQM program failures appear to be

the following:

1. Lack of commitment from the top management.

2. Focusing on Specific techniques rather than on the system.

3. Not obtaining employee buy-in and participation.

4. Program stops with Training.

5. Expecting Immediate Results, not a long term pay-off

6. Forcing the organization to adopt methods that are not productive or compatible with its production system and personnel.

Quality Control Vs TQM



Quality Control Vs TQMQuality Control Total Quality Management

Inspection after the fact Design quality into the product and production system

Focus on consequences of poor quality Focus on identifying and eliminating causesof poor quality

Customer is Purchaser Customer is user

Some number of defects is normal Goal is Zero Defects

Responsibility for Quality Control isassigned to individuals or departments

Quality is the responsibility of everyone

Improving Quality increases cost Improving Quality typically pays for itself

Traditional Management Vs Total Quality Management



Traditional Management Vs Total Quality Management

• Organizational Structures• Role of People

• Definition of Quality• Goals and Objectives• Knowledge• Management Systems• Management’s Role • Union - Management Relations• Team Work • Supplier Relationships• Control

• Customers• Responsibility• Motivation• Competition

Elements of TQM



Elements of TQM

Tools of QC DepartmentsPhilosophical Element Generic Tools

Benefits of TQM



Benefits of TQM

Tangible Benefits Intangible Benefits

• Better Product Quality • Effective Team Work

• Productivity Improvement • Enhancement of Job Interest

• Reduced Quality Costs • Improvement in HR and work areamorale

• Increased Market • Participation Culture

• Increased Profitability • Customer Satisfaction

• Reduced Employee Grievances • Enhanced Problem SolvingCapacity

• Improved Corporate Health andcharacter of the company

• Better Company Image

The Juran Philosophy



The Juran Philosophy Juran’s contribution to TQM centers on four themes

1. Compelling definitions of QUALITY and the cost of quality (COQ)

2. Quality Habit

3. Quality Trilogy

4. Universal Breakthrough Sequences.

Juran’s TEN Steps for Quality Improvement



Juran s TEN Steps for Quality Improvement1. Build awareness for the need and opportunity for Improvement

2. Set Goals for Improvement

3. Organize people to reach the goals

4. Provide training throughout the organization

5. Carryout projects to solve problems

6. Report progress

7. Give Recognition

8. Communicate Results

9. Keep Score10. Maintain momentum to make annual improvement part of the regular

system and processes of the company.

Quality Trilogy



Quality Trilogy

Quality Trilogy



Quality TrilogyQuality trilogy has a sequence of events which fits all functions,levels of management and product lines.

The first phase starts with quality planning at various levels of organization.

The Second Phase is quality control which has a goal to run the

process effectively such that the plans are successfullyimplemented.

The Third Phase is Quality Improvement which deals with thecontinuous Improvement of the product and the process. This

phase is also called as the breakthrough sequence.

SIX SIGMA



SIX SIGMA Six Sigma means faultless quality right across the company management.

This technique is the latest and the highest form of quality management. Itsurpasses ISO 9000.

SIX SIGMA allows variations up to 6 times the standard deviation withoutcausing flaws. SIX SIGMA philosophy is the same as that of TQM – reducing defects.

1σ -3σ -2σ -1σ 3σ 2σ

Original Defects

5σ 4σ -6σ -5σ -4σ 6σ

SIX SIGMA



SIX SIGMA The term SIX SIGMA indicates that

a) This is a qualitative methodology.

b) It is much more stringent than the traditional THREE SIGMA Statistical ProcessControl Model (SPC)

SIGMA Levels Yield Percentage Defects per Million

1 30.9 6900002 69.2 308537

3 93.3 66807

4 99,4 6210

5 99.98 233

6 99.9997 3.4

What if Traditional 3Sigma were followed



What if Traditional 3Sigma were followed• Virtually no modern computer would function.

• 10,800,000 healthcare claims would be mishandled each year.

• 54,000 cheques would be lost each night by a single large bank.

• 540,000 erroneous call details would be recorded each day from a regionaltelecommunications company.

• 270,000,000 erroneous credit card transactions would be recorded each year in the United States.

Benefits of SIX SIGMA



Benefits of SIX SIGMA

• It introduces rapid and almost radical Improvement.

