CHAPTER II

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK, RATIONALE, RESEARCH

HYPHOTHESES

A. Theoritical Framework

1. The Nature Of Descriptive Writing

a. The Definition Of Writing

Writing has for many years, even centuries, occupied a large place in

teaching and learning procedures in schools. To be literate has implied the ability

to read and write in the native language, and it is these skills which students have

practiced in class. This approach to native-language learning has easily transferred

to the foreign-language classroom, without too much thought given to its

appropriateness or inappropriateness in a situation where the student does not

have the spoken form the language already at his command. Writing exercises

keep students busy and out of mischief. They are easy to set; the inexperienced or

poorly qualified teacher may take them directly from the textbook, with which a

key to acceptable answers is usually provided; they may often be corrected as a

group procedure in the classroom; and they yield a wide spread of evaluative

grades for entry in the teacher’s records. With so much writing in foreign-

language classes over so many years, one would expect to find that this is the skill

for which effective methods have long since been evolved and with which the

students have the most success. Unfortunately, examinations, disappointing, and

teachers of advanced courses in colleges and universities continue to deplore the

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inability of students with four, five, and six, years of secondary school study of

the language behind them to express themselves in a clear, correct, and

comprehensible manner in writing. We would do well to examine critically the

role of writing in foreign-language learning at high school level, to analyze what

is involved in the process of writing a foreign language, and to trace out the steps

which this skill can be progressively mastered.

Traditionally, writing activities in foreign-language classes have taken the

form of the writing out of paradigms and grammatical exercises, dictation,

translation from native language to foreign language and from foreign language to

native language, and imitative and free composition. These exercises have often

been the only sections of language study tested in examinations and have

therefore become, in the eyes of students and teachers alike, the most important

occupations in foreign language classroom.

These various kinds of writing as follow:

1) Notation: In its simplest form writing can be the act of putting down in

conventional graphic form something which has been spoken. This act

may involve nothing more than the correct association of conventional

graphic symbols with sounds which have for the writer no meaning and no

significant interrelationship.

2) Spelling: This process is sometimes useful when specific sound-symbol

conventions are under consideration, or when the student is being asked to

discriminate among various sounds. If recognizable units of the foreign

language are involved.

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3) Writing practice: Writing becomes a more complicated process when it

involves putting in graphic form, according to the system accepted by

educated native speakers, combination of words which might be spoken in

specific circumstances (that is, which convey certain elements of

meaning). This type of writing which is involved in grammatical exercises,

the constructions of simple dialogue, and uncomplicated translation

exercises.

4) Composition: In its most highly developed form, writing refers to the

expression of ideas in a consecutive way, according to the graphic

conventions of the language; the ultimate aim of a writer at this stage is to

be able to express himself in a polished literary form which requires the

utilization of a special vocabulary and certain refinements of structure

(Riyes, 1970).

According to Riyes (1970:245-246) there are five stages of development to

write:

1) Copying

Copying (sometimes called transcription), is often despised by foreign-

language teachers as an unworthy and unchallenging occupation for

adolescent students. This attitude is unfortunate and ignores the fact that there

are many aspects of another language which are very strange to the students

and with which he needs to familiarize himself very thoroughly if he is to

write the language confidently. At this stage, he repeats a sentences to himself

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as he copies it, and then tries to say it over to himself two or three times

without referring to the script.

2) Reproduction

Stage the student will attempt to write, without originality, what he has

learned orally and read in his textbook. This he will be able to do all the more

successfully if he has been trained in habits of accuracy during the copying

stage. If sound writing habits are to e firmly established, the learning

situations must be continually structures so that the students will write

correctly. As a first he will be to rewrite immediately each sentence he has

copied without reference to his copy or to the original. He will then compare

this version with the original for correction. Next he will be asked to write

down sentences he has memorized, read, and copied as they are dictated to

him.

3) Recombination

Where the student is required to reproduce learned work with minor

adaptations. This parallels in conception the recombination stage in oral work

and reading. It must, however, be continually borne in mind that the work for

recombination in writing will always be some distance behind what is being

spoken and read. At this stage, writing practice may take a number of forms.

Students will write out structure drills of various kinds: making substitution of

words and phrases, transforming sentences, expanding them to include further

information within the limits of learned phrases, contracting them by

substituting pronouns for nouns or single words for groups of words.

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4) Guided Writing

The student will be given some freedom in the selection of lexical

items and structural patterns for him written exercises, but within a framework

which restrains him from attempting to compose at a level beyond his state of

knowledge. At the guided writing stage the student may begin with

completion exercise where parts of sentences are given and the structural

pattern is thus established for him. Writing at this stage is still under

supervision.

5) Composition

The final stage of composition involves individual selection of

vocabulary and structure for the expression of personal meaning. In foreign

language, the student is still not capable of being truly creative in his writing

at this level, since he must write as a native speaker would write, without

having, as yet, the same mastery of the language in all its flexibility. At this

stage he will bee increasing his understanding of the differences between

speaking and writing a foreign language (Rayes, 252).

b. Types of Writing

The types of writing has two types, it is according to Alice Oshima (1999:

16-18).

1) Writing a Paragraph

A paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group

of related sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as

one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is

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unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the

main idea clearly.

A paragraph may stand by itself. In academic writing, a paragraph is

often used to answer a test question such as the following: “Define

management by objectives, and give one example of it from the reading you

have done for this class.”

A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as a

chapter of a book or an essay. You will first learn how to write good

paragraphs, and then you will learn how to combine and expand paragraphs to

build essays.

A paragraph has three major structural parts; a topic sentence,

supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.

The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only

names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one areas that

can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific

area is called the controlling idea.

Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by giving reasons,

example, facts, statistics, and quotations.

The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves

the reader with important points to remember.

In addition to the three structural parts of a paragraph, a good

paragraph also has the elements of unity and coherence.

