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Chapter 8

Motivation and Empowerment

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Motivation

The forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action

The process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behaviorWho is responsible for this?Motivation is an attributionWhat is the role of money as a motivator ?

Two football coaches have a lot to teach screaming managers:

•How does this article challenge your assumptions about motivation?•If screaming gets results, is screaming OK? Why or why not?

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Ex. 8.1 A Simple Model of Motivation

Need Creates desire to fulfill needs (money, friendship, recognition, achievement)

Behavior Results in actions to fulfill needs

Rewards Satisfy needs: intrinsic or extrinsic rewards

Feedback Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used again

Need: state or condition within an individual that generates movementtoward some outcome or reward.

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Types of Rewards

Intrinsic Rewards Internal satisfactions a person receives in the

process of performing a particular action

Extrinsic Rewards Rewards given by another person, typically a

supervisor, such as pay increases and promotions

Systemwide Rewards Rewards that apply the same to all people within

an organization or within a specific category or department

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Ex. 8.2 Examples of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards

Extrinsic Intrinsic

Individual

Systemwide

Large merit increase

Insurance benefits

Feeling of self-fulfillment

Pride in being part of a “winning”

organization

Individual rewards: differ among individuals within the same organizationor department

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Ex. 8.3 Needs of People and Motivation Methods

Needs of people

Conventional management

Lower needs

Carrot and stick (Extrinsic)

Control people

Adequate effort

Leadership

Higher needs

Empowerment (Intrinsic)

Growth and fulfillment

Best effort

Ex. 8.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Need Hierarchy

Self-actualization Needs

Esteem Needs

Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Fulfillment on the Job

Opportunities for advancement, autonomy, growth, creativity

Recognition, approval, high status, increased responsibilities

Work groups, clients, coworkers, supervisors

Safe work, fringe benefits, job security

Food, shelter, base salary

Deficiency vs. growth needs

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain maintenance factor contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of complaints

Motivators - work conditions related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth job enrichment leads to superior performance & effort

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Ex. 8.5 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Area of Satisfaction

Area of Dissatisfaction

Motivators influence level of satisfaction

Hygiene factors influence level of dissatisfaction

Motivators

AchievementRecognitionResponsibilityWork itselfPersonal growth

Hygiene Factors

Work conditionsPay/securityCo. policiesSupervisors

Interpersonal. relationships

Highly Satisfied

Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied

Highly Dissatisfied

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Motivation-Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M

High H high motivation few complaints

low motivation few complaints

Low H high motivation many complaints

low motivation many complaints

(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

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Reinforcement Theory

Looks at the relationship between behavior and its consequences by changing or modifying followers’ on-the-job behavior through the appropriate use of immediate rewards or punishments

Behavior is a function of its consequences

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Behavior modification

Law of effect: positively reinforced behaviors tends to be repeated and behavior that is not reinforced tends to not be repeated.

Positive consequences: results of a behavior that a person finds attractive or pleasurable

Negative consequences: results of a behavior that a person finds unattractive or aversive

Positive reinforcement: the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a behavior

Negative reinforcement: the withdrawal of an unpleasant consequence once a behavior is improved. Avoidance learning.

Punishment: the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee following undesirable behavior

Extinction: the attempt to weaken a behavior by attaching no consequences to it.

Reinforcement & Punishment Strategies

Reinforcement (desireable behavior)

Punishment (undesireable

behavior) Positive

Consequences

Apply

Withhold

Negative Consequences

Withhold

Apply

Examples of Negative Reinforcement

Focused on desirable behaviors that occur more frequently: If a clerical worker feels that being ahead is a

favorable condition, the worker will be motivated to work hard in order to avoid the unpleasant state of being behind.

An instructor deducts 10 points from a student’s grade for each observed absence but there is no effect on a student’s grade for attendance.

Example of an alarm in a child’s room.

Examples of Punishment

Focused on undesirable behaviors that should occur very infrequently: If you exhibit unprofessional behavior in this

class, you will lose a letter grades If you are caught cheating on an exam, you

could fail the course If you steal something at work, you will be

terminated.