• It transforms the entire organization.

• It provides a consistent metric.

• The Customer is always in focus.

• It is Continuous Improvement Ptocess, as well.

What is QFD?



Q

Quality Function Deployment is a design

planning process driven by customer requirements.

1. QFD deploys “The Voice of the Customer” throughout theorganization.

2. QFD uses planning matrices -- each called “The House of Quality”.



Voice of the Designer

Voice of the Customer

Benchmarking

Reverse Engineering

Deploying the Voice Of Customer



Deploying the Voice Of Customer

TechnicalRequirements

CustomerRequirements

ProductRequirements

TechnicalRequirements

ProcessRequirements

ProductRequirements

ControlRequirements

ProcessRequirements

The Objectives of QFD



1. Determine the voice of thecustomer.

2. Examine the company’s response tothis voice.

What is FMECA or FMEA



What is FMECA or FMEA Failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA) is amethodology to identify and analyze:

• All potential failure modes of the various parts of a system• The effects these failures may have on the system• How to avoid the failures, and/or mitigate the effects of the

failures on the system

FMECA is a technique used to identify, prioritize, and eliminatepotential failures from the system, design or process before theyreach the customer

– Omdahl (1988)

FMECA is a technique to “resolve potential problems in a system before they occur”

– SEMATECH (1992)

FMECA - FMEA



Initially, the FMECA was called FMEA (Failuremodes and effects analysis). The C in FMECA indicates that the criticality (or severity) of the

various failure effects are considered andranked.

Today, FMEA is often used as a synonym forFMECA. The distinction between the two termshas become blurred.

Background



• FMECA was one of the first systematic techniques for failureanalysis

• FMECA was developed by the U.S. Military. The firstguideline was Military Procedure MIL-P- 1629 “Procedures for

performing a failure mode, effects and criticality analysis”dated November 9, 1949

• FMECA is the most widely used reliability analysis techniquein the initial stages of product/system development

• FMECA is usually performed during the conceptual and initialdesign phases of the system in order to assure that all potentialfailure modes have been considered and the proper provisionshave been made to eliminate these failures

What can FMECA be used for?



• Assist in selecting design alternatives with high reliability and highsafety potential during the early design phases

• Ensure that all conceivable failure modes and their effects onoperational success of the system have been considered

• List potential failures and identify the severity of their effects

• Develop early criteria for test planning and requirements for testequipment

• Provide historical documentation for future reference to aid inanalysis of field failures and consideration of design changes

• Provide a basis for maintenance planning

• Provide a basis for quantitative reliability and availability analyses.

Types of FMECA



• Design FMECA is carried out to eliminatefailures during equipment design, taking intoaccount all types of failures during the wholelife-span of the equipment

• Process FMECA is focused on problems

stemming from how the equipment ismanufactured, maintained or operated

• System FMECA looks for potential problems

and bottlenecks in larger processes, such asentire production lines

FMECA – Pros and Cons



Pros:

• FMECA is a very structured and reliable method for evaluatinghardware and systems

• The concept and application are easy to learn, even by a novice

• The approach makes evaluating even complex systems easy to

do

Cons:

• The FMECA process may be tedious, time-consuming (and

expensive)• The approach is not suitable for multiple failures

• It is too easy to forget human errors in the analysis

POKA YOKE – Mistake Proofing



POKA-YOKEto avoid (yokeru) inadvertent errors (poka)

This is not about punishing workers

http://www.campbell.berry.edu/faculty/jgrout/mistakeproofing667.ppt



Mistake proofing recognizes that every human will make mistakes and tries to set up systemsthat minimize or eliminate those mistakes.



Devices Tend to be Inexpensive...



Cost of Poka-Yoke Devices

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9

1

$ 2 5

o r

l e s s

$ 1 0 0

t o $ 2 5 0

$ 1 0 0 0 o r m o r e

Cost

P r o b a

b i l i t y

Frequency of Occurrence

Cumulative Probability

$ 2 5

t o $

1 0 0

$ 2 5 0 t o

$ 1 0 0 0

Evidence of the Effectiveness

…and Very Effective



The “10:1, 100:1, even 1000:1” rates of return referred to byBhote above are not unreasonable in practice.

