12 chapter-2 literature review - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/111523/12/12_...

Chapter-2 Literature Review

44

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Plants under study

2.1.1 Genus Cassia

Cassia Linn, a genus of ornamental herbs, shrubs & trees widely distributed

predominantly in tropical & warm temperate regions. Genus Cassia consists of

around400 species and only 45 are found in India. (Kritikar and Basu, 2003;

Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992; Mittal, 2011).

Several species of Cassia are grown as ornamental for their white, yellow, pink or red

flower. The best known is the GOLDEN SHOWER - C. fistula. The most Cassia

species bloom during the summer (like C. fistula, C. occidentalis, C. tora), few bloom

during the winter (like C. alata, C. multijuga) and some blooms throughout the year

C. siamea (Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992).

Cassia species require tropical and sub-tropical climate for proper growth. The

propagation the common method is through seeds. When seeds are scarce then other

methods are used like layering, grafting

Several species of Cassia produce timber, tannins, dyes, fodder, vegetables, fruits and

medicines. Seeds of some species are used as substitute for coffee (e.g. C. tora seeds)

and source of gum (e.g. C.alata, C. javanica, C. pumila and C. grandis). The genus

Cassia has many pharmacological activities including wound healing. Therefore,

three species of Cassia has been selected in the present study.

Taxonomic classification (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassia (genus))

Kingdom : Plantae – Plants

Subkingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants

Super division : Spermatophyta – Seed plants

Division : Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants

Class : Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons

Subclass : Rosidae

Order : Fabales

Family : Fabaceae

Sub family : Caesalpiniacaeae

Genus : Cassia


45

Species of Cassia under study:

(i) C. fistula Linn.

Common name: Golden Shower, Indian Laburnum

(ii) C. occidentalis Linn.

Common name: Coffee-senna, Negro-coffee

(iii) C. tora Linn.

Common name: Sickle sennna, Foetid cassia

Literature Reviewed

∗∗∗∗ Singh V (1976) presented the brief description of diagnostic characters with

their local names, uses, flowering and fruiting time of various species of genus

Cassia found in Rajasthan. This study helps in correct identification,

nomenclature and taxonomic status of these species.

∗∗∗∗ Elujoba et al. (1989) investigated the anthraquinone content and of 10 species

of Cassia, grown in Nigeria. They also evaluated the laxative activity of these

species in male albino rats and compared with Senna leaves. They found that C.

podocarpa and C. alata had higher anthraquinone content. The laxative activity

of C. podocarpa was same as that of standard i.e. Senna leaves. From this study

it was concluded that these two species of Cassia can be used for drug

development in Nigeria that can be used as laxative.

∗∗∗∗ Joshi and Jafar (1993) studied and evaluated the marginal trichome which is a

diagnostic character in the identification of some closely related species of

genus Cassia Linn. They found that shape and type of marginal trichomes were

highly specific in identification of medicinally important species of Cassia viz.

C. alata, C. auriculata, C. bifliora, C. glauca, C. grandis, C. fistula and C.

siamea.

∗∗∗∗ Rai PP (1993) determined quantitative numerical values of fresh leaves of

different Cassia species such as stomatal number, stomatal index, palisade ratio,

vein-islet number and vein-termination number. These values have been

regarded as diagnostic constant for identification of these Cassia species.


46

∗∗∗∗ Agarkar and Jadge (1999) reviewed the phytochemical and pharmacological

investigation of genus Cassia. In this review they described the phytochemical

and pharmacological investigations carried out on various species of Cassia. In

this study they observed that about 26 species of Cassia contain anthracene

derivatives. Some of the species showed diuretic, antidiabetic antibiotic,

antipyretic, antiasthmatic, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, antibronchitis

activities.

∗∗∗∗ Ganapaty et al. (2002) presented a review on phytoconstituents and biological

activities of Cassia species. They found that there are about 580 species of this

genus distributed all around the world and only 46 species have been studied

phytochemically. From this study they concluded that Cassia species are still

potential source of many phytoconstituents that may have biological activities.

∗∗∗∗ Oladunmoye et al. (2007) studied the effect of methanolic extracts of leaves of

six Cassia species on release of proteins, sodium and potassium ions by some

pathogenic bacteria in broth culture containing these extracts. They found that

Cassia auriculata showed maximum leakage of these ions and proteins whereas

Cassia mimosoides showed the minimum leakage. From these studies they

concluded that antimicrobial activity of these extracts may be due to leakage of

these cellular constituents.

∗∗∗∗ Ogundipe et al. (2009) studied morphological and anatomical characters of

foliar epidermal cells and petiole in some Nigerian species of Senna (synonym:

Cassia) belonging to family Caesalpiniaceae. The species they selected for this

study were S. occidentalis, S. hirsute, S. alata, S. podocarpa, S. sophera and S.

nodosa. The results of this study are helpful in identification of these plants and

in prevention of adulteration especially in the pharmacognostic research.

∗∗∗∗ El-Hashash et al. (2010) investigated antioxidant activity of methanolic extract

of the leaves of seven Egyptian Cassia species using DPPH and

Phosphomolybdate assay method. They also determined total phenolic and

flavonoid content of the extracts. The results showed that C. glauca has

maximum antioxidant activity than other extracts. This potent extract was

subjected to fractionation using chloroform, ethyl acetate and butanol. They


47

determined the antioxidant activity of these fractions and found that ethyl acetate

fraction has high activity. From this study they concluded that antioxidant

activity increases with increase in total phenolic content.

∗∗∗∗ Chanda et al. (2012) evaluated antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of stem

and leave of four Cassia species viz. C. auriculkata, C. fistula, C. siamea and C.

tora. For this study they prepared acetone, methanol and aqueous extracts. The

antioxidant activity was determined using DPPH, superoxide and hydroxyl anion

radical scavenging assay and reducing assay methods. They also determined

total phenolic and flavonoid contents. They found a direct correlation between

antioxidant activity and phenol contents. For antimicrobial activity they used 8

bacterial and 4 fungal strains. From this study they concluded that C. auriculata

showed substantial antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.

∗∗∗∗ Dave H and Ledwani L (2012) presented a review on anthraquinones isolated

from different species of Cassia along with their applications. They concluded

that plants of Cassia species can serve as a commercial source for naturally

occurring anthraquinones.

∗∗∗∗ Tripathi and Mondal (2012) studied stomatal characters of six species of

Cassia which are medicinally important in South West Bengal region. They

performed leaf epidermal studies that includes presence of stomata, types of

stomata, stomatal number stomatal index and shape of the epidermal cells They

compared qualitatively as well as quantitatively all the six species of Cassia they

studied. They found that paracytic stomata are more common in Cassia species.

∗∗∗∗ Veerachari et al. (2012) investigated comparative qualitative phytochemical

studies on six species of Cassia. In this study they prepared ethanolic,

methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of leaves of C. alata, C. surratensis, C.

occidentalis, C. auriculata, C. sericea and C. tora using maceration method.

These extracts were subjected for qualitative phytochemical studies for the

presence of various phytoconstituents like alkaloids, tannins, carbohydrates,

proteins, anthraquinones, phenolic flavonoids, saponins, flavonoids,

anthocyanosides, cardiacglycosides and phlobatannins. The results showedthe


48

presence of all of the said constituents excluding saponins, anthraquinones,

anthocyanosides and phenolic flavonoids in some extracts.

∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (2013) reviewed various Cassia species for their pharmacological,

traditional and medicinal values in various developing countries. They provided

compiled information for the development of new drug molecules from different

Cassia species for the treatment of various disorders and concluded that Cassia

species have immense biological potential for unexplored activities. In this

review, they found 57 endangered species of Cassia and 52 Cassia species with

their geographical distribution and synonyms. They also mentioned 10 Cassia

species with their chemical constituents and medicinal activity.

∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (2013) presented a comprehensive review on pharmacological,

medicinal and traditional value of plants of Cassia species (Caesalpiniaceae) in

developing countries.

∗∗∗∗ Sushma Rani and Sardana S (2014) evaluated and compare three species of

Cassia viz. C. fistula, C. occidentalis and C. tora for pharmacognostic

parameters. The result reveals that these species differ in macro- and

microscopic characters and physico-chemical constants. Thus, helpful in

identification and standardization of quality and purity of these species.

2.1.2 Cassia fistula Linn.

Cassia fistula Linn. is a moderate sized deciduous tree up to 15 m in height and 1.8 m

in breadth . It is cultivated as ornamental tree because of attractive yellow flowers

blooms in the form of pendant racemes. It is the national tree of Thailand, and its

flower is Thailand's national flower. It is also the state flower of Kerala in India. It is a

popular ornamental plant and also used in herbal medicine.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassia_fistula)

Common name: Golden Shower, Indian Laburnum, Purging Cassia or Fistula

(Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992).


49

Vernacular Names of Cassia fistula Linn.

Languages Vernacular Names

Assamese Sonaru

Bengali Amaltas, Bandarlathi

English Indian Laburnum, Purging cassia, Golden Shower

Guajarati Garmala, Garmalo

Hindi Amaltas, Bandarlauri

Malaya Sonawir

Malayalam Kanikonna, Svarnaviram

Marathi Bahava, Bhawabaya

Punjabi Alash, Kaniar

Sanskrit Nripadruma, Argwadha

Tamil Konnei, Shrakkannai

Telugu Aragvadhamu, Suvarnamu

Oriya Amaltas, Sunari

Urdu Amaltas

Chapter-2

Botanical Description:

Barkis greyish and smooth when young and dark brown and rough when old.

Leaves are pinnately compound 20 to 40 cm long, rachis and petioles are glandless.

Leaflets are 4 to 8 pairs, ovate, acute, and bright green and glabrous above and pale

and densely pubescent underneath.

Flowersare bright yellow in colour and are in axillary lax

racemes, blooms in the month of April to June when it is leafless.

Fruits / Ripe Pods are cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth dark brown or

black in color, 30 to 60 cm long and 2

Seeds are biconcave,

dark colored sweetish pulp and completely separated by transverse

dissepiments.

Root is reddish brown and rough externally with horizontal lenticels and smooth and

light pink internally.

50

Plate 2.1: Aerial parts of Cassia fistula Linn.

Botanical Description:

is greyish and smooth when young and dark brown and rough when old.

are pinnately compound 20 to 40 cm long, rachis and petioles are glandless.

are 4 to 8 pairs, ovate, acute, and bright green and glabrous above and pale

and densely pubescent underneath.

are bright yellow in colour and are in axillary lax pendulous or hanging


are cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth dark brown or

black in color, 30 to 60 cm long and 2-2.5 cm in diameter.

broadly ovate, light brown, 40 to 80 in numbers immersed in


reddish brown and rough externally with horizontal lenticels and smooth and

light pink internally.

Literature Review

Linn.

is greyish and smooth when young and dark brown and rough when old.

are pinnately compound 20 to 40 cm long, rachis and petioles are glandless.

are 4 to 8 pairs, ovate, acute, and bright green and glabrous above and pale

pendulous or hanging


are cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth dark brown or

broadly ovate, light brown, 40 to 80 in numbers immersed in


reddish brown and rough externally with horizontal lenticels and smooth and


51

Parts used:

Pods, Fruit pulp, Flowers, Bark, Leaves and Roots.

Distribution:

It is distributed throughout larger part of India, goes up to an altitude of 1220 m in the

Sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalaya, abundant in forest tracts throughout upper

Gangetic plain of Bengal, Central India and deciduous

Cultivation:

It is cultivated as an ornamental plant for attractive yellow blossoms in pendant

racemes forests of South India. This tree is commonly planted on roadsides and in the

gardens. It grows under a varied range of climatic variations. In its natural

environment it can grow at absolute maximum shade temperature from 35oC to

47.5oC and absolute minimum temperature from 0 oC to 17.5 oC. The annual rainfall

from 450 to 3000 mm can be tolerable but flourishes best when rainfall is in between

750 – 1900 mm.

It can be cultivated by natural regeneration or artificial regeneration (Anonymous,

the wealth of India, 1992).

In natural regeneration the ripe pods fall on the ground and regenerated by their own.