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Acquired Needs Theory

McClelland’s theory that proposes that certain types of needs are acquired during an individual’s lifetime

Three needs most frequently studied: Need for achievement Need for affiliation Need for power

McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Achievement

Need for Achievement - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficultiesSet moderate goalsSeek feedbackStay focused

McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Power

Need for Power - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in lifePersonal or socialized

McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Affiliation

Need for Affiliation - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people

What combination of needs are present in the best managers?

Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs

Valence - value or importance placed on a particular reward

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance

Instrumentality - belief that performance is related to rewards

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Ex. 8.6 Key Elements of Expectancy Theory

E > P expectancyEffort Performance

P > O expectancyPerformance Outcomes

Valence – value of outcomes(pay, recognition, other

rewards)

Motivation

Will putting effort into the task lead to the desired performance?

Will high performance lead to the desired outcomes?

Are the available outcomes highly valued?

Theory of Inequity

Inequity – the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving

People are motivated when they see themselvesin a position they believe is unfair. They will be motivated to either change their behavior or change their perceptions in order to restore equity

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Carrot-and-stick controversy

Extrinsic rewards diminish intrinsic rewards

Extrinsic rewards are temporary Extrinsic rewards assume people are driven

by lower order needs Organizations are too complex for carrot-

and-stick approaches Carrot-and-stick approaches destroy

people’s motivation to work as a group

On the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B

Mangers hope for: Teamwork and

collaboration Innovative thinking and

risk taking Development of people

skills Employee involvement

and empowerment High achievement Commitment to quality Long-term growth

But they reward: The best individual

performers Proven methods and not

making mistakes Technical achievements

and accomplishments Tight control over

operations and resources Another year’s routine

effort Shipping time, even with

defects Quarterly earnings

See the three major obstacles to fixing reward systems on p. 241

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Empowerment

Power sharing: the delegation of power or authority to subordinates in the organization. What’s wrong with this concept?

Empowerment: being enabled to make independent decisions and take effective action

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Elements of empowerment

Information about company performance Knowledge and skills to contribute to

company goals Power to make substantive decisions Understanding the meaning and impact of

your job Rewards based on company performance

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Other approaches

Employee ownership Gainsharing Pay for knowledge Pay for performance Job enrichment Goal setting?

Problems with?

Job Characteristics Model

Skill varietyTask identityTask significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Core jobdimensions

Core jobdimensions

Experienced work’s

meaningfulness

Experienced

responsibility

for work’s outcomes

Knowledge of work

activities’ results

Criticalpsychological

states

Criticalpsychological

states

High internalwork motivationHigh-qualitywork performanceHigh satisfaction with the workLow absenteeismand turnover

Personal andwork outcomes

Personal andwork outcomes

Employee growth,need,

strength

Skill variety High variety

The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customers

Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day

Task Identity High identity

A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection

Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs

Task significance

High significance

Low significance

Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit

Sweeping hospital floors

Autonomy High autonomy

A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, makes visits without supervision, and decides on the most effective techniques for a particular installation

Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure

Feedback High feedback

An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then tests it to determine if it operates properly

Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests it for proper operation and makes needed adjustments

Skill variety High variety

The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customers

Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day

Task Identity High identity

A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection

Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs

Task significance

High significance

Low significance

Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit

Sweeping hospital floors

Autonomy High autonomy

A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, makes visits without supervision, and decides on the most effective techniques for a particular installation

Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure

Feedback High feedback

An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then tests it to determine if it operates properly

Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests it for proper operation and makes needed adjustments

Examples of high and low job characteristics

Engagement: pp 246-249Bookshelf: First break all the rules

The strength of a workplace depends upon engaged employees

Leaders Recognize that you have no control Build on the talents of employees Focus people on performance

Engagement is a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption. Rather than a momentary and specific state, engagement refers to a more persistent and pervasive affective-cognitive state that is not focused on any particular object, event, individual, or behavior. Vigor is characterized by high levels of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one’s work, and persistence even in the face of difficulties. Dedication refers to being strongly involved in one's work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge. