1 personality. 2 personality an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and...
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PersonalityPersonality
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PersonalityPersonality
An individual’s characteristic pattern of An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.thinking, feeling, and acting.
Each dwarf has a distinct personality.Each dwarf has a distinct personality.
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Psychodynamic Psychodynamic PerspectivePerspective
In his clinical In his clinical practice, Freud practice, Freud
encountered encountered patients suffering patients suffering
from nervous from nervous disorders. Their disorders. Their complaints could complaints could
not be explained in not be explained in terms of purely terms of purely physical causes.physical causes.
Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)
Culver Pictures
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Psychodynamic Psychodynamic PerspectivePerspective
FreudFreud’’s clinical s clinical experience led him experience led him to develop the first to develop the first
comprehensive comprehensive theory of theory of
personality, which personality, which included the included the
unconscious mind, unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, psychosexual stages,
and defense and defense mechanisms.mechanisms. Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
Culver Pictures
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Core ConceptsCore Concepts
Psychic DeterminismPsychic Determinism Unconscious MotivationUnconscious Motivation Child Development (importance of Child Development (importance of
childhood)childhood) ConflictConflict
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Exploring the Exploring the UnconsciousUnconscious
A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and
memories. Freud asked patients to say memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came to their minds (free whatever came to their minds (free
association) in order to tap the unconscious.association) in order to tap the unconscious.
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Dream AnalysisDream Analysis
Another method to analyze the Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting unconscious mind is through interpreting manifestmanifest and and latentlatent contents of dreams. contents of dreams.
The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)
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InstinctsInstincts
1. Eros (libido)1. Eros (libido)
““sexsex”” instinct creation instinct creation
2. Thanatos 2. Thanatos
““deathdeath”” instinct instinct aggression/destructionaggression/destruction
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Model of MindModel of MindThe mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious unconscious mind. The preconscious
stores temporary memories.stores temporary memories.
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Personality StructurePersonality Structure
Personality develops as a result of our efforts to Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our biological impulses resolve conflicts between our biological impulses IdId and the constraints of the and the constraints of the EgoEgo & & SuperegoSuperego. .
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Id, Ego and SuperegoId, Ego and SuperegoThe The Id Id unconsciously strives to satisfy unconsciously strives to satisfy
basic sexual and aggressive drives, basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the operating on the pleasure principlepleasure principle, , demanding immediate gratification.demanding immediate gratification.
TheThe ego ego functions as the “executive” and functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id, the real mediates the demands of the id, the real world, and superego, according to the world, and superego, according to the
reality principle.reality principle.
TheThe superego superego provides standards for provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and moral judgment (the conscience) and moral
reasoning.reasoning.
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Personality DevelopmentPersonality Development
Freud believed that personality formed Freud believed that personality formed during the first several years of life divided during the first several years of life divided into into psychosexual stages.psychosexual stages. During these During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies
focus on pleasure sensitive body areas focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called called erogenous zoneserogenous zones..
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CathexisCathexis
FixationFixation
Soldier analogySoldier analogy
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Psychosexual StagesPsychosexual Stages
Freud divided the development of Freud divided the development of personality into five psychosexual stages.personality into five psychosexual stages.
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Oedipus ComplexOedipus Complex
A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex.the rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex.
1.1. ““SexualSexual”” desire for parent of opposite sex desire for parent of opposite sex
2.2. Death wish for same –sex parentDeath wish for same –sex parent
3.3. Fear of retaliation from same-sex parentFear of retaliation from same-sex parent
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IdentificationIdentification
Children cope with Children cope with threatening feelings threatening feelings by repressing them by repressing them and by identifying and by identifying
with the rival with the rival parent. Through parent. Through this process of this process of
identification, their identification, their superego gains superego gains strength that strength that
incorporates their incorporates their parents’ values.parents’ values.
From the K
. Vandervelde private collection
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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms
The ego’s protective methods of reducing The ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
1.1. RepressionRepression banishes anxiety- banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.memories from consciousness.
2.2. RegressionRegression leads an individual faced leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.infantile psychosexual stage.
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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms
3.3. Reaction FormationReaction Formation causes the ego causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. For impulses into their opposites. For example, people may express feelings example, people may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.about sex.4.4. ProjectionProjection leads people to disguise leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.attributing them to others.
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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms
5.5. Rationalization Rationalization offers self-justifying offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.one’s actions.
6.6. DisplacementDisplacement shifts sexual or shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object acceptable or less threatening object or person. For example, redirecting or person. For example, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.anger toward a safer outlet.