• Dana corporation has reported a $500,000 savingsresulting from a $6 device. (83,000:1)

• AT&T Power Systems (Lucent Technologies) reportednet saving of $2545 per device (3300 devices)[Marchwinsky, 1997]. (25:1*)

• Weber Aircraft reports saving $350,000 during their first

year of implementation of approximately 300 devices.(11:1*)*Assumes and average devise cost $100

Common Mistake-proofing Devices



p g

• Guide Pins

• Blinking lights and alarms

• Limit switches• Proximity switches

• Counters

• Checklists

What is Poke-yoke?



A method that uses sensor or other devices for catching errorsthat may pass by operators or assemblers.

1. Control Approach- Shuts down the process when an

error occurs.

- Keeps the “suspect” part in placewhen an operation is incomplete.

2. Warning Approach- Signals the operator to stop the

process and correct the problem.

Everyday Examples



y y p

New lawn mowers are required to have a safety baron the handle that must be pulled back in order tostart the engine. If you let goof the safety bar, the mower blade stops in 3seconds or less.

Fueling area of car has three error-proofing devices:1. insert keeps leaded-fuel nozzle from being inserted2. tether does not allow loss of gas cap3. gas cap has ratchet to signal proper tightness and

prevent over tightening.

3.5 inch diskettes cannot be inserted unless diskette isoriented correctly. This is as far as a disk can beinserted upside-down. The beveled corner of thediskette along with the fact that the diskette is notsquare, prohibit incorrect orientation.



Poka-yoke systems consist of three primary methods:

1. Contact2. Counting

3. Motion-Sequence

- Each method can be used in a controlsystem or a warning system.

- Each method uses a different processprevention approach for dealing withirregularities.

Types of Sensing Devices



1. Physical contact devices

2. Energy sensing devices

3. Warning Sensors

Tool Kit Comparison



89

Major CPI Tools (6 s ) Kaizen Lean Description

Cp/Cpk 4 Process capability assessmentDOE 4 Design of experimentsSPC 4 Process control based on statistics and data analysisFMEA 4 Risk assessment toolRegression 4 Correlate effect one variable has on anotherProcess Map 4 4 4 Map process steps to communicate and identify opportunities5 whys /2 hows 4 4 4 Determination methods for root cause discoveryPareto 4 4 4 Column chart ranking items highest to lowest

Fishbone 4 4 4 Cause / Effect Diagram5S 4 4 Elimination wasteVisual Mgmt 4 4 4 Emphasis on visual techniques to manage processPoka-Yoke 4 4 Error proofing techniquesSpaghetti Chart 4 4

Kanban 4 4 Material storage technique used to control processTakt Time 4 4 Determine pace or beat of a processStd Work 4 4 Evaluate tasks done during a processSMED 4 4 Single minute exchange of dies - Quick machine set upTPM 4 4 Integrate maintenance strategy with processCellular Flow 4 4 Reduce inventory & cycle time through process layout and pull

production techniques

Expand Process Improvement Program to Utilize Kaizen Tool Kit

1-10-100 Rule



90

The 1-10-100 rule states that as a product or service moves throughthe production system, the cost of correcting An error multiplies by10.

Activity Cost

Order entered correctly $ 1

Error detected in billing $ 10Error detected by customer $ 100

Dissatisfied customer shares the experience with others the costs is

$1000

The Seven Guidelines to Poka- Yoke Attainment



91

1.) Quality Processes - Design “Robust” quality processes to achieve zero

defects.2.) Utilize a Team Environment - leverage the teams knowledge,experience toenhance the improvement efforts.

3.) Elimination of Errors -Utilize a robust problem solving methodology to drivedefects towards zero.

4.) Eliminate the “Root Cause” of The Errors -Use the 5 Why’s and 2 H’s approach

5.) Do It Right The First Time - Utilizing resources to perform functions correctlythe “first” time.

6.) Eliminate Non-Value Added Decisions - Don’t make excuses -just do it !

7.) Implement an Incremental Continual Improvement Approach -implementimprovement actions immediately and focus on incremental improvements;efforts do not have to result in a 100% improvement immediately.

Self Study



Vendor Quality Rating

2 chapter two - quality management

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