In artificial regeneration, the plant can be cultivated through direct sowing or

transplanting the nursery raised saplings or stump-planting.

Seeds can be sawn in March- April, sprouting appears early during the rains and some

germinate in the next year. Weeding is important than watering as it is sensitive to

weeds than drought. The fruits are collected when ripe and kept under soil for seven

days and dried in the sun. The pulp is separated and stored in air tight containers.

Chemical constituents: (Chatterjee A and Pakrash SC, 2006)

Seeds:Sugar and galactomannan

Flowers:Ceryl alcohol, fistulin, Leucopelargonidin trimer and tetramer, Kaemferol,

rhein, dianthraquinone glucoside, fistulin rhamnoside, aurantiamide acetate,

stigmasterol, 28-isofucosterol, sitosterol, methyl eugenol and gibberellic acid.


52

Fruit Pulp: Proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids, arginine, leucine, methionine,

phenylalanine, tryptophan, aspartic, glutamic acid, glucose, sucrose and

fructose.

Pods: 1,4-dihydroxy-6, 7-dimethoxy-2-methyl-anthraquinone-3-carboxylic acid

(fistulic acid). Pulp contains sennosides A and B, rhein and its glucoside

Stem Bark: (+) Catechin, epicatechin, Kaempferol, Lupeol, β-sitosterol and

hexacosanol.

Leaves: Chrysophanol, physcion, Kaempferol, quercetin, (-)-epiafzelechin and its

glucopyranoside, isomer of epiafzelechin, epicatechin, sennoside A and B,

gallic, protocatechuic, ellagic, citric, malic and succinic acid.

Plant: Seven bioflavonoids, two triflovonoids, clitorin, chrysophanic acid, emodine,

epicatechin, kaempferol-3-β- glucoside, kaempferol-3-neohesperidoside and

procyanidin.

Chemical structure of important phytoconstituents present in Cassia fistula

Linn. (Bahorun et al. 2005)

CH2OH

OHOOH

O

Aloe-emodine

O OH

CH3

OH

O

1,3-Dihydroxy-2-methyl anthraquinone (Rubiadin)


53

OH OHO

OR2 R1

CH3H

COOH HCH3 OHCH3 -OCH3

OH OHO

O

CH3

OH

COOHMeO

MeO

O

O

OH

OH

HH

COOH

COOH

R1 R2

Chrysophanol

RheinEmodinPhyscion

Fistulic acid

B-D-glc-O

B-D-glc-O

10

10'

C -10 C -10'

Sennoside A R RSennoside B R S

Chemical structures of main anthraquinone derivatives present in

Cassia fistula Linn.


54

O

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

OHO

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

OH

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

O

OH O

OH

OR

MeO

OH

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

H

H

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

H

H

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

Procyanidin B2

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

OH

Kaempferol

(+) epiafzelechin

(-) epiafzelechin

R = Gentiobiose

Rhamnetin 3-O-Gentiobioside

(+) Catechin (+) Epicatechin

Quercetin

Chemical structures of main flavonols and flavonol derivatives present in C.

fistula Linn.


55

Traditional uses: (Sharma et al, 2005; Database on Medicinal Plants, Vol 2,

CCRAS, New Delhi, pp 29-48)

Roots:Roots and its bark possess astringent, cooling, tonic, purgative, anti-

inflammatory properties and also useful in dyspepsia, flatulence, abdominal

distention, hepatobiliary disorders, constipation, skin diseases, wounds,

ulcers, leprosy, tubercular lymphagitis, syphilis, fever, heart diseases and

UTI

Leaves: Laxatives, anti-inflammatory, ulcers healing, rheumatism, skin diseases,

Flowers: Cooling, astringent, demulscent, bitter, acrid and have lubricating effect.

They are used in dry cough and bronchitis,

Fruits: It is used as digestant, purgative, antipyretic, blood purifier, emollient and

diuretic. It is also used in jaundice, leprosy and abdominal pain. Fruit pulp is

sweet, cooling with pleasant taste. It is applied externally for gout,

rheumatism, snake bite etc.

Seeds: Sweet, laxative, carminative, cooling, antipyretic and emetics. It also improve

appetite. Seed powder is used in amoebiasis.

Substantiated pharmacological activities:

� Hypoglycaemic activity

� Anticancer activity

� Abortifacient activity

� Anticolic activity

� Antifertility activity

� Estrogenic activity

� Laxative activity

� Purgative activity

� Antimicrobial activity

� Antibacterial activity

� Antipyretic activity

� Anti-inflammatory activity

� Antitussive activity

� Analgesic activity


56

� Antifungal activity

� Hepatoprotective activity

� Antioxidant activity

Marketed Formulations containing Cassia fistula (Thirumal et al. 2012)

Sr.

No. Formulation

Therapeutic

Use Manufacturer

1 Constivac Bowel regulator Lupin Herbals

2 Pilex Piles Himalaya Drug Company

3 Purian Detoxifier Himalaya Drug Company

Literature Reviewed:

∗∗∗∗ Prasad CB. (1982) studied 75 plants for mean survival time of mice infected

intracerebrally with vaccinia virus and found that Cassia fistula bark increases

the mean survival time (MST) of infected mice.

∗∗∗∗ Mahesh et al. (1984) reported presence of kaempferol and mixture of

anthraquinone such as chrysophanol, rhein and physcion on phytochemical

examination of ethanol extract of leaves of C. fistula.

∗∗∗∗ Shukla et al. (1988) studied amoebicidal and cysticidal activity of whole seed

powder of Cassia fistula. They cured experimental caecal amoebiasis of rat,

hepatic amoebiasis of golden hamster and intestinal amoebiasis of man.

∗∗∗∗ Esposito et al. (1991) evaluated aqueous extract fraction of leaves and stem of

Cajanus cajan L. and Cassia fistula L. on carbohydrate metabolism in mice.

They found that Cajanus cajan extract at a dose of 300mg/kg showed

hypoglycaemia for a short time but at high dose i.e. 500 and 1000mg it

showed hyperglycaemia. On the other hand Cassia fistula produced significant

hypoglycaemia.


57

∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (1992) studied the effect of aqueous extract of Cassia fistula

flowersat dose of 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight when administered for 15

days in reproductive organs of female albino rats. They found that this extract

showed follicular atresia and absence of corpus luteum at 200mg/kg.

∗∗∗∗ Barthakul et al. (1995),analysed the fruit of C. fistulafor organic and mineral

nutrients. They found that these fruits contains good amount of Iron, Calcium

and Manganese which are even higher than that present in common fruits like

apple, peach, apricot, pear and orange.They also found thatthis fruit had high

energy content. From this study they concluded thatit can be a good source of

important nutrients and energy for humans.

∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (1997) reported the hypoglycemic effect of the methanolic

extract of Cassia fistula leaves in alloxan induced diabetic rats. The extract

showed significant decrease in blood glucose concentration in diabetic rats.

∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al.(1998) evaluated methanolic extract of leaves of C. fistula Linn.

for wound healing activity in excision and incision wound models in the form

of ointment. The 5% and 10% w/w ointment was used for wound healing

activity. The result showed substantial wound healing activity in both models.

∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (1998) investigated methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia

fistula for antitussive activity in sulphur dioxide gas induced cough model in

mice. The extract exhibited momentous antitussive activity on oral

administration. The maximum inhibition of cough occurred by 44.44% and

51.85% at dose of 400 and 600 mg/kg respectively with respect to control.

∗∗∗∗ Kumar et al. (1998) studied Leukotriene inhibitory activity of methanol

extract prepared from fruits of C. fistula by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase enzymes

in bovine polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

∗∗∗∗ Mazumdar et al. (1998) evaluated analgesic and sedative activity of methanol

extract of seeds of Cassia fistula in mice. They found that methanol extract

potentiated the sedative actions of sodium pentobarbitone, diazepam,

meprobamate and chlorpromazine and analgesic action of morphine and


58

pethidine significantly. The potentiation of sedative and analgesic effect

increases with increase in dose.

∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (1999) investigated the hepatoprotective activity of leaves of

Cassia fistula in rats. They used n-heptane extract of leaves for activity. The

hepatotoxicity was induced using carbon tetrachloride and liquid paraffin in

the ratio of 1:1. The extract showed significant hepatoprotective activity at 400

mg/kg which causes significant decrease in serum level of transaminases

(SGOT and SGPT), bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase when compared with

control group.

∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (2000) studied the antitumor activity of methanolic extract of

seeds of C. fistula L. on growth of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and life span of

mice having tumor. The extract showed increase in life span and decrease in

volume of tumor and viable tumor cell count in tumor bearing mice. It also

causes enhancement in Hb content, RBC and bone marrow cell count.

∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (2001) studied the hepatoprotective activity of the n-heptane

extract of leaves of Cassia fistula in rats. Hepatotoxicity was induced by

Paracetamol. They found that extract, at a dose of 400 mg/kg when

administered orally, showed substantial hepatoprotective activity.

∗∗∗∗ Luximon et al. (2002) estimated antioxidant activity and total phenolic

content, proanthocynidine and flavonoid content in vegetative and

reproductive organs of Cassia fistula. They found that antioxidant activity was

higher in reproductive organs including fruits than vegetative parts. They also

correlate the antioxidant activity with total phenols.

∗∗∗∗ Siddhuraju et al. (2002) studied antioxidant activity of ethanolic extracts

(90%) of leaves, stem bark, pulp and flowers of C. fistula L. The antioxidant

activity was determined using different methods viz. thiocyanate assay

method, reducing power assay method, superoxide radical scavenging and

DPPH radical scavenging assay methods. They also determined total phenolic

content in all extracts. The antioxidant activity and total phenolic contents


59

were found to be higher in stem bark and minimum in flowers and pulp. They

linked antioxidant activity with total phenolic content.

∗∗∗∗ Manonmani et al. (2005) studied aqueous extract of C. fistula flowers for

antioxidant activity in heart tissue of alloxane induced diabetic rats. They

found that activity of antioxidant enzymes come to normal level after

treatment with aqueous extract which was decreased in diabetic rats.

∗∗∗∗ Muthusamy et al. (2006) studied the wound healing activity of alcoholic

extract of leaves of C. fistula in infected wound model in albino rats. They

also investigated antibacterial activity of extract against Staphylococcus

aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. For wound healing activity they applied

the formulated ointment on infected dermal wound and estimated various

parameters and found that Cassia fistula can be used in the management of

infected wounds.

∗∗∗∗ Duraipandiyan (2007) evaluated antibacterial and antifungal activity of

different extracts of flowers of C. fistula using disc diffusion method. All

tested extracts showed antibacterial activity against all Gram positive

organisms and only one Gram negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeroginosa)but

ethyl acetate extract showed maximum activity. Therefore, they fractionated

this extract. The fraction of ethyl acetate extract also showed antifungal

activity.

∗∗∗∗ Sartorelli et al. (2007) isolated sterol, clerosterol, from hexane extract of

fruits of C. fistula. They evaluated the antileishmanial activity of isolated

stereol and crude extract against visceral form of leishmaniasis. From these

studies they found that extract and isolated compound had high sensitivity

against leishmaniasis and less toxic to mammalian cells than standard drug

pentamidine.

∗∗∗∗ Einstein et al. (2008) studied the protective effect of flowers, leaves and bark

of Cassia fistula on human umbilical vein endothelial cells against glycated

protein induced toxicity in vitro. The protective effect of extracts was


60

estimated by tryptan blue exclusion and MTT assay method. Hence these

extracts can be used in prevention of diabetic angiopathies.

∗∗∗∗ Nafisa Hasan Ali et al. (2008) studied immunomodulatory effect of aqueous

extract of fruits of C. fistula and its synergistic effect with amoxicillin i.e.

‘Amoxy – cassia (patent # 1371240, Government of Pakistan) on humoral

immune system of balb/c mice. For immunomodulatory effect, they

immunized the mice with sheep RBCs (SRBC) and determined number of

activated anti-SRBC producing cells in spleen which is calculated by

haemolytic plaque assay and haemoagglutination test. The results showed that

both Amoxy-cassia and aqueous extract of C. fistula stimulates immune

system by activating anti RBC producing cells in the spleen but highest

activity was observed in Amoxy-cassia treated mice.

∗∗∗∗ Gupta and Jain (2009) evaluated hypolipidemic activity of 50% alcoholic

extract of legume of C. fistula in rats. They induced hyperlipidemia by

administering cholesterol orally in a dose of 500mg/kg body weight per day

for 90 days. Concurrently they also administered alcoholic extract at different

dose levels to test groups. They found that extract inhibit the increase in serum

lipid level i.e. LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides levels but increases the HDL-

cholesterol level when compared with control group. The hypolipidemic effect

increases with increase in dose.

∗∗∗∗ Patwardhan et al. (2009) evaluated hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic

extract of bark of Cassia fistula against CCl4 induced hepatic damage in rats.

The hepatoprotective activity was assessed by measuring various biochemical

parameters for LFT and histopathological examination of liver. They found

that extract of bark of Cassia fistula at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg

significantly decreased all the elevated biochemical parameters in comparison

to control group, therefore can be used as hepatoprotective drug.

∗∗∗∗ Sakulpanich and Gritsanapan (2009) determined anthraquinone glycoside

content in C. fistula leaves collected from ten different locations in the

Thailand. The total anthraquinone glycosides were determined by using UV-

Visible Spectrophotometer in leaf extract prepared by decoction method in


61

terms of rhein. They found that rhein content was greater in leaves collected

from region where the weather was hot in summer and minimum in those

collected from region where the climate was cool and rainy whole of the year.

∗∗∗∗ Silawat et al. (2009) studied the mechanism of hypoglycemic effect of

hydroalcoholic extract of leaves of C. fistula at 200 and 400 mg/kg body

weight in alloxan induced diabetic rats. They used glibenclamide as standard

(0.5 mg/kg body wt.). The extract showed hypoglycemic and antidiabetic

effect and therefore can be used in Type I and Type II diabetes.

∗∗∗∗ Awal et al. (2010) studied antibacterial activity of alcoholic extracts of leaves

and roots of C. fistula against five Gram-positive and nine Gram-negative

bacteria using disc diffusion method. The results of the studies showed that

leaf extract at concentration of 200µg/disc showed better antibacterial activity

than root extract against tested microorganisms.

∗∗∗∗ Gobianand et al. (2010) evaluated Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic

activities of Cassia fistula Linn. (Golden Shower) in wistar albino rats. For

anti-inflammatory activity, carrgeenan induced Inflammation (rat paw edema)

and cotton pellet granuloma models were used and for antipyretic activity

TAB Vaccine induced pyrexia model was used. Extract showed analgesic and

antipyretic effect.

∗∗∗∗ Karthikeyan and Gobianand (2010) evaluated antiulcer activity of ethanol

extract of leaves of cassia fistula in pylorus ligated rats. They found that at

dose of 750 mg/kg it produced maximum antiulcer activity. The antiulcer

activity was assessed by decrease in gastric acid secretion, inhibition of free

radical generation, prevention of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant activity of

the extract.

∗∗∗∗ Patel et al. (2010) studied antipyretic activity of petroleum ether, chloroform

and methanol extracts of bark of Cassia fistula in albino rats at dose of

300mg/kg orally after 19 hrs. of induction of pyrexia. Pyrexia was induced by

administering 10ml/kg of 15% suspension of yeast s/c. All these extracts


62

showed significant antipyretic activity but methanol extract had maximum

antipyretic activity.

∗∗∗∗ Adnan et al. (2011) determined reno-protective effect of ethanolic extract of

leaves of C. fistula against diabetic nephropathy in rats. Diabetic nephropathy

was induced using single i.p. injection of streptozotocin. Before inducing

diabetes they estimated various biochemical parameters viz. serum glucose,

serum urea, serum creatinine, total urinary protein, microalbuminuric levels

and body weight. After inducing diabetes the drug was administered for 8

weeks and all parameters were compared with positive and negative control.

For standard they used Glibenclamide. After 60 days of drug administration

they found that extract at dose of 500 mg/kg reduced all parameters and

showed reno-protective effect on streptozotocin induced diabetic nephropathy

in rats.

∗∗∗∗ Aneja et al. (2011) evaluated antimicrobial activity of methanol, ethanol,

acetone and aqueous extracts of flowers, leaves and bark of Cassia fistula

against pathogens causing otitis externa using agar well diffusion method.

They found that organic extracts had antimicrobial activity against all tested

pathogens and acetone extract of flowers showed maximum zone of inhibition

against S. aureus.

∗∗∗∗ Bhalodia and Shukla (2011) investigated antibacterial and antifungal

activities of hydroalcoholic extract of leaves of C. fistula against Gram +ve,

gram –ve and fungal strains. The maximum antibacterial and antifungal

activity was found in E. coli and C. albicans respectively.

∗∗∗∗ Danish et al. (2011) reviewed the phytochemical and pharmacological

properties of C. fistula and found that it consists of tannins, flavones and

glycosides and have hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antitussive,

antifungal and wound healing activities.

∗∗∗∗ Jothi et al. (2011) investigated acute oral toxicity of methanolic extract of

seeds of Cassia fistula in mice. They found that at maximum dose of

5000mg/kg when administered orally for 14 days did not produce any

mortalities or significant adverse effects.


63

∗∗∗∗ Jothi et al. (2011) investigated antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of

seeds of Cassia fistula using DPPH radical scavenging assay and Xanthine

oxidase inhibition assay methods. They found that extract showed 59.58%

antioxidant activity in DPPH assay method.

∗∗∗∗ Md Irshad et al. (2011) evaluated anticandidal activity of fruit pulp and seed

extract of Cassia fistula on Candida albicans, C. glabrata and C. tropicalis.

The activity was determined by measuring MIC, Growth curve studies and

estimation of ergosterol. From studies, they concluded that these crude

extracts can be a good source of anticandidal compound.

∗∗∗∗ Panda et al. (2011) evaluated preliminary phytochemical and antibacterial

activity of different extracts i.e. petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol,

methanol and water, of leaves of Cassia fistula (Linn.) against different

bacterial strains. The results showed that all extracts had antibacterial activity

against tested bacteria. The maximum activity was observed in ethanol extract

and found that MIC ranged from 94 to 1500 µg/ml. The TLC bioautography

and time-kill study against Staphylococcus epidermidis were performed on

Ethanol extract. From these studies they revealed that alcoholic extract of

leaves of C. fistula has broad spectrum antibacterial activity and can be used in

the treatment of infectious diseases.

∗∗∗∗ Ziyaurrhman et al. (2011) studied the hydroalcoholic extract of leaves of C.

fistula Linn against neuropathic pain in albino rats exposed to alcohol and

acrylamide induced peripheral neuropathy. The result showed that the extract

was unable to protect the animals from acrylamide induced peripheral

neuropathy whereas it reverses the alcohol induced peripheral neuropathy in

dose dependent manner.

∗∗∗∗ Bhalerao and Kelker (2012) extensively reviewed the Cassia fistula and

describe comprehensive review on its morphology, traditional uses,

phytochemical constituents and various pharmacological activities.

∗∗∗∗ Bhalodia et al. (2012), screened antimicrobial activity of hydroalcoholic and

chloroform extract of fruit pulp of C. fistula against two Gram-positive, two


64

Gram-negative human pathogenic bacteria and three fungi by disc diffusion

method. The antimicrobial activity was found to be dose dependent and

hydroalcoholic extract showed significant antibacterial and antifungal activity

whereas chloroform extract was found to be more active against fungal strains.

∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) evaluated hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective and renal

damage restoring activities of catechin isolated from stem of Cassia fistula in

STZ induced diabetic male albino rats. They found that orally administered

catechin at dose of 20mg/kg b wt. had hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic,

hepatoprotective and renal damage restoring activities.

∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) isolated catechin from methanolic extract of stem bark of

Cassia fistula. They studied the glucose tolerance pattern of catechin in

streptozotocin induced diabetic male albino rats on oral administration

(20mg/kg b.wt.) for 60 days. They also studied hypoglycaemic and insulin

mimetic activity using computer aided drug development, in which they used

ligand based drug design, structure based drug design and quantitative SAR

(structure activity relationship) and SPR (structure property relationship). The

3D structure was docked with PPAR (Peroxisome proliferator-activated

receptor gamma) and insulin receptors and found that catechin can be

developed as potential oral hypoglycaemic drug.

∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) studied the hypoglycemic effects of aqueous extract and

gold nanoparticles synthesized from stem bark of Cassia fistula in rats. The

hypoglycemic activity was studied in both normal and diabetic rats. The

diabetes was induced using streptozotocin. The results of the study showed

that animals with streptozotocin induced diabetes showed significant decrease

in blood glucose levels after 4 weeks of continuous administration of aqueous

extract and gold nanoparticles prepared from stem bark. The gold

nanoparticles showed better results than aqueous extract of the same plant

part.

∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) studied the hypoglycaemic and insulin-mimetic effect of

catechin isolated from methanolic extract of stem of cassia fistula in

streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. They observed that oral administration of


65

catechin increase tissue glycogen and 14C-glucose oxidation without affecting

plasma insulin and C-peptide. Catechin also re-established the altered

Glucokinase, glucose-6 Phosphatase, Glycogen Synthase and Glycogen

Phosphorylase enzymeslevels to normal. Thus they concluded that catechin

can be used in diabetes.

∗∗∗∗ Grace et al. (2012) studied in vitro antiplasmodial activity of crude extracts

from leaves, bark and fruits against the chloroquine sensitive strain of

Plasmodium falciparum. They found that leaf extract showed maximum

antiplasmodial activity. They also isolated three antiplasmodial constituents

from leaf extract.

∗∗∗∗ Irshad et al. (2012) evaluated and compared antioxidant potential of

methanolic and hexane extract of pulp and seeds of C. fistula using DPPH,

FRAP, Fe3+ reducing power, and hydrogen peroxide scavenging assay

methods. The results showed that methanolic extract of pulp had maximum

antioxidant activity.

∗∗∗∗ Rajshree et al. (2012) evaluated Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of

methanolic extract of roots of C. fistula using Ellman’s colorimetric assay

method. They found that at concentration of 0.1mg/ml the extract showed 60-

65% Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. The activity was found to be due

to presence of alkaloids that was confirmed by TLC.

∗∗∗∗ Agnihotri and Singh (2013) evaluated anti-hyperglycemic effect of alcoholic

extracts of stem bark of Tamarindus indica and Cassia fistula in alloxan

induced diabetes in rats and in vitro antioxidant activity. They found that both

the extracts were safe up to 2000mg/kg body weight on oral administration

and showed significant antioxidant and antidiabetic activity. These extracts

also had protective effect on renal complications associated with diabetes.

∗∗∗∗ Chewchinda et al. (2013) quantitatively analyzed the rhein content by HPLC

method in decoction prepared from pod pulp under different storage

conditions. They also evaluated antifungal activity of extract and its

hydrolysed mixture against dermatophyte. They concluded that both extract

and hydrolysed mixture have antifungal activity.


66

∗∗∗∗ Eiestein et al. (2013) investigated antidiabetic effects of methanolic and

aqueous extracts of different parts of Cassia fistula, viz. Bark, leaf, flowers

and pods, in Streptozotocin- nictotinamide induced Type 2 diabetic rats. They

found that methanolic extracts of bark and leaves at dose of 500 mg/kg have

significant antihyperglycemic and antilipidemic activity in the STZ-

nictotinamide induced diabetic rats.

∗∗∗∗ Irshad et al. (2013) studied composition and antifungal activity of Cassia

fistula pulp and seed oil in Candida albicans. GC-MS analysis of Cassia

fistula oil showed presence of antimicrobial compounds like beta-sitosterol,

stigmasterol, ergosterol, lupeol, fucosterol, alpha-amyrin and friedelin. They

revealed that mechanism of antifungal activity was due to decrease in

biosynthesis of ergosterol in Candida cell wall.