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Unity means that you discuss only one main idea in a paragraph. The

main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting

sentence develops that idea. If, for example, you announce in your topic

sentence that you are going to discuss two important characteristics of goal or

gold mining.

Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand

because (1) your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order and

(2) your ideas are connected by use of appropriate transition signals. For

example, in the paragraph about gold, there are two supporting ideas: Gold is

beautiful, and gold is useful. Each of these supporting ideas is discussed, one

after the other, and an example is given for each one. This is one kind of

logical order. Furthermore, the relationship between the ideas is clearly shown

by using appropriate transition words and phrases such as first of all, for

example, another important characteristic, and in conclusion.

2) Writing an Essay

An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long instead of just

one or two paragraphs. It is written about one topic, just as a paragraph is.

However, the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in one paragraph.

Therefore, you must divide the topic into several paragraphs, one for each

major point. Then you must tie all of the separate paragraphs together by

adding an introduction and a conclusion.

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Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing paragraph except that

an essay is longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if

you can write a good paragraph, you can write a good essay.

An essay has three main parts.

a) An introductory paragraph

b) A body (at least one, but usually two or more paragraphs)

c) A concluding paragraph

The introductory paragraph consists of two parts: a few general

statements about your subject to attract your reader’s attention and a thesis

statement to state the specific subdivisions of your topic and/or the “plan” of

your paper. A thesis statement for an essay is just like a topic sentence for a

paragraph: it names the specific topic and the controlling ideas or major

subdivisions of the topic.

The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops

a subdivision of your topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary

with the number of subdivisions or subtopics. The body is longest part of the

essay and can contain as many paragraphs as necessary to support the

controlling ideas of your thesis statement. The paragraphs of the body of the

essay are like the main supporting points in a single paragraph. Furthermore,

you can organize the paragraphs in an essay just as you organize the ideas in a

paragraph, by chronological order, logical division of ideas, comparison and

contrast, etc.

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The conclusion in an essay, like the concluding sentence in a

paragraph, is a summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.

The only additional element in an essay is the linking expressions

between the paragraphs of the body. These are just like transitions within a

paragraph. You use transitions within a paragraph to connect the ideas

between two sentences. Similarly, you use transitions between paragraphs to

connect the ideas between them.

c. Kinds of writing

George and Julia (1980: 378) divided kinds of writing four kinds:

1) Narration

Narration is the form of writing used to relate the story of acts or

events. Narration places occurrences.

2) Description

Description reproduces the way things look, smell, taste, feel, or

sound; it may also evoke moods.

3) Exposition

Exposition is used in giving information, making explanations, and

interpreting meanings.

4) Argumentation

Argumentation is used in persuading and convincing. It is closely

related to exposition and is often combined with it.

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d. Teaching Writing

The reasons for teaching writing to students of English as a foreign

language include

1) Reinforcement: some students acquire language in a purely oral/aural way,

but most of us benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. The

visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both our

understanding of how it all fits together and as an aid to committing the

new language to memory. Students often find it useful to write sentences

using new language shortly after they have studied it.

2) Language development: we can’t be sure, but it seems that the actual

process of writing (rather like the process of peaking) help us to learn as

we go along. The mental activity we have to go through in order to

construct proper written texts is all part of the ongoing learning

experience.

3) Learning style: some students are fantastically quick at picking up

language just by looking and listening. For the rest of us, it may take a

little longer. For many learners, the time to think things through, to

produce language in a slower way, is invaluable. Writing is appropriate for

such learners. It can also be quiet reflective activity instead of the rush and

bother of interpersonal face-to-face communication.

Writing as a skill: by far the most important reason for teaching writing, of

course, is that it is a basic language skill, just as important as speaking, listening

and reading. Students need to know how to write letters, how to put written

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reports together, how to reply to advertisements- and increasingly, how to write

using electronic media. They seed to know of writing’s special conventions

(punctuation, paragraph construction etc.) just as they need to know how to

pronounce spoken English appropriately. Part of out job is to give them that skill

(Harmer, 1998: 79)

e. Descriptive Writing Theories

Writing is one way to improve the student’s or personal development, as

we write, we become more potent thinkers and active learners, and we eventually

to a better understanding of ourselves through the clarifying and organizing of our

personal experiences and our innermost thoughts, and also writing helps fulfill our

to communicate. In this paper the write would like to explain about the descriptive

writing, correlate to the statement above, that writing is the way to improve the

student’s skill, so the writer interested to analyze the descriptive writing.

1) The meaning of descriptive

Descriptive is one of form of form of writing. The form of writing are narration, exposition, persuasion. In writing, it is not avoided that the students make an error in their performance, such as in making a descriptive writing. Descriptive is writing about the way persons, animal, or thins appear. Descriptions tell us how something looks or feels or sound (Randal, 1976: 254).

We could describe a person from head to toe, or vise or versa, or begin

with his most noticeable, feature and work from there.

Description is used nearly always as supporting device of on the other

three: narration, exposition, persuasion:

Descriptive is most useful in painting a word-picture of something concrete, such as a scene or a person. Its use in not restricted, however, to what we can

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perceive with our sense: we can also describe or attempt to describe an abstract concept, such as an emotion or quality or mood. But most attempt to describe fear, for instance, still resort to the physical-a “coldness around the heart, “perhaps-and in such concrete ways communicate the abstract to the reader (Randal, 1976: 253).

The purpose of description is to make a readers see, hear, or otherwise

experience something, description reproduces the way things look, sound, smell;

it may also evoke moods, such as happiness, loneliness. So between the writer and

readers have a same conclusion at the end. According to Djoko Widagdho (109) :

Karangan deskripsi adalah karangan yang berusaha melukiskan dan

menggambarkan ataumengemukakan, tingkah laku seseorang, suasana dan

keadaaan suatu tempat atau sesuatu lainnya, dan harus diusahakan agar

pembaca seolah-olah melihat sendiri apa yang kita lukiskan tersebut.