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Assessing Unconscious Assessing Unconscious ProcessesProcesses
Evaluating personality from an unconscious Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a mind’s perspective would require a
psychological instrumentpsychological instrument (projective tests)(projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
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Rorschach Inkblot TestRorschach Inkblot Test
The most widely used The most widely used projective test projective test uses uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their people’s inner feelings by analyzing their
interpretations of the blots.interpretations of the blots.
Lew
Merrim
/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
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Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test(TAT)(TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their projective test in which people express their
inner feelings and interests through the inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
Lew
Merrim
/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
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Evaluating the Evaluating the Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective
1.1. Personality develops throughout Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood.life and is not fixed in childhood.
2.2. Overemphasis on the sexual Overemphasis on the sexual instinct.instinct.
3.3. Underemphasis of social and Underemphasis of social and environmental influences on the environmental influences on the individual. individual.
Modern research and revisions
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Evaluating the Evaluating the Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective
Criticism:Criticism:
Part of Freud's theory rests on the repression of Part of Freud's theory rests on the repression of painful experiences into the unconscious mind. painful experiences into the unconscious mind.
But, the majority of children, death camp But, the majority of children, death camp survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are
unable to repress painful experiences unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind.into their unconscious mind.
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Evaluating the Evaluating the Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective
The scientific merits of FreudThe scientific merits of Freud’’s theory have been s theory have been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable.
Many of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, Many of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are the after-the-fact explanation.which are the after-the-fact explanation.
However???However???
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Humanistic PerspectiveHumanistic Perspective
By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freudwith Freud’’s determinism and negativity and s determinism and negativity and
with the mechanistic psychology of the with the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.behaviorists.
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers(1902-1987)
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Self-Actualizing PersonSelf-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed that we as individuals are Maslow proposed that we as individuals are
motivated by a hierarchy of needs, beginning motivated by a hierarchy of needs, beginning with physiological needs, but we have a with physiological needs, but we have a natural tendency toward a state of self-natural tendency toward a state of self-
actualization—reaching our full potential.actualization—reaching our full potential.
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Ted P
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etty Images
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Growth and FulfillmentGrowth and Fulfillment
Carl RogersCarl Rogers also believed in an individual's natural self- also believed in an individual's natural self-actualization tendencies and stressed the need for actualization tendencies and stressed the need for
Unconditional Positive RegardUnconditional Positive Regard for fostering personal for fostering personal growth and development. This growth and development. This UPR UPR is an acceptanceis an acceptance
despite flaws and failings. He also stressed the need for despite flaws and failings. He also stressed the need for personal personal autonomy and self-determinationautonomy and self-determination. .
Michael R
ougier/ Life Magazine ©
Tim
e Warner, Inc.
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Assessing the SelfAssessing the Self
All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-ConceptSelf-Concept..
In an effort to assess personality, Rogers In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive the individual had a positive self-conceptself-concept..
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Evaluating the Humanistic Evaluating the Humanistic PerspectivePerspective
1.1. Shifted focus to free will and positive self-Shifted focus to free will and positive self-growthgrowth
2.2. Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management. management.
but:but:
1.1. Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lack scientific basis.and subjective and lack scientific basis.
2.2. The theories fail to account for the real The theories fail to account for the real existence of evil.existence of evil.
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The Trait PerspectiveThe Trait Perspective
An individualAn individual’’s unique constellation of durable s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving dispositions and consistent ways of behaving
(traits) constitutes his or her personality.(traits) constitutes his or her personality.
Examples of TraitsExamples of Traits
HonestHonest
DependableDependable
MoodyMoody
ImpulsiveImpulsive
Allport & Odbert (1936), identified 18,000 words representing traits.
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Personality DimensionsPersonality Dimensions
Hans and Sybil Hans and Sybil EysenckEysenck suggested that suggested that personality could be reduced down to two personality could be reduced down to two
polar dimensions, polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion extraversion-introversion and and emotional stability-instability.emotional stability-instability.
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The Big Five FactorsThe Big Five Factors
Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ personality dimensions are too narrow and personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s Cattell’s
16PF 16PF too large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits too large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits does a better job of assessment.does a better job of assessment.
PsycholexicalPsycholexical approach (Costa & McCrae) & approach (Costa & McCrae) & factor factor analysisanalysis
ConscientiousnessConscientiousness
AgreeablenessAgreeableness
NeuroticismNeuroticism
OpennessOpenness
ExtraversionExtraversion
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The Big 5The Big 5
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Assessing TraitsAssessing Traits
Personality inventories are questionnaires Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree (often with true-false or agree-disagree
items) designed to gauge a wide range of items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several feelings and behaviors assessing several
traits at once.traits at once.
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MMPIMMPI
TheThe Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally personality tests. It was originally
developed to identify emotional disorders.developed to identify emotional disorders.
The MMPI was developed by empirically The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting testing a pool of items and then selecting
those that discriminated between those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.diagnostic groups.
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MMPI Test ProfileMMPI Test Profile
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NEO-PINEO-PI
based on Big 5based on Big 5 more appropriate for assessing more appropriate for assessing
normal personalitynormal personality
Reliability and ValidityReliability and Validity
The reliability of a test refers to its The reliability of a test refers to its consistencyconsistency. Does it consistently . Does it consistently measure the construct? To establish measure the construct? To establish reliability researchers establish different reliability researchers establish different procedures:procedures:
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1.1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.consistent the scores are.
2.2. Reliability using different forms of the test Reliability using different forms of the test to measure consistency between them.to measure consistency between them.
3.3. Test-Retest Reliability:Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.on two occasions to measure consistency.
ValidityValidity
Reliability of a test does not ensure Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. ***Validity of a test refers to validity. ***Validity of a test refers to how well it measures what it is how well it measures what it is supposed to measure (i.e., supposed to measure (i.e., meaningmeaning))
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Evaluating the Trait Evaluating the Trait PerspectivePerspective
1. Traits are better at describing than 1. Traits are better at describing than explainingexplaining
(danger of circular reasoning)(danger of circular reasoning)
2. Trait theories tend to exaggerate 2. Trait theories tend to exaggerate consistency and ignore the consistency and ignore the importance of the situationimportance of the situation
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Evaluating the Trait Evaluating the Trait PerspectivePerspective
The Person-Situation ControversyThe Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the out that traits may be enduring, but the
resulting behavior in various situations is resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not very different. Therefore, traits are not very good predictors of behavior in a given good predictors of behavior in a given
situation.situation.
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Social-Cognitive Social-Cognitive PerspectivePerspective
Bandura (1986, Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) 2001, 2005) believes that believes that
personality is the personality is the result of an result of an
interaction that interaction that takes place between takes place between a person and their a person and their
social context.social context.
Albert Bandura
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Bandura called the process of interacting Bandura called the process of interacting with our environment with our environment reciprocal reciprocal
determinismdeterminism..
The three factors, behavior, cognition, The three factors, behavior, cognition, and environment, are interlocking and environment, are interlocking
determinants of each other.determinants of each other.
Reciprocal InfluencesReciprocal Influences
Stephen W
ade/ Allsport/ G
etty Images
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Individuals & Individuals & EnvironmentsEnvironments
How we view and treat How we view and treat people influences how they people influences how they treat us.treat us.
Our personalities shape Our personalities shape situations.situations.
Anxious people react to Anxious people react to situations differently than situations differently than calm people.calm people.
Our personalities shape Our personalities shape how we react to events.how we react to events.
The school you attend and The school you attend and the music you listen to are the music you listen to are partly based on your partly based on your dispositions.dispositions.
Different people choose Different people choose different environments.different environments.
Specific ways in which individuals and Specific ways in which individuals and environments interactenvironments interact
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BehaviorBehavior
Behavior emerges from an interplay of Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.external and internal influences.
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Personal ControlPersonal Control
External locus of controlExternal locus of control refers to the refers to the perception that chance or outside forces perception that chance or outside forces
beyond our personal control determine our beyond our personal control determine our fate.fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own
fate.
Social-cognitive psychologists like J.B. Rotter Social-cognitive psychologists like J.B. Rotter emphasize our sense of personal control, emphasize our sense of personal control,
whether we control the environment or the whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.environment controls us.
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Self-efficacySelf-efficacy
belief in onebelief in one’’s ability to succeed in a s ability to succeed in a particular situationparticular situation
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Optimism vs. PessimismOptimism vs. Pessimism
An optimistic or pessimistic attributional An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of explaining positive or style is your way of explaining positive or
negative events.negative events.
Positive psychology aims to discover and Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable promote conditions that enable
individuals and communities to thrive.individuals and communities to thrive.
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Evaluating the Social-Evaluating the Social-Cognitive PerspectiveCognitive Perspective
Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay
less attention to the individual, his unconscious less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics.mind, his emotions, and his genetics.
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Positive Psychology and Positive Psychology and Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology
Positive psychology, such as humanistic Positive psychology, such as humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human psychology, attempts to foster human
fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, seeks positive subjective well-being, positive seeks positive subjective well-being, positive
character, and positive social groupscharacter, and positive social groups..
Martin Seligman
Courtesy of M
artin E.P. Seligm
an, PhD D
irector, Positive Psychology C
enter/ University of Pennsylvania