∗∗∗∗ Shailajan et al. (2013) developed and validated chromatographic, HPTLC,

method for estimation of rhein in different parts of the plant. They also studied

variation in rhein content in fruit pulp obtained from different geographical

region. From this study they concluded that rhein content was maximum in

leaves followed by fruit pulp, flowers and seeds. The variation in rhein content

was found obtained from different region. The rhein content was maximum in

sample obtained from Mumbai and minimum in that obtained from Dehradun.

∗∗∗∗ Ahmed et al. (2014) studied antimicrobial activity of leaves and bark of C.

fistula against pathogenic microorganisms. They prepared aqueous and

alcoholic extract for antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial activity was

evaluated by disc diffusion method. From this study they found that alcoholic

extract of bark had more antimicrobial activity than leaf extract against P.

aerogenosa and S. aureus. The antimicrobial activity was more than standard

antibiotic streptomycin.

∗∗∗∗ Irshad et al. (2014) evaluated anticancer activity of ethyl acetate and n-

butanol extract of seeds and fruit pulp against human cervical cancer (SiHa)

and breast cancer (MCF-7) cell lines. The results of the study showed that all

the extracts inhibited MCF-7 and SiHa cells growth by modulating the

expression of apoptosis-regulatory genes and caspase enzymes.


67

∗∗∗∗ Jaffary et al. (2014) studied the antileishmanial activity on topical application

of concentrated boiledextract and hydroalcoholic extract of C. fistula in 165

patients having positive leishmanias smear test and compared with

intraleishnal injection of Meglumine antimoniate. They observed lesion at

1,2,3,4 and 16 weeks and found that at 16 weeks the lesions were resolved in

65.5%, 40% and 36.4% of the patient treated with Meglumine antimoniate,

concentrated boiled extract and hydroalcoholic extract respectively.

∗∗∗∗ Seyyednejad et al. (2014) evaluated antibacterial activity of ethanol and

methanol extracts of flowers of C. fistula against gram positive and gram

negative pathogenic bacteria using disc diffusion method. They found that

extracts are effective against tested microorganisms and can be used as

antibacterial agents.

∗∗∗∗ Choopani et al. (2015) reviewed pharmacological treatment of catarrh

(common cold) in Iranian traditional medicine (ITM). In this review they

gathered the information from the known sources of ITM and physician about

medicinal plants used in the treatment of catarrh and they found that 10

medicinal plants including C. fistula can be used in modern treatment of

Catarrh.

∗∗∗∗ Handa and Sharma (2015) studied antifungal activity of different extracts

prepared by cold maceration (100% alcohol, 50% alcohol and 100% aqueous

extracts) and successive continuous soxhlation (Pet. Ether, Benzene,

Chloroform, Acetone, Alcohol, Methanol and water extracts) of fruit pulp of

C. fistula against Alternaria solani using disc diffusion method. The results

showed that maximum zone of inhibition were observed with 100% crude

alcoholic extract and chloroform extract against Alternaria solani.

∗∗∗∗ Kulkarni et al. (2015) studied methanol extract of whole plant of C. fistula

for GC-MS analysis and anticancer activity on human prostate cancer line and

identified 10 different phyto-constituents from GC-MS analysis. The

methanolic extract also showed significant anticancer activity in MTT assay.

∗∗∗∗ Kulkarni et al. (2015) performed phytochemical analysisof petroleum ether,

methanol and aqueous extracts of whole plant of Cassia fistula for presence of


68

various phytoconstituents. They also performed in vitro studies of these

extracts for antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. From

studies they found that methanolic extracts showed maximum activities due to

presence of more total phenolic content followed by aqueous and pet. ether

extracts.

∗∗∗∗ Sutar et al. (2015) investigated hypolipidemic activity of methanolic and

aqueous extracts of leaves of C. fistula in male Sprauge–Dawley rats. They

induced hyperlipidemia by using atherogenic diet and found that both extracts

showed significant hypolipidemic activity in a dose dependent manner but

aqueous extract at dose of 400mg/kg showed better effect than methanolic

extract.

∗∗∗∗ Tram et al. (2015) investigated anti-psoriatic activity of hydrophilic cream of

methanolic extract of ripe fruit of C. fistula on psoriasis form lesions in mice

induced by Di-n-Propyl Disulphide (PPD). The results revealed that C. fistula

incorporated cream at a concentration of 6.25% had highest anti-psoriatic

activity.

2.1.3 Cassia occidentalis Linn.

Cassia occidentalis is an erect, foetid, annual herb or under shrub, 60-150 cm in

height, found all over India up to an altitude of 1500m during rainy season and

blooms in the month of July- august.

Common name:

Coffee senna, Foetid cassia, Negro-coffee, Stinging weed (Anonymous, The Wealth

of India, 1992, 349-352)

Vernacular names of C. occidentalis

Languages Vernacular name

Bengali Kalakashunda

English Fetid Cassia, Negro-Cassia

Guajarati Kasodari, Kasundari

Chapter-2

Hindi

Malaya

Malayalam

Marathi

Punjabi

Rajasthani

Sanskrit

Tamil

Telugu

Oriya

Urdu

Plate 2.2: Aerial parts of

69

Hindi Barikasondi, Chakunda, Kasondi

Malaya Kanchang kota

Malayalam Karintakara, Natramtakara

Marathi Kasoda, Rankasvinda

Punjabi Phanachhatra

Rajasthani Chakundra

Sanskrit Kasamarda,

Tamil Nattandagarai, Ponnavarai

Telugu Kasinda, Peddakasinda

Oriya Kasundri

Urdu Kasonji

Plate 2.2: Aerial parts of Cassia occidentalis Linn.

Literature Review

Barikasondi, Chakunda, Kasondi

Linn.


70

Habitat:

It is a common weed scattered from the Himalayas to the Western Bengal, South

India, Burma and Ceylon (Indian Material Medica pp 289-290). Plant springs up

abundantly after the rains almost everywhere on waste land and on garbage heaps and

vanish on the commencement of cold weather.

Parts used:

Leaves, seeds and roots

Plant description:

Branches are subglabrous furrowed often purplish.

Stem is reddish purple in colour. Young stems are four sided and with age becomes

smooth-edged.

Leavesare paripinnate, 15-20 cm long having 3 to 5 pairs of opposite leaflets. Rachis

have a single purplish gland at its base.

Leaflets are 3 to 5 pairs, opposite, ovate to lanceolate having pointed tip. Leaflets are

glabrous above and pubescent below.

Flowers are yellow in color in short racemes, blooming in the month of July to

August.

Pods are recurved, glabrous and compressed. These are 10-12.5 cm long and 5mm.

thick.

Seeds are 20 to 30 in number, 6mm long and 4mm broad, dark olive-green in colour,

ovoid, hard, smooth and shiny in appearance. Seeds are compressed at one end

and rounded at other end.

Chemical constituents: (Yadav et al., 2010)

The important chemical constituents present in C. occidentalis are emodin, aloe-

emodin, anthraquinones, anthrone, cassioline, chrysoobtusin, chrysophanol, essential


71

oils, funiculosin, kaempferol, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, manitol, obtusiline, obtusin,

physion, quercetin, rhein, sitosterol and tannins.

Whole plant: Three C-glycosidic flavonoids (Cassiaoccidentalin A, Band C)

(Hatano et al., 1999)

Seeds: Seeds contain sennosides, N-Me-morphidine,tannic acid, toxalbumin,

chrysophanic acid, campesterol, chrysophanol, Physcion, emodin,

cardinolides, sugar, gum, starch, cellulose, fatty matters (olein and margarin)

and traces of calcium sulphate and phosphate, sodium chloride, magnesium

sulphate, iron.

Leaves: Leaves contain C-glycoside of Apigenin, vitexin, chrysophanol, emodin and

their glycosides, physcion, cartbartin, Bianthraquinone (1,1-bi-4,4’,5,5’-

tetrahydroxy-2,2’-dimethyl anthraquinone), Flavon (metterucinol-7-O-α-L-

rhamnoside). Others compounds present in leaves are alkaloids, flavonoids,

tannins, phlobatannins and Occidentalin A and B

Roots: Roots contain a resin, rhein, aloe-emodin and their glucosides, emodine,

Physcion, pinselin, β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, 1,8-

dihydroxyanthraquinoe, chrysophanol, quercetin, toxalbumin, Occidentalol-1,

and Occidentalol-2.

Pods/Fruits: Pods contain flavonoid glycosides 3,5,3’,4’-tetrahydroxy-7-

methoxyflavone-3-O-(2’-rhamnosylglucoside) and 5,7,4’-trihydroxy-3,6,3’-

trimethoxyflavon-7-O-(2’- rhamnosylglucoside), 1,8-dihydroxy-2-methyl

anthraquinone, physcion, rhein, aloe-emodine, chrysophanol and steroidal

glycosides.

Flowers: Flowers contain anthraquinones, β-sitosterol, emodine, physcion and its β-

glucopyranoside.


72

Chemical structures of some phytoconstituents present in Cassia occidentalis Linn.

OH OHO

O

CH3H

COOH H

CH3 OHCH3 -OCH3

CH2OH H

OH

OH OH O

O OHH

H

OHOH

CH3

CH3

MeO

OMe

OH

OH OH O

O OHH

CH3

OHOH

CH3

CH3

MeO

OMe

O OH

OHO

OHB-D-glucopyranosyl

OH

OH

OH

O

O

O

OOH

CH3

CH3

OMe

Rham- OO

O

O

O

OH O

H

OH

OH

CH3

Chrysophanol

Rhein

EmodinPhyscion

Aloe- emodin

Occidentol-I Occidentol-II

Vitexin Apigenin

Matteucinol- 7- rhamnoside

R2

OR1

R3

36

8

2

5'

6'

2''

3''

5''

4''

R1

R1 R2

=

= = ; R3 = Rha

R1 R2= =OH ; R3 = RhaH,

R2 =OH ; R3 = RhaCH3 ,

HA:

B:

C:

1''

R2 R1

R1 R2

Cassiaoccidatalins

6'

A, B and, C


73

Traditional uses: (Anonymous, Wealth of India, 349-352)

Whole plant: Purgative, tonic, expectorant, diuretic and febrifugal.

Roots: Purgative, wound healing, diuretic, in ringworm and snake bite, skin

diseases. Root bark is used in fever, neuralgia. Infusion of root is used as

antidote to various poisons.

Leaves: Laxatives, purgative, antiasthmatic, antipyretic, anthelmintic, ulcers healing,

diuretic and cutaneous diseases. In Guinea, paste of fresh leaves is applied

on wounds. Paste of fresh leaves with calcium hydroxide when applied on

abscesses help in pus clearance.

Fruits: Scorpion sting.

Seeds:Winter cough, cutaneous diseases, blood tonic, diuretic, antidiabetic and

purgative. In Konkam, seeds are used as a cure for convulsions in children.

Roasted seeds are used as a substitute for coffee.


� Antimicrobial activity

� Antimalarial activity


� Antimutagenic activity

� Anticarcinogenic activity

� Anticonstipating/ purgative activity

� Immunostimulant activity

� Hepatoprotective activity

� Abortifacient activity

� Wound healing activity

� Diuretic activity

� Analgesic and antipyretic activities

� Antianxiety activity

� Antidepressant activity

� Neuroprotective activity


74

Marketed preparations containing C. occidentalis

Sr. No. Formulation Therapeutic Use Manufacturer

1. Liv 52 Drop

Liver disorder

Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,

Maharashtra, India

2. Liv 52 Syrup

Liver disorder


Maharashtra, India

3. Liv 52 tab

Liver disorder


Maharashtra, India

4. Liv 52 DS

Liver disorder


Maharashtra, India

5. Herbolax

Chronic

Constipation


Maharashtra, India

6.

Geriforte

Syrup, tablet

Rejuvinates both

body and mind


Maharashtra, India

7. Acilvan

Liver disorder Acis Lab. , Kanpur , U.P , India

8. Hipex Liver disorder H.V. Pharma. Pvt. Ltd., Rajkot,

gujarat, India

9. Livomyn Liver disorder Charak Pharma. Pvt. Ltd.

Umbargaon, Gujarat , India

10. Livex Liver disorder Bhartiya Aushidhi Nirmanshala,

Rajkot, India

11. Neoliv 100 Liver disorder Bharat Pharm. , Delhi, India

12. Syliv Liver disorder Systemic Pharm. , Allahabad,

U.P, India

13 Jigrin Liver disorder

Hamdard wakf

Laboratory,

Delhi


75


∗∗∗∗ Ginde et al. (1970) isolated and investigated chrysophanol, physcion, emodin,

cassiollin and phytosterol (α-3-sitosterol) from Cassia occidentalis.