When we describe something, we draw a picture of it in words, such as if

we describe someone in one paragraph, “A descriptive paragraph is a paragraph

that describes something.” (Warriner, 1977: 329). In describing a descriptive

writing, we can describe a person, place etc. The following is an example of

descriptive writing place.

Until I was thirteen and left Arkansas for good. The store was may favorite place to be. Alone and empty in the morning, it look like an unopened present from a stranger. Opening the front doors was pulling the ribbon off the unexpected gift. The light would come in softly (we faced north), easing it self over the shelves of mackerel, salmon, tobacco, thread. It felt flat on the big vat of lard and noontime during the summer the grease had softened to a thick soup. Whenever A walked into the in afternoon. I sensed that it was tired. I alone could hear the slow pulse of its job help done. But just before be a time, after numerous people had walked in and out. Had argued over their bills, or joked about their neighbours, or just dropped in “ to give sister ‘Henderson a’ Hi y’ all,’ “the promise of magic mornings returned to the store and spread it self over the family in washed life waves (Warriner, 1977: 330)

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Describing person;

Tom’s wife was a tall termagant, fierce of temper, loud of tongue, story of arm. Her voice was often heard in wordy warfare with her husband; and his face sometimes showed signs that their conflicts were not confined to words. Thus room was a universal friend of the needy and acted like a “friend in need,” that is, he always exacted good pay and good security. In proportion to the distress of applicant was the highness of this terms. He accumulated bonds and mortgages and gradually squeezed his customers closer and closer, and send them at length, dry as a spone from his door.From the eyes the panther and other stories, ladder edition (pyramids communications, inc, 1972)

Washington irring

The devil and Tom Walker

2) The types of descriptive (Ismail Marahimin, 2001: 45-47).

In descriptive writing, there are two types of descriptive, expository and

then impressionist.

a) Expository

In making writing, we have to prepare anything. In writing too the have to

open our mind to write in apiece of paper. The writer must give about

information in writing based on the facts. According to warriner’s an

expository is giving the information about something or explains something.

The example of expository

No bird in the world is better equipped for per suit than the peregrine falcon, bullet headed, broad in the shoulder and tapering to the tail, a powerful, perfectly streamlined machine whose pointed wings are capable of putting it into a power dive estimated to reach 175 miles per hour. But the peregrine is effective only in open terrain; for this reason falconry as a sport has never caught on in wooded eastern North America as it has on the moorlands of north England and Scotland. Most falcons are strong fliers of the open country, although some of smaller ones, the kestrels, are more like helicopters, hovering for mice, grass hoppers, and the petty pray (Wariner, 1982: 331).

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b) Impressionists

Actually, every writer want to make a reader understand about her/she

writing, so the purpose of the writer is making a reader to see or feel what the

writer want. In writing, the writer tries to show the situations, idea or make the

reader interest to read. According Herman William: “ The purpose of someone

interested in writing impressionistic description is thus to make us see and

thereby share and experience (William 1977: 199).

The Example of impressionist:

Our backyard is dominated by huge old live oak tree. The base of the trunk measures approximately ten feet around. The thick muscular trunk rises solidly for about eight feet and then separates into four main branches. From these, the lower branches spread out horizontally over the ground, reaching into the neighbors’ yard. The main branches continue to rise, up and up. Where they compete with each other for air and sunlight from this heights, the neighborhood cardinal and blue joys sing to each other, keeping a sharp eye out for cats. As the bird sway in the wind, they look as if they are riding a ship across a gently swelling ocean. From these heights too, it is easy to see the variety of shrubs and sweet smelling flowers lining the two long sides of our rectangular yard, the small walkway along the back of the house, and the back fence that runs along the alley (Regina, 1995: 80).

In the first language education, learning to write to involves learning

specialize version of language already known to students. This specialized

language differs from spoken language, both I form and in use, but build upon

linguistic resources those students already posses. The ultimate goal of learning

to write is for most the value of being able to write effectively increase as

students’ progress through compulsory education on to higher education. At

the university level in particular, writing is seen not only as standardized

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system of communication but also as essential tool for learning. At least in the

English Foreign Language, one of the main functions of writing at higher

levels of education is to expand one’s own knowledge through reflection rather

than simply to communicate information.

While the specific goals of writing instruction may vary culture to culture,

it is clear that writing is an important part of the curriculum n schools from the

earliest grade onward, and that most children in countries that have a formal

education system will learn to write. At least at the basic level in relatively

standardized within a particular culture.

2. The Nature Of Teaching Approach

Approach can be interpreted as a turning point or point of view we have on

the learning process, which refers to the view of the occurrence of a process that is

still very general nature, in which accommodating, strengthen, and supported

learning method with certain theoretical coverage. Seen from the approach, there

are two types of teaching learning approaches, namely: (1) learning-oriented

approach or based on students (student-centered approach) and (2) learning-

oriented approach or based on teacher (teacher-centered approach).

According to the Department of Education (1990: 180) approach can be

interpreted, "as a process, act, or how to approach things."

In the opinion of Wahjoedi (1999 121) that, "teaching approach is a way to

manage student learning activities and behavior so that he can actively perform

learning tasks so as to obtain an optimal learning outcomes".According

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Syaifuddin Sagala (2005: 68) that, "The teaching approach is a path that will be

used by teachers and students in achieving instructional objectives for a particular

instructional unit". According to Sanjaya, (2008:127) approach to student-

centered learning strategies reduce discovery and inquiry learning and inductive

learning strategies. According Suherman (1993:220) argues in the learning

approach is a road, way or policies adopted by the teacher or the students in

achieving the learning objectives from the perspective of how the process of

learning or the learning materials, general or special. According Soedjadi

(1991:102), differentiates into two mathematics learning approach, as follows.