∗∗∗∗ Kim et al. (1971) isolated N-Methylmorpholine from seeds of Cassia

occidentalis. The isolated compound was confirmed by comparing melting

point, IR and mass spectra with standard, N-Methylmorpholine

Hydrochloride.

∗∗∗∗ Dhurandhar J (1973) studied the effect of Bonnisan, new indigenous

metabolic corrective in gastrointestinal disorders in newborn and infants

developed by Himalaya Drug Co. Pvt. Ltd. Bonnisan consists of many herbal

drugs including Cassia occidentalis. They observed the effect of Bonnisan in

infants of two weeks old for two months and found that infants who are on

Bonnisan therapy showed feeling of well-being, enhancement in appetite,

digestion, less distension and flatulence and grow and develop healthier than

babies taking other therapies.

∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (1975) isolated and characterized various oligosaccharides

obtained from the partial hydrolysis of the galactomannan from Cassia

occidentalis seeds

∗∗∗∗ Tiwari et al. (1977) reported the presence of two flavonoid glycosides namely

Matteucinol-7-rhamnoside and Jaceidin- 7-rhamnoside from the ethanolic

extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis.

∗∗∗∗ Sethi JP (1978) reported the effect of Liv-52 containing Capparis spinosa,

Cichorium intybus Solanum nigrum, Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna,

Achillea millefolium and Tamarix gallica, in promoting early recovery from

severe acute hepatic failure

∗∗∗∗ Rai et al. (1983) isolated anthracene derivatives both in free and combined

forms from leaves, root and seed of Cassia occidentalis


76

∗∗∗∗ Singh and Singh (1985) isolated two flavanoid glycoside namely 3,5,3′,4′-

tetrahydroxy-7-methoxyflavone 3-O-(2″-rhamnosyl glucoside) and 5,7,4′-

trihydroxy-3,6,3′-trimethoxy-flavone 7-O-(2″-rhamnosyl glucoside) from the

ethanolic extract of pods of Cassia occidentalis for the first time.

∗∗∗∗ Kudav and Wader (1987) isolated pinselin and 1, 7-dihydroxy-3-

methylxanthone from the roots of Cassia occidentalis.

∗∗∗∗ Hussain, et al. (1991) screened alcoholic extracts of some plants used in Kano

ethnomedicine for antimicrobial activity. They found that ethanolic extract of

leave of Cassia occidentalis showed significant antimicrobial activity against

A. niger, Lactobacillus sp., Mucor sp., Neisseria sp., and Salmonella sp., but

seeds did not show any antimicrobial activity

∗∗∗∗ Saraf et al. (1994) evaluated ethanolic extract of leaves of C. occidentalis for

antihepatotoxic activity in rats using carbon tetrachloride and thioacetamide

(100 mg/kg) induced liver damage and found that extract showed significant

hepatoprotective activity in both models.

∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (1995) determined the structure of galactomannan from the seeds

of Cassiaoccidentalis by NMR spectral analysis.

∗∗∗∗ Jain et al. (1998) studied antimicrobial activity of C. occidentalis against

human pathogenic bacteria and fungi. For antimicrobial activity, they used

ethanolic extracts of leaves, pods, flowers and the callus of Cassia

occidentalis, petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, ethanol and water extracts

of whole plant and metabolite-rich fractions (anthraquinones, sennosides and

flavonoids) of leaves, pods flowers and callus. They found that anthraquinones

were more active against E. coli and S. aureus while the sennosides were more

active against A. flavus. Ethanolic extract of whole plant was also tested

against selected viruses and for antitumour and cytotoxic activitybut no

antiviral, antitumour or cytotoxic effect was produced against the test

organisms.


77

∗∗∗∗ Hatano et al. (1999) isolated three new C-glycosidic flavonoids,

Cassiaoccidentalins A, B and C from the aerial parts of Cassia occidentalis,

and structures with a 3- keto sugar were established on the basis of

spectroscopic and chemical evidence.

∗∗∗∗ Jafri et al. (1999) analysed the hepatoprotective activity of aqueous-ethanolic

(50%v/v) extract of C. occidentalis leaves on paracetamol and ethyl alcohol

induced liver damage in rats by monitoring serum transaminases, alkaline

phosphtase, serum cholesterol, serum total proteins and histopathological

alterations. The extract produced significant hepatoprotection.

∗∗∗∗ Sandhir and Gill (1999) studied the hepatoprotective effects of Liv-52 on rats

in ethanol induced liver damage. The hepatoprotective action of Liv-52 may

be due to inhibition of lipid peroxidation and protective effect on antioxidant

enzymes.

∗∗∗∗ Bin-Hafeez et al. (2001) reported the protective effect of Cassia occidentalis

L. on cyclophosphamide (CP) -induced suppression of humoral immunity in

mice. Animals treated with Cassia occidentalis showed improvement in CP-

induced immunopathy in different organs.

∗∗∗∗ Bhattacharya et al. (2003) investigated hepatoprotective activity of Himoliv,

a polyherbal ayurvedic formulation, which contains C. occidentalis, in rats

against carbon tetra chloride induced hepatotoxicity. They found that Himoliv

decreases the increased levels of lipid peroxidation products due to

administration of carbon tetra chloride and increased in the level of protective

enzymes in liver homogenate of rats such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and

catalase.

∗∗∗∗ Purwar et al. (2003) isolated two new flavonoid glycosides 3,2’-dihydroxy-

7,8,4’-trimethoxy-flavone-5-O-{β-D-glucopyranosyl (1→2)}-β-D

galactopyranoside 1 and apigenin-7-O-β-D-allopyranoside 2 from whole plant

of Cassia occidentalis


78

∗∗∗∗ Saganuwan et al. (2006) evaluated in-vitro antimicrobial activity and

phytochemical constituents in leaves of C. occidentalis. The results showed

that all extracts of the plant were active against E. coli but inactive against P.

multocida, S. typhi, S. typhimurium, S. pyogenes, S.pneumoniae and K.

pneumoniae. Phytochemical analysis showed the presence of alkaloid, tannin,

saponin, glycoside and flavonoid but steroid was absent.

∗∗∗∗ Ahmad et al. (2006) investigated pharmacological activity of C. occidentalis

and reported antidiarrhoeal, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-

dermatophytic, antiplasmodial, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet and

antimutagenic activity of the plant.

∗∗∗∗ Chukwujekwu et al. (2006) isolated and identified emodin from the ethanolic

root extract of Cassia occidentalis and reported antibacterial activity of

isolated emodin against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus

∗∗∗∗ Usha et al. (2007) studied the hepatoprotective effect of aqueous extracts of

roots of Hygrophila spinosa and Cassia occidentalis on carbon tetrachloride

induced liver damage in rats. The increased levels of serum marker enzymes

Aspartate transaminase, Alanine transaminase and Gama Glutamyl after liver

damage with carbon tetrachloride were reduced near to normal values on

treated with aqueous extracts of roots.

∗∗∗∗ Sheeba et al. (2009) evaluated the wound healing activity of methanolic crude

extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis and chrysophanol isolated from the

extract in albino rats. For wound healing activity they used excision, incision

and dead space wound models. From studies it was found that Chrysophanol

has more significant wound healing property than crude extract.

∗∗∗∗ Arya et al. (2010) screened antimicrobial activity of petroleum ether, benzene,

chloroform, methanol and water extracts of leaves of Cassia occidentalis

against seven human pathogenic bacteria and two fungal strains by disc

diffusion method. From studies they found that aqueous and methanol extracts

showed significant antimicrobial activity.


79

∗∗∗∗ Bhagat and Saxena (2010) evaluated alcoholic, hydro-alcoholic and aqueous

extracts of whole plant of Cassia occidentalis for in vitro cytotoxicity against

human cancer cell lines from six different tissue and antibacterial activity

against four bacterial strains. They observed that aqueous extract of whole

plant had more activity against human cell lines than hydroalcoholic and

alcoholic extract at 10µg/ml.

∗∗∗∗ Chinnala et al. (2010) evaluated antibacterial and antifungal activities of

different extracts of roots Cassia occidentalis against Bacillus polymexia,

Streptococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella

typhi, Vibrio cholerae, Shigella dysenteriae, Escherichia coli, Pencillium

notatum and Candida albicans at concentration between 25 and 450 µg/ml

using disc diffusion method. The results showed that extracts were more

effective against Gram +ve bacteria than gram –ve bacteria.

∗∗∗∗ Sreejith et al. (2010) investigated anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory and anti-

lipid peroxidant effects of ethanolic extract of whole plant of Cassia

occidentalis and found that extract alleviated immediate hypersensitivity

reaction by inhibiting mast cell degranulation and stabilizing human red blood

cells membrane. The extract also inhibited carrageenan induced rat paw

oedema.

∗∗∗∗ Verma et al. (2010) evaluated antidiabetic activity of petroleum ether,

chloroform and aqueous extract of whole plant of Cassia occidentalis in

normal and alloxan–induced diabetic rats at a dose of 200mg/kg. They found

that aqueous extract showed significant hypoglycemic activity in normal and

diabetic rats. The results also showed improvement in body weight and lipid

profile. Histopathological studies showed regeneration of β-cells of pancreas.

∗∗∗∗ Yadav et al. (2010) presented a review on C. occidentalis which is used to

cure various diseases in traditional medicine. From literature they reported that

plant possess antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, anticancer, antimutagenic

and hepatoprotective activity. From the plant wide range of chemical

constituents including achrosin, aloe-emodine, emodine, anthraquinone,

chrysophanol etc. have also been isolated.


80

∗∗∗∗ Sastry et al. (2011) evaluated hepatoprotective activity of aqueous extract of

seeds of Cassia occidentalis and also isolated new compound, anthraquinone

glycoside from the extract. Hepatoprotective activity was studied on rat liver

in which hepatotoxicity was induced by paracetamol and found that seeds

produced significant hepatoprotection.

∗∗∗∗ Basha et al. (2011) screened the ethanolic extract of seeds of C. occidentalis

for anti-inflammatory activity on carrageenan induced rat paw oedema and

cotton pellet granuloma animal models at dose of 500 and 1000 mg/kg body

weight orally and found that extract showed significant anti-inflammatory

activity in both the models.

∗∗∗∗ Daniyan et al. (2011) evaluated in vitro antibacterial activity of chloroform

and aqueous extracts of flowers of Cassia occidentalis against Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa using agar well diffusion method. The results

revealed that both extracts had significant activity against Klebsiella

pneumoniae at a concentration of 30-90mg/ml but no antibacterial activity

against other test microorganisms.

∗∗∗∗ Mittal et al. (2011) studied acute toxicity and diuretic activity of alcoholic

extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis in rats. The extract was found safe up

to 2000mg/kg body weight and also increased urinary electrolyte

concentration along with urine volume.

∗∗∗∗ Sini et al. (2011) evaluated the ethanol and water extract of Cassia

occidentalis leaves for analgesic activity using acetic acid induced writhing

test and tail immersion test in mice and antipyretic activity using yeast induced

pyrexia method in rats at 150 and 300 mg/kg. Both the extracts showed

significant dose dependent analgesic and antipyretic effect.

∗∗∗∗ Gowrishi et al. (2012) evaluated in vivo anti-oxidant and nephroprotective

activities of hydro-alcoholic extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis against

Gentamicin induced nephrotoxicity in rats at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg. The

nephroprotective activity was determined by estimating different parameters


81

like urinary creatinine, urinary glucose, urinary sodium, potassium, blood

urea, serum creatinine levels and body weight of the animals. In vivo

antioxidant activity was determined by estimating the tissue levels of GSH,

SOD, catalase and lipid peroxidation. The results revealed that the extract had

nephroprotective effect against gentamicin induced nephrotoxicity.

∗∗∗∗ Kathirvel et al. (2012) studied phytochemical and antioxidant activity of

petroleum ether, chloroform and methanolic extracts of seeds and flowers of

Cassia occidentalis. They found that all extracts contains flavonoids,

alkaloids, phenolic compounds, tannins, steroids, glycosides and

anthraquinones. The antioxidant activity was studied using DPPH and

reducing power assay methods. The antioxidant activity was higher in

chloroform extract of seeds than flowers.

∗∗∗∗ Onakpa and Ajagbonna (2012) evaluated hypoglycemic activity of

methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis in alloxan induced diabetic

mice at dose of 300 and 450 mg/kg orally. The results of the study revealed

that methanolic extract of Cassia occidentalis had significant hypoglycaemic

activity in diabetic mice

∗∗∗∗ Shafeen et al. (2012) evaluated antianxiety and antidepressant activity of the

ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Cassia occidentalis leaves in rodents.

Antianxiety activity was tested by using elevated plus maze model and

actophotometer and antidepressant activity by using despair swim test and tail

suspension methods. From studies they concluded that ethanolic and aqueous

extracts of Cassia occidentalis leaves had antianxiety and antidepressant

activities at dose of 500mg/kg p.o. but ethanolic extract showed more

significant activity than aqueous extract.

∗∗∗∗ Arya et al. (2013) studied the anti-diabetic activity of aqueous and methanolic

extracts of aerial parts viz. leaves, stem and seeds of Cassia occidentalis in

alloxan induced animal model and found that all extracts showed anti-diabetic

activity. The aqueous extracts of leaves had maximum anti-diabetic activity

followed by aqueous extracts of seeds and stem. Methanolic extract of aerial

parts could not bring back the elevated sugar level to normal.


82

∗∗∗∗ Delmut et al. (2013) evaluated wound healing activity of hydro-alcoholic

extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis on skin wounds induced by the venom

of Bothrops moojeni in mice and found that the plant can be used as an

alternative product to treat wounds caused by this snakebite.

∗∗∗∗ Gbadegesin and Odunola (2013) investigated 70% ethanolic extract of

leaves of Cassia occidentalis for antioxidant and free radical scavenging

activities and hepato-protective effect against sodium arsenite-induced

hepatotoxicity in male rats. The antioxidant and free radical scavenging

activities were determined using four different methods viz. total reducing

power assay, total antioxidant activity, DPPH radical and hydrogen peroxide

scavenging assay. The hepatotoxicity was induced by administration of

sodium arsenite at 2.5mg/kg p.o. for two weeks. The mechanism of

hepatotoxicity was generation of free radicals by sodium arsenite. The results

revealed that at concentration of 25, 40 and 50 µg/ml, extract exhibited

antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities. The pretreatment with

alcoholic extract at dose of 200 mg/kg for 2 weeks showed significant

hepatoprotection against sodium arsenite induced hepatotoxicity in male rats.

∗∗∗∗ Kanakam et al. (2013) evaluated analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of

leaves extract of Cassia occidentalis. Leaf extract was prepared by cold

maceration using mixture of petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and methanol in the

ratio of 1:1:1. For anti-inflammatory activity, carrageenan induced rat paw

oedema model and for analgesic activity, acetic acid-induced writhing test and

tail flick time models were used. The results showed that at dose of 400mg/kg

the extract showed significant (p<0.001) anti-inflammatory and analgesic

activities.

∗∗∗∗ Vijaylakshmi et al. (2013) reviewed pharmacological profile of Cassia

occidentalis L. Based on extensive literature survey, they found that C.

occidentalis had wide pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial,

larvicidal, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant,

antianxiety, antidepressant, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, analgesic and

antipyretic.


83

∗∗∗∗ Choudhary and Nagori (2014) evaluated the in vitro antimalarial activity of

alcoholic extract of leaves of C. occidentalis on Plasmodium falciparum

strain. They also fractionated the compound quinine and found that the

antimalarial activity may be due to this compound.

∗∗∗∗ Kateregga et al. (2014) studied acute toxicity and anthelmintic activity of

70% methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis L. against Ascaridia

galli and Heterakis gallinarum. For anthelmintic activity the worms were

isolated from fresh intestines of local chicken and exposed to 8, 12, 16, 20 and

24 mg/ml concentration of extract and percentage worm mortality was

determined at interval of 12hrs. Acute toxicity was determined in mice at

concentration of 5,000, 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 and 25000 mg/kg. The results

showed that worm mortality was higher at concentration of 16 and 20mg/ml

(p<.0.05) and extract was safe even at 25,000 mg/kg.

∗∗∗∗ Kumar et al. (2014) evaluated larvicidal activity of whole plant of C.

occidentalis against larvae of Bancroftian filariasis and vectorCulex

quinquefasciatus. They used petroleum ether and n- butanol extracts for

larvicidal activity. They found that at 200 and 300ppm both extracts showed

100% mortality and concluded that C. occidentalis can be used safely against

mosquitoes.

∗∗∗∗ Silva et al. (2014) studied neuroprotective activity of 70% alcoholic extracts

of leaves and stalk of Cassia occidentalis in male rats. The neurodegenerative

changes, i.e. neurobehavioural and biochemical changes were induced by

administration of 3-nitropropionic acid in a dose of 30mg/kg i.p. for five days.

The systemic administration of 3-nitropropionic acid produced decrease in

locomotion, muscle incoordination and deficit memory and increased lipid

peroxidation and decreased superoxide dismutase activity. The administration

of extract of Cassia occidentaalis at dose of 400 and 800 mg/kg orally for 14

days produced significant neuroprotection and decreases the dysfunctional

behaviour induced by 3-nitropropionic acid. They also found that extract had

significant in vitro antioxidant activity. From this study they concluded that

the neuroprotective activity may be due to antioxidant activity of extract.


84

∗∗∗∗ Garba et al. (2015) evaluated methanolic extract of root bark of Cassia

occidentalis on body weight and different biochemical parameters in alloxan

induced diabetic rats. The extract was administered at dose of 300, 400 and

600 mg/kg for 14 days. They estimated different biochemical parameters and

found that extract had significantly reduced blood glucose, triglycerides, total

cholesterol and LDL level and significantly increased total protein, albumin

and HDL level. They concluded that methanolic extract of root bark had

hypoglycaemic activity and also corrected the dyslipidaemia that was

associated with hyperglycaemia.

∗∗∗∗ Neboh et al. (2015) investigated myeloprotective activity of methanolic crude

extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis in cyclophosphamide-induced bone

marrow suppression in wistar rats. For this study, they divided the animals into

three groups. In Group 1 and 2 they induced myellosuppression by

administering 3mg/kg of cyclophosphamide i.p. for 3days. Group 2 and 3

received 250mg/kg of crude methanolic extract of C. occidentalis orally for

12days. On 15th day they carried out haematological analysis in which they

measured haemoglobin (Hb) Hematocrit (Hct) and Total White Blood Cells

(TWBC) count. Group 2 and 3 showed significant increase in Hb, Hct and

TWBC when compared to group 1. From this study, they found that crude

extract has myeloprotective activity when administered orally in

cyclophosphamide-induced bone marrow suppression.

2.1.4 Cassia tora Linn.

Cassia tora Linn. is an annual foetid, erect herb or under shrub 30 to 90 cm. tall,

found as a weed on waste places along roadside during rainy season all over India up

to an altitude of 1550 m and bloom in the months of August to October.

(Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992 pp 368-370; Varier, 1995)

Common name:

Foetid Cassia, Sickle Senna, Chakvad


85

Vernacular names of C. tora Linn.

Languages Vernacular names

Bengali Chakunda, Panevar

English Foetid Cassia

Guajarati Kawario, Konariya

Hindi Chakavat, Chakund, Panevar

Malaya Chowkeat

Malayalam Chakramandrakam, Takara

Marathi Takala, Tarota

Punjabi Chakunda, Pawar

Rajasthan Chakuada, Pumaria

Sanskrit Ayudham, Chakramardaka

Tamil Senavu, Tagarai

Telugu Tagirise, Tellakasinda

Oriya Chakunda

Chapter-2

Plate: 2.3 Aerial parts of

Habitat:

Cassia tora grows all over the tropical parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and West

China in warm moist soil.

Parts Used:

Leaves, Roots and Seeds.

Description of plant:

It is a foetid herb with pinnate leaves.

Leaves: Leaves are pinnate, ovate, 6.0

Leaflets: 3pairs, 3-5cm.long, membranous, obovate

between two lowest pairs of leaflets.

Flowers: Flowers are yellow, usually in subse

and blooming in the month of August to September.

Pods/Fruits: 15 to 25 cm. long. Flat or four angled and sickle shaped, therefore

known as sickle pod or sickle senna.

Seeds: Seeds are 25-30 in numbers, rhombohedral and green in color.

86

Plate: 2.3 Aerial parts of Cassia tora Linn.

grows all over the tropical parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and West

China in warm moist soil.

Leaves, Roots and Seeds.

with pinnate leaves.

Leaves are pinnate, ovate, 6.0-12.5cm long. Rachis are grooved.

5cm.long, membranous, obovate, oblong with conical gland

between two lowest pairs of leaflets.

Flowers are yellow, usually in subsessile pairs on the short axillary stalks

and blooming in the month of August to September.

to 25 cm. long. Flat or four angled and sickle shaped, therefore

known as sickle pod or sickle senna.

30 in numbers, rhombohedral and green in color.

Literature Review

grows all over the tropical parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and West

12.5cm long. Rachis are grooved.

oblong with conical gland

ssile pairs on the short axillary stalks

to 25 cm. long. Flat or four angled and sickle shaped, therefore

30 in numbers, rhombohedral and green in color.


87

Chemical constituents: (Jain et al., 2010, Chaudhary et al., 2011)

Roots: Choline, 1, 3, 5-trihydroxy-6, 7-dimethoxy-2-methylanthraquinone,

Chrysophanic acid, Physcion, Rubrofusarin and its 6β gentiobioside,

Toralactone and β-sitosterol.

Stem:Chrysophanol, emodine, β-sitosterol, 1-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2-

methylanthraqunone and its glycoside, Tigonelline, choline, rhein and

3,5,8,3’4’,5’-hexahydroxyflavone.

Leaves: Polyphenols, Emodine, Kaempferol-2-diglucoside, chrysophanol, Ale-

emodine, Rhein, Trigonelline, β-sitosterol and choline.

Seeds: Anthraquinones (aurantio-obtusin, chryso-obsutin, obtusin, physcion, emodine

and chrysophanol), Brassinosteroids (Brassinolide, castasterone, typhasterol

and teasterone), Phenolic glycosides (Rubrofusarin triglucoside, nor-

rubrofusarin gentiobioside, torachrysone gentiobioside). It also contains

Rhein, Aloe-emodine, gums and mucilage

Flowers: Kaempferol and Leucopelargonidine.


88

Chemical structures of some important phytoconstituents present in C. tora

Linn.(Choudhary et al., 2011)

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

CH3

CH3C2H5

CH3

CH3

OH

CH3

O

O

CH3

O

MeO

O

OH

OHOH

CH2O

O

OHOH

CH2OH

OH

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OMe

Leucopelargonidin

Kaemferol Stigmasterol

Toralactone-9-O-B-D-gentiobioside

.H2O

Ononitrol monohydrate(6-methoxy cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol hydrate)


89

OHO

OCH3

OMe

OH O

OOH

OH CH3

O5H11C6O

C2H5

OH

O

O

OHOH

CH3

O

OCH3

OMeOH

MeO

MeOOMe

OH O

O

OC6H11O5

CH3

OMe

O

OOH

CH3MeO CH3

CH3

OOH OH

MeO

Questin Cassiaside

B- Sitosterol

Chrysophanol Chryso-obtusin

Obtusifolin-2-B-D-glucoside

TorachrysoneToralactone


90

OH OHO

OR

Aloe-emodin: R = CH2OH

Rhein: R = COOH

O

CH3

OHOH

OH

O

CH3

OH OMeOH

O

O

CH3

Oglc

O

OHOMe

EmodinObtusifolin

Chryso-obtusin-2-O-B-D-glucoside

Chemical structures of some important phytoconstituents present in

C. tora Linn. plant

Traditional uses:

Roots: Bitter tonic, stomachic

Leaves: Skin diseases, mild laxative (In Nigeria), anthelmintic and antileprotic. It is

also used in fever that occurs during teething in children, bronchitis, cough,

dyspepsia, gout, joint pain liver disorders and cardiac disorders

Seeds: Skin diseases, eye diseases, improves vision (externally as well as internally),

liver disorders, anthelmintic, antileprotic, asperient, diuretic, in bronchitis,

cough, dyspepsia and cardiac disorders. It also lowers the cholesterol level

and blood presser. Seeds are also used as substitute for tea or coffee.


91

Pods : Dysentery and eye diseases.


� Hypolipidemic activity

� Antitumour activity

� Antigenotoxic activity


� Antihepatotoxic activity

� Antifungal activity

� Antioxidant activity

� Antimutagenic activity

� Antibacterial activity

� Anthelmintic activity

� Antinociceptive activity

� Hypotensive activity

� Spasmogenic activity

� Immunostimulatory activity

� Purgative activity

� Antidiabetic activity

� Antiulcer activity

� Antiplasmodial activity

Marketed preparations containing Cassia tora

Ayurvedic preparations Uses

Dadrughan-vati Ringworm, Leucoderma

Chakramardha tailamu Eczema, Ringworm and other Skin diseases


92


∗∗∗∗ Varshney et al. (1973) isolated new water soluble complex polysaccharides

from defatted seeds of Cassia tora. The complex polysaccharides consisting of

D-galactose, D-glucose, D- mannose and D-xylose in the molar ratio of

2:2:7:1.

∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (1981) isolated oil from petroleum ether extract of the seeds and

described its physicochemical properties. They also isolated and identified

Glucose, Galactose, Xylose and raffinose from the seeds of Cassia tora.

∗∗∗∗ Chakrabarty et al. (1983) reported the presence of 3, 5, 8, 3', 4', 5'-

hexahydroxyflavone and hydroxyl coumarin aurapterol from Cassia tora stem

bark.

∗∗∗∗ Wong et al. (1989) isolated three new anthraquinone glycosides from seeds of

Cassia tora. Their structures were elucidated by spectral analysis. Two

compounds showed weak protective activity on primary cultured hepatocyte

against carbon tetrachloride induced toxicity.

∗∗∗∗ Mukherjee et al. (1996) evaluated antifungal activity of dealcoholized extract

of leaves of Cassia tora by turbidity and spore germination method against

five different fungal organisms. The leaf extract showed significant antifungal

activity against tested microorganisms.

∗∗∗∗ Choi et al. (1997) investigated antimutagenic activity of anthraquinone

aglycones and naphthopyrone glycosides isolated from methanol extract of

seeds of Cassia tora against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The methnol extract was

fractionated sequentially with dichloromethane, n-Butanol and water. Out of

these three fractions, aqueous extract was inactive. They isolated

chrysophanol, chryso-obtusin and aurantio- obtusin from the CH2Cl2 fraction

and cassiaside and rubro-fusarin gentiobioside from the n-BuOHfraction. All

these isolated compounds showed significant antimutagenic activity.

∗∗∗∗ Maity et al. (1998) studied anti-inflammatory effect of the methanol extract of

the leaves of Cassia tora. The inflammation was induced using carrageenan,

histamine, serotonin and dextran in rat hind paw. The maximum inhibition of

inflammation (53.57%) was observed in histamine induced rat hind paw at

dose of 400mg/kg at the end of 3h.


93

∗∗∗∗ Chidume et al. (2002) had studied smooth muscle contractile activity of

methanolic extract of Cassia tora leaves in guinea pig ileum, rabbit jejunum;

intestinal transit time in mice and antinociceptive activity in mice. They found

that extract had reduced the number of acetic acid induced abdominal

constrictions in mice.

∗∗∗∗ Patil et al. (2004) investigated ethanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora L. and

its ether soluble and water soluble fractions for hypolipidemic activity on

triton induced hyperlipidemia. They found that ethanolic extract and ether

soluble and water soluble fraction decreased serum level of total cholesterol

and triglyceride level whereas increased the serum HDL level.

∗∗∗∗ Yunfeng zhang et al. (2007) isolated volatile oil from seeds of Cassia tora by

supercritical fluid extraction method using CO2 and analyzed by gas

chromatography and GC-Mass spectroscopy. They found that volatile oil was

rich in aliphatic acids and anthraquinones and showed significant antioxidant

activity with IC50 value of 137µg/ml.

∗∗∗∗ Deorse et al. (2009) investigated anthelmintic activity of aqueous and

alcoholic extracts of seeds of Cassia tora against Pheretima posthuma and

Ascardia galli at 25, 50 and 100 mg/ml concentration. The activity was

determined by measuring the time of paralysis and time of death of worm.

Both the extracts showed significant anthelmintic activity at 100 mg/ml.

∗∗∗∗ Rejiya et al. (2009) analysed methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia tora in

cancer therapeutic and found it was significantly effective.

∗∗∗∗ Vetrivel et al. (2009) studied the hepatoprotective effect of methanolic extract

of leaves of Cassia tora on carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in

albino rats by estimating serum level of SGOT, SGPT and lactate

dehydrogenase . The extract showed significant hepatoprotective activity.

∗∗∗∗ Sharma et al. (2010) analyzed the antibacterial activity of ethanolic and

aqueous extracts from Cassia tora leaves and found that both extracts

exhibited significant antibacterial activity.

∗∗∗∗ Gill et al.(2011) studied the methanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora for

antioxidant and antiulcer activity at concentration of 200 µg/ml. The extract

possessed potent antiulcerogenic activity in pyloric ligation and non-steroidal


94

anti-inflammatory induced mucosal damage on albino rats due to its

antioxidant property.

∗∗∗∗ Chaudhary et al. (2011) summarized the traditional use, phytochemical

studies and pharmacological profile of Cassia tora and found that wide range

of chemical compound have been isolated from this plant having variety of

pharmacological activities.

∗∗∗∗ Chaurasia et al. (2011) evaluated methanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora

and its fractions for their phytochemical and antidiabetic activity in alloxane

induced diabetic rats. They prepared methanolic extract by soxhlation and then

fractionated by extracting its aqueous suspension successively with ethyl

acetate, chloroform, n-butanol and dichloromethane. The n-butanol extract

showed maximum antidiabetic activity in acute and prolonged treatment in

diabetic rats as compared to other extracts. This extract was further

fractionated using TLC technique and six fractions were obtained. They

labelled these fractions as F-a to F-f. The fraction F-f showed significant

antidiabetic activity on prolonged treatment and almost equal to that of

standard drug Glibenclamide. They found that this fraction was naphthopyrone

glycoside on spectroscopic analysis.

∗∗∗∗ Das et al. (2011) evaluated Cassia tora stem bark for pharmacognostic and

phytochemical studies. In pharmacognostic studies, they evaluated the plant

for macroscopy, microscopy, various physico-chemical parameters and

behaviour of bark powder with different chemical reagents. The

phytochemical studies of different extracts showed the presence of

carbohydrate, glycosides, alkaloids, steroids, flavonoid, tannins & phenols.

They described that these standards will be helpful in authentication of Cassia

tora Linn.

∗∗∗∗ Park and Kim (2011) isolated and identified antitumor promoting compound

from methanolic extract of Cassia tora seeds. The methanolic extract was

partitioned with diethyl ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and water. They

studied the antitumor-promoting activity of these fractions which was

determined by -inhibition of Epstein – Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA)

activation induced by teleocidin B-4 in Raji cells. They found that diethyl

ether and chloroform fractions and hydrolysate of ethyl acetate fraction had


95

strong inhibitory activity. They obtained three active compounds from ethyl

acetate fraction (obtusifolin-2-glucoside, chryso-obtusin-6-glucoside, and

norrubrofusarin- 6-glucoside) and two compounds (questin and chryso-

obtusin) from chloroform fractions.

∗∗∗∗ Pawar et al. (2011) presented the overview of Cassia tora Linn. In this review

they described pharmacognosy, phytochemistry and biological potential of

Cassia tora. The biological potential may provide strong evidence for its use

in different medicines.

∗∗∗∗ Bhasker et al. (2012) isolated Ononitrol monohydrate from ethyl acetate

extract of Cassia tora and assessed for antifeedant, larvicidal and growth

inhibitory activities at concentrations of 125, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm against

insects Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura. They found that this

compound prolonged larval-pupal duration of insects and concluded that this

can be used in pesticidal formulations.

∗∗∗∗ Dhanasekaran et al. (2012) isolated Ononitol monohydrate from leaves of

Cassia tora L. and evaluated for hepatoprotective activity against CCl4

induced hepatotoxicity in rats. They found that at concentration of 20mg/kg it

decreased the levels of serum transaminase, lipid peroxidation and TNF-α but

increased the levels of antioxidant and hepatic glutathione enzyme activities

when compared with standard reference compound Silymarin and showed

hepatoprotective activity.

∗∗∗∗ Singhal et al. (2012) evaluated the antipsoriatic activity of O/W cream

formulated from methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia tora L. by using

ultraviolet –B induced psoriasis in rat. The extract and cream showed

significant reduction in percentage of relative epidermal thickness and spleen

index when compared with control group. From this study they concluded that

Cassia tora extract and cream prepared from it had strong antipsoriatic activity

in ultraviolet-B-induced psoriasis in rat.

∗∗∗∗ Suranaet al. (2012) demonstrated the hepatoprotective effect of petroleum

ether, methanol and aqueous extracts of seeds of C. tora in paracetamol

induced liver injury. They found that aqueous and methanolic extract had

significant hepatoprotective activity as these extracts decrease the level of

SGOT, SGPT and SALP. Histopathological studies showed that these extracts


96

were not able to completely revert the hepatic injury induced by paracetamol.

∗∗∗∗ Tamhane et al. (2012) evaluated the anti-asthmatic activity of aqueous extract

of Cassia tora in isolated goat tracheal chain preparation using histamine as

standard. The extract significantly inhibited the contractions produced by

histamine and showed potent bronchodilator activity at 1500 µg/ml.

∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (2013) evaluated the in vivo antioxidant activity of methanolic

extract of Cassia tora leaves and different concentrations of O/W creams of

extract in UV-B induced oxidative stress in rats by measuring the various

parameters like lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase

and catalase levels in the blood sample. They observed that extract and

different concentration of cream of the extract prevented the UV-B-induced

oxidative stress in rats.

∗∗∗∗ Kawade et al. (2013) described pharmacognostical profile of Cassia tora

leaves. They also performed preliminary phytochemical studies on different

extracts and evaluated anthelmintic activity of petroleum ether extract against

earth worm, Pheritima posthuma. The anthelmintic activity was studied at

concentration of 25, 50 and 100 mg/ml of extract and compared with standard

Piperazine citrate (10mg/ml). The result of the study showed that petroleum

ether extract had anthelmintic activity against tested worm and activity

increases with increase in concentration in dose dependent manner.

∗∗∗∗ Mate et al. (2013) evaluated anthelmintic activity of aqueous extract of leaves

of Cassia tora against Pheretima posthuma, obtained from soil, at

concentration of 10, 25 and 50 mg/ml. The anthelmintic activity was assessed

by observingthe time taken for paralysis and death of worm.The results

showed that at concentration of 25 and 50mg/ml the anthelmintic activity was

more than that of standard i.e. Albendazole (10 mg/ml).

∗∗∗∗ Rao and Suresh (2013) studied the effect of petroleum ether, ethyl acetate

and methanol extracts of leaves of C. tora and C. sophera on reducing

cytotoxicity and angiogenesis using in vitro and in vivo methods. They used

Colon cancer (HCT15) and hepatocarcinoma (Hep G2) cell lines for in vitro

studies and chicken egg chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) for in vivo studies.

They found that all the tested extracts were toxic to both the tested cell lines

and having antiproliferative activity and anti-angiogenesis activity in CAM


97

model .The ethyl acetate extract of C. tora showed most potent activity against

Hep G2 cell lines.

∗∗∗∗ Patil et al. (2014) prepared petroleum ether extract of aerial parts (i.e. leaves,

seeds and flowers) of C. tora and developed its HPTLC fingerprint profile.

The HPTLC fingerprint profile of leaves, seeds and flowers showed 10, 7 and

11 constituents respectively. HPTLC method was used for separation,

identification and quantification of non-polar phytoconstituents present in

petroleum ether extracts.

∗∗∗∗ Sarwa et al. (2014) described phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of

Cassia tora. For review article, they collected the data from recent literature

sources and described various phytoconstituents present in different parts of

the plant and substantiated pharmacological activities like antioxidant,

antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, hypotensive, antidiabetic,

immunomodulatory, spasmogenic, anti-inflammatory, larvicidal and

antiplasmodial activities.

∗∗∗∗ Shelke et al. (2015) evaluated analgesic activity of petroleum ether and

methanolic extracts of roots of Leucas aspera and Cassia tora using Acetic

acid induced writhing in mice at a dose of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg orally.

They used acetic acid as pain stimuli in a dose of 0.1 ml/10g (0.7% solution)

and diclofenac sodium (10 mg/kg i.p) as standard. The analgesic activity was

assessed by decreased in abdominal constriction and hind paw stretching in

Acetic acid writhing test. The results revealed that both extracts had

significant analgesic activity in dose dependent manner but methanolic extract

exhibited maximum analgesic activity at 600 mg/kg.

2.2 Reported Ayurvedic Vranaropaka (Wound Healing) plants:

In different Ayurvedic books like Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Astamga

Hridaya, Bhavaprakash Nighantu, DhanwantariNighantu, and Ayurveda Siksha, it

has been described that 70% of the wound healing Ayurvedic drugs are obtained from

plant, 20% from mineral and the remaining 10% from animal products. Scientific

research have been carried out to evaluate the wound healing properties of some of

these drugs. .The plants used in the treatment of wounds and having substantiated

wound healing activity are described in table 2.1 with their botanical name, local

names, family and part used (Biswas and Mukherjee, 2003).


98

Table2.1: Plants having wound healing activity

S. No. Botanical Name Local Name Family Part used

1 Abies webbiana

Lindl. Talisa Pinacae Leaves

2 Acacia catechu

Willd. Khadira Leguminasae Stem bark

3 Acorus calamus

Linn. Bach Aracaceae

Rhizomes, Leaves

4 Achyranthus aspera Linn.

Apamarga Amaranthaceae Whole plant

5 Adhatoda vasica

Nees. Basak Amaranthaceae Leaves

6 Aegle marmelos

Corr. Bilwa, Bael Rutaceae

Seeds, Roots, Leaves

7 Allium cepa L. Onion Liliaceae Bulbs

8 Aloe vera (L.)

Burm. f. Ghrit kumari Liliaceae

Leaves juice

9 Amomum

subulatum Roxb. Bhadraila Zingiberaceae Seeds

10 Andrographis

paniculata Nees. Kalmegh Acanthaceae Leaves

11 Andropogon

muricantus Retz. Virana Gramineae Roots

12 Angelica glauca

Edgw. Chorak Umbliferraceae Roots

13 Areca catechu

Linn. Betel nut Arecaceae Seeds

14 Artemesia vulgaris

Linn. Nagdari Compositae

Stem, twigs


99

15 Asparagus

racemosus willd. Satawari Liliaceae Roots

16 Azadirachta indica

A. Juss. Neem Meliaceae

Roots, Leaves

17 Bassia longifolia

Linn. Jalaja Sapotaceae Seeds

18 Bauhinia purpura

Linn. kabidara Leguminosae Gum

19 Berberis aristata

D.C. Daruharidra Berberidaceae Wood

20 Boerhaavia diffusa

Linn. Punarnava Nyctaginaceae

Whole plant

21 Butea

monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze

Palas Fabaceae Leaves,

Bark

22 Calendula

officinalis L. Marigold Asteraceae Flowers

23 Calotropis

gigantea Linn. Rajarka Asclepidiaceae Latex

24 Catheranthus

roseus (L.) G. Don

Rosy periwinkle or

Sadabahar Apocynaceae Leaves

25 Celastrus

panniculatus Willd.

Jyotismati Celastraceae Seeds

26 Centella asiatica

Linn. Brahmi Apiaceae

Flowers, Leaves

27 Cinnamonum tamla Nees.

Patra Lauraceae Stem bark,

leaves

28 Cinnamonum

zeylanicum J. Presi Dalchini Lauraceae Stem bark

29 Citrullus

colocynthis (L) Schrad.

Indrabaruni, Colocynth

Cucurbitaceae Roots, Fruits


100

30 Citrus decumoona

Linn. Baranimbu Rutaceae

Leaves, Seeds

31 Citrus medica

Linn. Matulunga Rutaceae

Leaves, Seeds

32 Curcuma Longa

Linn. Haridra, Turmeric

Zingiberaceae Rhizomes

33 Cyperus rotundus

Linn. Mustak Cyperaceae

Roots, Leaves

34 Datura alba Linn. Dhatura Solanaceae Leaves

35 Desmodium

gangeticum D.C. Shalaparni Leguminosae

Whole plant

36 Eclipta alba

Hassk. Keshuta Compositae Roots

37 Eletraia

cardamomum Maton.

Choti elaichi Zingiberaceae Seeds

38 Embelia ribes

Burm. Bidanga Myrsinaceae

Leaves, Fruits

39 Emblica

officinalis Linn. Amlaki, Amla Euphorbiaceae

Fruits, leaves

40 Ephedra vulgaris

Hook. Somlata Gentaceae

Green twig

41 Eugenia

jambolana Lam. Jambu Myrataceae

Stem bark, Leaves

42 Euphorbia

nerifolia Linn. Snuhi Euphorbiaceae Latex

43 Euphorbia

thymifolia R.Br. Dugdhika Euphorbiaceae

Whole plant

44 Ficus bengalensis

Linn. Vad Moraceae

Stem bark, Leaves, Roots


101

45 Ficus hispida

Linn. kakodambara Moraceae Stem bark

46 Ficus religiosa L. Peepal Moraceae Leaves

47 Ficus racemosa

Linn. Jagyadumur Moraceae Leaves

48 Glycyrrhiza glabra

Linn. Liquorice, Jastimadhu

Leguminosae Roots

49 Gymnema

sylvestre R.Br. Madhunaashini

, Gur- mar Apocynaceae Leaves

50 Helianthus annuus

Linn. Sunflower Asteraceae

Leaves, Seeds.

Flowers

51 Heliotropium indicum Linn.

Hatisura Boraginaceae Leaves

52 Holarheena

antidysenterica wall.

Kutaja Apocyanaceae Stem bark

53 Hypericum

mysorenseB. Heyne.

St. John Wort Hypericaceae Leaves

54 Ichnocarpus

frutescens R.Br. Syamlata Apocyanaceae Stem bark

56 Ipomea paniculata

R.Br. Bhumikushma

—nda Convolvulaceae Roots.

57 Jasminum

auriculatum Vahl. Juthika Oleaceae

Leaves, Flowers

58 Jasminum

officinale Linn. Jati Oleaceae Roots

59 Jasminum sambac

Ait. Mallika Oleaceae Leaves

60 Jatropha curcas

Linn. Barbados nut Euphorbiaceae

Leaves, Stem bark


102

61 Lagenaria vulgaris

Seringe. Ikshaku Cucurbitaceae Seeds

62 Lawsonia innermis

L. Henna Lythraceae Leaves

63 Lippia nodiflora

Mich. Jalapippal Verbenaceae Fruits

64 Loranthus asper

Desr. Bandaka Loranthaceae

Whole plant

65 Martynia diandra

Glox. Bhaghnakhi Mertyneaceae

Fruits,flower

66 Mimosa pudica

Linn. Lajjalu Mimosoidae

Whole plant

67 Momordica charantia L.

Karela Cucurbitaceae Fruits, Leaves

68 Moringa oliefera

Lam. Syn. Sajina Morigaceae

Roots, Leaves

69 Musa paradisaca

Linn. Kadali Musaceae Stem Juice

70 Nardostachys

jatamansi D.C.

Jatamansi Valerianaceae Roots

71 Nelumbo nuciera

Willd. Pundariya Nymphacaeae Stem stalk

72 Nerium indicum

Mill. Karabi, Kaner Apocynaceae Roots

73 Ocimum sanctum

Linn. Tulsi Lamiaceae

Whole plant

74 Odina woodier

Roxb. Jingira Anacardiaceae Stem bark

75 Oledelandia biflora Linn.

Khetpapra Rubiaceae Whole plant

76 Oryza sativa Linn. Shetashalitand

—ula Graminae Seeds


103

77 Papaver

somniferum Linn. Apiphena,

Poppy Papaveraceae Seeds

78 Phyllanthus embilica L.

Amla Euphorbiaceae Fruits

79 Picorrhiza kurroa Royle. Ex. Benth.

Katuki Scrophulariaceae Rhizomes

80 Pinus longifolia

Roxb. Saralkastha Pinaceae Resins

81 Piper longum

Linn. Pipalli, Long

pepper Piperaceae Roots

82 Piper nigrum

Linn. Pepper Piperaceae Fruits

83 Pisum sativum

Linn. Harenu Verbenaceae Leaves

84 Plumbago

zeylanicum Linn. Chita Plumbaginaceae Roots

85 Prunus cerasus

Linn. Elabaluka Rosaceae Seeds

86 Prunus puddum

Roxb. Padmakastha Rosaceae

Smaller stem

branches

87 Prunus mahaleb

Linn. Priyangu Rosaceae Roots

88 Psidum guajava

Linn. Guava Myrtaceae Leaves

89 Psoralia

corylifolia Linn. Bakuchi Leguminosae Seeds

90 Punica granatum

L. Pomgranate Punicaceae Flowers

91 Radix paeoniae

Rubra Peony root Paeoniaceae Roots

92 Randia

dumentorum Linn. Madan Rubiacaeae

Stem, Root


104

93 Rannunculus

scleratus Linn. Kandira Rannunculaceae

Whole plant

94 Rhizophora mangle L.

Red mangrove Rhizophoraceae Bark

95 Rubia cordifolia

Linn. Manjistha Rubiaceae Roots

96 Rumex crispa

Linn. Betas Aristolochiaceae

Whole plant

97 Salix tetrasperma

Roxb. Jalabetas Salicaceae

Stem bark, flower

98 Saltalum album

Linn. Swetchandana Santalanaceae Wood

99 Saraca indica

Linn. Ashoka Leguminosae Stem bark

100 Sessanum indicum

L. Tila Pedaliaceae Seed oil

101 Sida cordifolia

Linn. Bala Malvaceae Roots

102 Sida spinosa Linn. Chakule Malvaceae Roots

103 Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Mundi Asteraceae Flowers

104 Swertia

chiratabuch Ham. Chireta Gentianaceae

Stem, Leaves

105 Tephrosia

purpurea Linn. Pers.

Sarapunkha Legumisae Whole plant

106 Terminalia

chebula Retz. Haritaki, Harad Combretaceae

Whole plant

107 Terminaliraia belerica Roxb.

Bibhitaka Combretaceae Fruits

108 Tinospora cordifolia

(Thumb.) Miers Giloe Meninspermaceae Leaves


105

109 Tinospora

tomentosa Colebr. Padmagu-

lancha Menispermaceae Stem

110 Tricosanthes dioica Roxb.

Patolpatra Cucurbitaceae Leaves,

Stem bark

111 Vateria indica

Linn. Sarja Dipterocarpaceae Latex

112 Vitex negundo

Linn. Nishinda Verbenaceae Leaves

113 Wedelia

calendulacea Less. Bhringaraj Compositae Leaves

114 Withania

somnifera Dunal Ashwagandha Solanaceae

Tuberous roots

115 Zingiber Officinale

Rosc. Sunthi Zingiberaceae Rhizomes

12 chapter-2 literature review - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/111523/12/12_...

Documents