1) Approach the material (material approach), which is the explanation of certain

mathematical topics using other math materials. learning approach (teaching

approach), which is the process of delivering or presenting specific math topics in

order to facilitate students' understanding.

From theories above we can conclude that, the teaching approach is a way

to have the system working to facilitate the implementation of the learning

process and student learning to assist in achieving the goals set.

a. Teacher Centered Approach

Teacher centered learning in the classroom is that the planning and eacher-

centered instruction. In this method a teacher (both teachers and lecturers) is

instrumental in providing teaching materials for their students. There are three

common tool in schools to implement teacher centered, ie creating behavioral

targeting (behavioral), analyzing the task, and preparing instructional taxonomy.

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They mean that gurulah a bigger role for the smooth process of teaching and

learning in the classroom (Santrock, 2008). Meanwhile there is the same theory

advanced by Santrock teacher centered, Sudjana (2001) suggested approach

centered learning educators are learning activities that emphasize the importance

of activity in teaching or membelajarkan learners. Planning, implementation and

assessment of learning outcomes fiber process conducted and controlled by

educators.

Both the above theory can be interpreted that the teacher centered

approach to learning is a learning approach in teaching and learning teacher-

centered. Teacher as one - only center students receive information and the raw

information from the teacher and follow all instructed by the teacher.

1) General Tool Teacher centered approach

Three common tools that are useful in planning school teacher centered is

to create behavioral targeting (behavioral), analyzing tasks, and develop

taxonomy (classification) instructional (Santrock, 2008).

a) Creating behavioral targeting is a statement about the changes that

are expected by the teacher will occur in student performance.

b) Behavioral objectives should be specific. Mager (In Santrock,

2008), believes that behavioral targeting should contain three

parts: student behavior will focus on what students learn or do, the

conditions under which the behavior occurs stating how the

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behavior will be evaluated or tested, the performance criteria to

determine the level of acceptable performance .

c) Another tool in the task of analyzing teacher centered planning is a

task analysis, which is focused on solving a complex task that

students learn into components. This analysis can be through three

basic steps (Moyer & Dardig in Santrok, 2008); determine the

skills and concepts that students needed to learn the task, apply

materials needed to perform a task, such as paper, pencils,

calculators, and so on. Registering all the components work to be

done.

d) Taxonomy also helps formulate instructional teacher centered

approach. Bloom taxonomy developed by Benjamin Bloom and

his colleagues (1956). This taxonomy classifies educational

objectives into three domains: cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor.

2) Teacher-centered instructional strategy

There are five strategies that can be done to develop teacher-centered

(Santrock, 2007).

a) Teaching, explanations, and demonstrations

Regular activity of teachers in the direct instruction approach.

Research has found that effective teachers spend more time to

explain and demonstrate the new material (Rosenshine in

Santrock, 1985).

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b) Questions and discussion

It is important to respond to the learning needs of each student

while keeping the interest and attention of the group. At issue is

the boys are usually more than female students dominate the

discussion.

c) Mastery learning

Learning a concept or topic thoroughly before moving on to more

difficult topics. Some studies show that mastery learning is

effective in improving student time spent to learn a task (Kulik,

Kulik, & Bangert-Drowns, 1990), but other researchers do not

receive much evidence to support this pendeketan mastery

learning (Bangert, Kulik, & Kulik , 1983). Resulting from the

mastery learning depends on teachers' expertise in planning and

implementing its strategy.

d) Seatwork

Made everyone or most students to learn on their own at their

bench. Different teachers in using this approach. Some teachers use

it every day, but there are also rare.

e) Homework

Another important instructional decisions is how much and what

type of homework should be given to the students.

3) The characteristics of learning-centered approach to teaching (Teacher

centered)

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According Sudjana (2001), the characteristics of learning-centered

approach to teaching is:

a) The predominance of educators in the learning activities, while

students are relatively passive and just doing activities through the

creation of an educator.

b) Learning materials made up of basic concepts or learning new

material and students need complete and clear information from

educators.

c) The number of students learning enough so that implementation

does not allow done by individuals or small groups.

d) Limited means of learning so that students can not do the learning

activities experienced directly through the application of learning

activities experienced or directly through the application or

experimental activities in the field.

4) Advantages and Weaknesses centered learning approach educators

(Teacher centered) Excellence-centered approach to learning educators

are:

a) Learning materials can be delivered completely by educators in

accordance with the learning program that has been prepared

beforehand.

b) Can be followed by students in large numbers.

c) Exact time will be used in accordance with the time schedule

specified learning.

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d) Target had planned learning materials relatively easily achieved.

While the weaknesses this learning approach is:

e) Easily lead to boredom on self-learners so that it can reduce

motivation, attention and concentration of students towards

learning activities.

f) The success of learning, in this case the change in the attitude and

behavior of students, is relatively difficult to measure because it is

informed to the students in general more touching the realm of

cognition.

g) Quality of the achievement of learning objectives that have been

set are relatively low because educators often just chasing a target

time to spend learning materials. Or large group learning method

suitable for use in mass relative centered learning strategies

educators. The techniques used include a lecture or lectures,

question and answer, lecture varied, demonstrations or

demonstration process and the results of other techniques related to

teaching techniques through mass media (Sudjana, 2001).

b. Cooperative Learning

1) The notion of cooperative learning

Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goal. Within

cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes beneficial to themselves and all

other group members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small

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groups through which students work together to maximize their own and each

other’s learning (Johnson in Richard, 2001) .

According to roger, Olsen, and Kagan (Kessler, 1992) “ cooperative

learning is a body of literature and research that has examined the effects of

cooperation in education. It offers ways to organize group work to enhance

learning and increase academic achievement.

Jack C Richards and Teodere S Rodger (2001:47) defined the cooperative

learning is an approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative

activities involving pairs and small groups of learner in the classroom.

In order to build a good interaction, relation ship, sense of belonging and

also gives a good effect on student achievement in learning a foreign language, it

is a good for English teacher to use cooperative learning as a teaching method to

be implemented in the classroom.

Cooperative learning is a learning process that makes students working

together, helping, each other, and sharing ideas, asking and giving information

together.

Slavin (1995: 2) illustrates further that: “ cooperative learning prefers to a

variety of teaching methods in which students work in small group to help one

another learn academic content. In cooperative classroom, students are expected

to help each other, to discuss and argue with each other, to assess each other’s

current knowledge and fill in gaps in each other’s understanding.

H. Douglas Brown (2001: 47) defined the cooperative learning “ As

students work together in pairs and groups, they share information and come to

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each others aid. They are a “team” whose players must work together in order to

achieve goals successfully.

Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small

teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning

activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is

responsible not only for learning. What is taught but also for helping teammates

learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the

assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete.

Cooperative learning is a learning process carried out by the teacher to

make students work together and help each. In this learning process student can

solve their problems and task with their friends.

As stated Robert E Slavin (1995) : All cooperative learning methods the

idea that students work together to learn and responsible for their team mates’

learning as well as their own. In addition to the idea of cooperative work, student

team learning methods emphasize the use of team goals and team success, which

can be achieved only if all member of the team learn the objective being taught

that is, in student team learning the student, task area not do something as a but

learn something as a team.

Cooperative learning not only makes student work in the group but also

train them to express their in the group. So each member of the group can be an

active participant in solving the problems.

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2) Principles of Cooperative Learning

Roger E. W-B Olsen and Spencer Kagan (1992: 8) say that there are five

component in cooperative learning, “positive interdependence, individual

accountability, face to face, collaborative skill, processing group interaction.

a) Positive interdependence

Positive interdependence among the students. Positive

interdependence will succeed when group members feel that they

are linked with each other in away that one can not succeed unless

everyone succeeds. So positive interdependence can cause students

work in groups to reach the best result of their group in learning.

b) Individual accountability,

Each member should have responsibility in learning and in

achieving group’s goal. So each member should participate for the

best result of his or her group.

c) Face to Face Interaction

It is a condition in which the members of the group can able to

communicate to each other conveniently to accomplish the group

task.

d) Collaborative skill,

Students must be taught the skill’s how to cooperate with each

other in a group for a high quality of cooperation. Thus, teacher can

teach students the skills how to contribute their ideas, accept and

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appreciate other’s ideas, being good listeners and asking people for

reason.

e) Processing group interaction.

Learning in group can increase students skill in working and

interacting with others. in addition, they can also work and interact

with other group in the class. The interaction process among the

groups can include the feeling of togetherness, it can give positive

influence to each member to work better for the success of the

groups.

3) Other Elements of Cooperative Learning

Although there is general agreement on the importance of the above

elements, there is considerable variation accorded to size of group,

teambuilding, process or product, grading system and role of teacher (Roger,

1992: 14).

a) Group Size

Group size is an important factor in cooperative learning. The

teacher decides on the size of the group, this will depend on the

task they have to carry out, the age of the learner and the time

limits for the lesson. Typical group size is from two or four and can

be selected by the teacher, randomly or selected by the students.

b) teambuilding

Teambuilding is one of method conducted by students as they

begin to use cooperative learning. Teambuilding procedures can

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include having students choose a team name of their teammates,

the goal is for each team to learn the names of all the members of

the other them. these activities should be enjoyable, helping to

build good relationships between team members, while allowing

them to see how the group function.

c) product or process

Students will experience the interactive process of cooperative

learning either in integrated or separated skill. Aspects of the

interaction process may be emphasized as in the process of doing

the assigned materials that they evaluate how they cooperated,

encouraged and explained their teammates about the materials.

d) Grading

The grading system of team performance are including averaging

teammates individuals scores, assigning the lowest individual

score to each teammate, or adding individual scores. Students have

equal chance to improve their score, so each team can do well.

e) Role of the Teacher

The teacher’s role is to check students understanding about the

lesson and the task that should be done. Besides, the teacher can act

as a facilitator. He can observe and watch student while they are

working in groups. The teacher can also give a guidance and

explanation to the groups that have difficulties in doing the tasks.

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4) Cooperative Learning Techniques

There are some techniques of cooperative learning according to Anita Lie

some of them are numbered head together, think pair square, three step

interview, and taking chips, and jigsaw (Anita Lie, 2002: 54-65).

a) Number Head Together

In this technique, a teacher divides student into some groups. Each

group consist of 4 members. First, the teacher gives a number to

each member such as, 1,2,3, and 4. then the teacher explains the

lesson and asks some question to the whole groups in the class.

Each group should discuss the answers and give reason for their

answers. In discussing the answer the teacher asks each member of

the groups to give his answers and reason , for example, the teacher

asks the members 1 to answer the question no; I, and some other.

After that, the teacher discusses the answer with the whole class.

b) Think-Pair-Square

In this technique, the teacher divides the students into some groups

each consisting of 4 members. Then the teacher explains the lesson

to the students. After that the teacher asks some questions or tasks

to the whole group in the class. Each group should discuss the

questions or tasks in to steps. First students discuss the questions or

tasks in two step. First, student discuss the question or task in pairs.

Second, they discuss the question or tasks again with other pairs in

their group in order to choose the best answers.

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c) Taking Chips.

In the technique, each member in group has three paper chips. In

the discussion each member stars with three paper chips. Every

time they speak, they get up one of their chips. When they have no

more chips, they can not speak again except to ask questions. It

happens until everyone has used all their chips. At that point,

everyone gets their chips back and that process begins again.

d) Three Step Interview

In this technique each person in the group has a letter: A, B, C ,or

D. then, person A interview person B, person C interview person

D. finally, each group member takes turns telling the other member

about the person they interviewed. For example, person A tells

person C and D about B, and some other. If time permits, each

person tells the whole class about one person in theirs group.

e) Jigsaw

In this technique, each group consists of 4 members. This is their

home team. Each home team member gets a different piece of

reading material: piece A,B,C or D. each person leaves their home

team and forms a group of no more than four from those who have

the same letter. This is their piece. Then, they team. They form

expert teams to become experts on their pieces. Then, they return

home and teach their piece to their home team . finally, home team

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combine the information from their experts with their other

knowledge to perform a task

5) The Advantages and Disadvantages of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning can give a new way for learning in group especially

in learning English.. Cole and Chan say,” cooperation also means as

collaborative activity that leads to a sharing of the goods, resources, reward or

privileges. Available to the group (Cole, 53). Using cooperative learning in the

class has some advantages and disadvantages which will be discussed in the

following section.

a) The advantages of cooperative learning.

Cooperative learning can promote a positive atmosphere or

effective climate, as distinct from the more public and potentially

threatening performance environment of the lockstep classroom.

Motivation, too, is often improved if learners feel less inhibited and

more able to explore possibilities for self expression. Arguably,

too, co-operation in the classroom is encouraged. These are

undoubtedly positive factors, but in individual classroom still need

to be in ‘tune’ with it educational classroom.

There are some advantages of using cooperative learning in

teaching English. Shaw as cited by Cole and Chan says,” students

in cooperative groups are able to work together for the good of the

group as whole rather just for their individual needs (Cole, 54).

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According to webb, as cited by Cole and Chan, “ students in

cooperative learning groups can be encouraged to assist students

with learning problems or disabilities. ” groups member are able to

monitor one another’s performances and provide feedback to those

having difficulties in learning new tasks.

Cole and chan also state “cooperative learning procedures allow for

the social integration of special needs students. This positive

benefit can be used to improve the attitudes towards differences in

social background social class, and academic background.

And according (1989) identifies six primary benefit of cooperative

learning for students acquiring English. They are:

(1).Increased frequency and variety of second language practice

through different types of interaction

(2).Possibility for development or use of the first language in ways

that support cognitive development and increased second

language skill.

(3).Opportunities to integrate language with content- based

instruction.

(4). Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular

materials to stimulate language as well as concept learning

(5).Freedom for teachers to master new professional skill,

particulary those emphasizing communication; and

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(6).Opportunities for students to act as resources for each other,

thus assuming a more active role in their learning (Mcgroarty,

1992: 2)..

b) The Disadvantages of Cooperative Learning

Beside the advantages, cooperative learning also has disadvantages,

therea are many complaints about cooperative learning which are

noted by Christison, “it’s too noisy, I don’t have enough space to

do cooperative activities, it takes so much time and effort, I have

too many students in my class to work in pairs small

group.”( Christison, 1990: 6).

Cooperative learning has more advantages than disadvantages, so

in implementing cooperative learning in the classroom, the

disadvantages above can be minimized by using the collaborative

skill in the groups. Students need to know how to minimize the

noise

3. The Nature of Sentence Structure Mastery

a. The Defenition of Sentence Structure

Sentence is very important for some one who wants to communicate

with other people in speaking or in writing. For that reason, ones’ must

understand the definition of the sentence , because its one of the alternative ways

to recognize and to apply the sentence well.

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A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that are

grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to

express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion.( ^

"'Sentence' - Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2013-

08-23)

A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms alone, i.e., as

anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop (Halliday,

20$). For instance, the opening of Charles Dickens' novel Bleak House begins

with the following three sentences:

There are several description of the sentences base on the dictionary of

language and linguistic’ a sentence is defined as the expression of a complete

though with at least a subject and a predicate. “ Marcella frank ( 1972: 220) in

‘Modern English a practical reference guide stated that traditional grammar

defines a sentence in way of two ways: by meaning and by function.

By meaning . according to this definition , a sentence is a complete though

By function , according this definition , a sentence consist of a subject and

a predicate .According to Mas’ud Mada Stated that ” a sentence is a group of a

word expressing a complete though “or” a group words that begins with a capital

letter and ends with a period ”

Joy M . Red ( 1998: 121) stated in the Process of Composition that a

sentence is a group of words that you use to communicate your idea in writing or

in speech.

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As. Michael ,A, Pyle and Mary Ellen Munoz (1982: 40) stated in the

book of TOEFL Preparation Guide that “ every sentence in English must have a

subject.

R A Thomson (1992: 407) stated that “a sentence always begin with a

capital letter and ends with a full stop. also in the book of the Oxford Learner’s

Pocket Dictionary with illustrations stated that “A sentence is a set of a word

expressing a statement, a question or a command , a sentence usually contain with

a subject and a verb in written English they begin with a capital letter and ends

with a full stop or and equivalent word.

The similar though about the definition of the sentences stated Michel

Swam (1980: xxvii)“ a sentence is a group of words that express a statement ,

command , question, or exclamation , a sentence consist of one or more

clauses ,and usually have at least one subject and verb , in writing begin with a

capital letter and ends with a full stop , question mark or exclamation mark”.

b. The Classification Of the Sentence

Sentences are generally classified in two ways , one by type and one by

number of formal prediction (Marcella, 1972: 220).

1) Classification sentence by type

a) Declarative sentence ( Statement )

In declarative sentence the subject and the predicate have normal

word order . the sentence end with period in writing and drop in

pitch in speech . for example :

The child ate his dinner

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He write s a letter every day

The beautiful lady watches TV program on TV set next to me.

His girl friend will go to London next week

A friend of mine studies English every day.

b) Interrogative sentence (Question)

In an interrogative the subject and auxiliary are often reversed . the

sentence ends with a question mark ( or, interrogative ) in writing ,

in the spoken language most yes – no question end wit a rise in

pitch. Most interrogative –word question end with a fall in pitch.

There are three kinds of questions in English :

(1).yes –no question

these are simple questions eliciting the answer yes or not . For

example :

Is Mary late ?

Did Johns arrive late ?

Do you have any money ?

Is it raining ?

Are these enough chairs ?

(2). Attached question ( or tag )

These are also yes- no question , but the special form into which

they are put shows which of these two answers is actually

expected. These alternative for yes-no question consists of two

parts , the first part makes statement , the second part ask the

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question that expect the agreement with the statement the second

part contains the regular question auxiliary plus the personal

pronoun that stand for the subject . for example :

it is not raining , is it ?

there is still some bread left, isn’t there ?

they never go any where , do they ?

I am a student, aren’t I ?

- The teachers will not come on time , will they ?

(3). Interrogative –word question

these are question that elicit specific information a person, place,

time, etc, for example :

Why is Mary late ?

Why did Mary arrive late ?

How tall are you?

How old are you ?

What is your name ?

c) Imperative Sentence ( Command, Request )

Imperative sentence is a sentence or verb from which command ,

request or forbid an action to be carried out. In an imperative

sentence only the predicate is expressed . the simple form of verb

is used regardless of person or tense. The imperative sentence end

with a period in writing and drop in pitch in speech.

For example :

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open the door

don’t open the door

let’s not open the door

let’s open the door

close the door

d) Exclamation Sentence ( exclamation )

Exclamation sentence is a sentence contain a strongly emphasized

opinion different from the declarative form either in intonation or

in structure . such sentences begin with an exclamation phrase

consisting of what or how plus a part of predicate. The exclamatory

phrase is followed by the subject and the balance of the predicate.

In writing the exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation

mark ( or, exclamation point ) sometime a period is used to lessen

the force of the exclamation . in speech, the most important word

in exclamatory phrase may receive a stronger degree of stress and

be accompanied by a rise in pitch.

What (a) is used when a noun terminates the exclamatory phrase

For example :

what a beautiful hair she has !

what a beautiful eye she has !

what a beautiful figure she has !

what a beautiful lady she is !

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how is used when an adjective or an adverb terminates the

exclamatory phrase. For example :

How a wonderful car it is !

How a beautiful she is !

How a beautiful landscape it is !

2) Classification of Sentences by Number of full Predication

The classification is based on the number and kind of clauses within a

sentence.

a) Simple Tense

Simple tense contains only one clause. It is full subject and

predicate and the clause is and independent clause which can stand

alone grammatically . the simple sentence takes the form of

statement , a question, a request and an exclamation.

(1).Declarative

For example :

He goes to London

The man stole the jewelry

(2).Interrogative

For example :

what is your name ?

how old are you ?

3) Imperative

For example :

45

open the door

please close the door

4) Exclamation

For example :

what a terrific shoes they are !

how a wonderful bag it is !

b) Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent

clauses connected by coordinating conjunction , such as and, or, nor,

but, for, so, and yet. Each clause in a compound sentence must have a

subject and a verb, is of equal importance , and can stand

alone .punctuate the sentence by putting a comma(, ) before the

coordinating conjunction “

For example :

- he says he will finish the work on time, and he will

- he says he will finish the work on time ,but he wont

- you may wait for him in the waiting room, or you may stay

here till he returns.

- The girl could not get the taxi ,so she took a bus

- I had explained the lesson twice , yet he didn’t understand.

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c) Complex Sentence

“ Complex sentence is a sentence which is made up of at least one

independent or main clause and one independent or subordinate

clause” (Hartman, 1972: 45).

There are three types of dependent clause , named according to their

function in the sentence , such as adverbial clause , adjective clause,

noun clause.

(1). Adverbial Clause

An adverbial clause is a clause which function as an adverb

modifying some other structure . it can not stand alone as a

sentence , it must be connected to an independent clause.

“ When an adverb clause precedes an independent clause ,

comma is used separate the clause follows, usually no comma

is used . the adverbial conjunction which introduce an adverb

clause are when, because, although, if, while, . they also called

subordinating conjunction (Betty, 1989: 337).

For example :

- He went to market because he would to buy a pair of

shoes

- When I was in London, I visited the house of Owen

- Although it was raining, I went to campus

- If I have much money , I will go around the world

- It began to rain while I was walking home

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(2).Adjective Clause

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a

noun. It also called a relative clause” the relative pronoun used

in relative clause are who, which, that, whom, whose, where,

when.

for example :

I know the who teaches me

The shoes which I used are a fired of mine

The man whom I saw was Mr. George

The Beach where I spent our vocation was beautiful

July is the month, when the weather is usually the

hottest

(3).Noun Clause

“A noun clause is a dependent clause that function as a noun. It

can perform any function a noun, for example as a subject or

subject complement “

There are three types of dependent clauses noun clauses, such

as that- clause w h-question clauses, yes/no question clause.,

For example :

I think that he is a good teacher

I know where she lives

I wonder if she need helps

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d) Compound –Complex Sentence

“A compound complex sentence is a combination of two or more

independent clauses and one or more dependent clause”

For example :

many students drive their car to the college, but others

prefer to take public transportation because free parking

near the campus is unavailable.

If the students wish to park in the campus parking a lots ,

they must pay for a permit or the campus police will tag

their car.

From theories above, can conclude that a sentence strucure mastery is the

ability of the students to make a good sentence that is consist of words that they

use to communicate idea in writing or in speech.

B. Rationale

1. There Is Effect Of Teaching Approach Toward Student Descriptive

Writing Skill

In the learning process, the teaching approach is not everything. There are

many other factors that will determine the outcome of learning. This means

teaching approach is just one factor of many factors that require attention in the

overall management of learning. However, the determination of a specific

teaching learning approach in this case an approach of cooperative learning to

improve student’s descriptive writing skill skill was important for two reasons;

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a. Determination of program content, learning materials, learning strategies,

learning resources, and techniques / forms of assessment should be

informed by the teaching learning approach is selected.

b. A reference to determine the overall management stages of learning is a

teaching learning approach selected.

Awareness of the need for proper teaching approach in descriptive writing

of the fact that most students are not able to link between what they are learning

with understanding how academic concepts they earn just something abstract, yet

practical needs touched their lives. Learning for which they receive only

accentuate memorizing of the topic or subject, but not followed by a deep

understanding that can be applied when they are confronted with a new situation

in life.

Using certain approach to the learner can develope their idea that’s

difficult to say. It is developed to improve student decriptive writing skill and

used to facilitate thinking in the classroom setting and also used to stimulate for

classroom discussion. The learner will use the approach easily to generate their

ideas. Furthermore they will enjoy writing well. On the other hand, using certain

accproach for teaching that emphasizes well developed and carefully planned

lessons designed around small learning increments and cleanly defined and

prescribed teaching tasks. It is specifically designed to enhance academic learning

time. It does not assume that students will develop ideas on their own. Instead, it

takes learners through the steps of learning systematically, helping them see both

the purpose and the result of each step. When teachers explain exactly what

50

students are expected to learn, and demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish a

particular academic task, students are likely to use their time more effectively and

to learn more.

Based on the conceptual framework that allegedly, There is effect of

teaching approach toward student descriptive writing skill.

2. There Is Effect Of Sentence Structure Mastery Toward Student’s

descriptive writing Skill.

As we know language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for

human communication. Every group of society in a given culture, has its own

language, which they use it to communicate or to interact between them, it has a

set of agreed rules. This fact denotes us that we can communicate with every

people if we have understood well their culture and their language structure.

The students who learned English, generally still doubt whether they have

already produced and put into use are correct or wrong. This state of confusion is

certainly the lack of understanding of English structure. The students’ structure

mastery will most likely be the help in comprehending the reading passage.

Curriculum 1994 states:” Pembelajaran unsur-unsur bahasa ditujukan untuk

mendukung penguasaan dan pengembangan empat ketrampilan berbahasa, bukan

untuk kepentingan penguasaan unsur-unsur itu sendiri.” (Departemen Pendidikan

dan Kebudayaan, 1994:3).

The ultimate goal of English achievement for the students is they have to

master English well including the four language skills above and to use them in

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either written form or the spoken one, because language is always associated with

spoken and written language activities.

Sentence structure mastery is needed in every language. In order to know

and acquire a foreign language, it is obvious that the learners, in this case the

students, have to know its sentence structure. Because, without knowing and

mastering the sentence structure of the language being learned, we may get wrong

interpretation of sentences.

In studying structure, the students learn how to put or construct the words

together or how the words relate to other words. The students learn how the words

are arranged in getting the meaning of the sentences.

There are many ways used in teaching structure. The way of teaching

should be appropriate with the method and approach used. Besides, the way must

be useful for the students’ achievement. Because, not all the ways fit for certain

class but it does not fit when it is used in another class.

The suitable way of teaching depends on many factors. The factors could

come from the situation connected with the class itself. It includes the amount of

students in the class and the condition of the classroom. On the other hand, the

factor could come from the performance of the students. Their intelligence and

their interest to study influence the way decided to use too. For these reasons, the

teacher must vary the way of teaching according to purposes of the teaching

learning process, the age and attainment of the class, and further, select and

arrange the materials which fit the students.

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Especially for students who learn English as foreign language, sentence

structure mastery is very important. The ability to understand and use the structure

is an important factor for the learners. In fact, evidence shows that there is a

strong relationship between structure and the four of language skills. As we know

the students’ language learning today points to the usage for communication

including the four skills of language: reading, writing, speaking and listening, but

structure still needs to be given attention. For it is impossible to master the four

skills of language without understanding the structure of language being learnt.

Based on the correct sentence structure, we can master the four of

language skills. The mastery of the four language skills based on the correct

sentence structure needs a lot of practice and application.

In the other hand, we know that nowadays, the formative test of English as

an obligatory subject at schools consist of many short-reading passages, there are

questions about content and grammatical structure. So, mastering the sentences’

structure is very important in order to comprehend the reading passages, because

all those reading passages are built from grammatical structure and lexical items

The students who master sentence structure display a facility with words

and languages. They are typically good at writing, and telling stories. They tend to

learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and discussion and

debate. They are also frequently skilled at explaining, teaching and oration or

persuasive speaking. Hence mastery sentence structure can learn foreign

languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability

to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.

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Based on the statement, it can be assumed that there is effect of sentence

structure mastery toward student’s descriptive writing skill.

3. The Interaction Effect Between Teaching Learning Approaches And

Sentence Structure Mastery On Student’s descriptive writing Skill Skill.

Good learning activities, conducive learning process, and the

implementation of effective learning can not be separated from teaching learning

approaches that used by teachers as well as sentence structure mastery.

Knowingly or not, that the teaching learning approaches especially cooperative

learning has a considerable influence on student descriptive writing skill. Besides

teaching learning approaches, sentence structure mastery also affects the student

writing skill. In learning activities teaching approaches can provide the excitement

of learning so that students are more motivated to take part in the teaching and

learning writing process in the classroom. Teaching approach and sentence

structure mastery positive synergy and is closely associated with student wiritng

skill.

Based on the description of the framework, allegedly There is an

interaction effect between teaching learning approaches and sentence structure

mastery on student’s descriptive writing skill.

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C. Research Hypotheses

Based on the description of the theoretical basis and framework above, it

can be formulated research hypotheses, as follows:

1. There is effect of teaching approach toward student’s descriptive writing skill;

2. There is effect of sentence structure mastery toward student’s descriptive

writing skill;

3. There is an interaction effect between teaching learning approaches and

sentence structure mastery toward student’s descriptive writing skill.

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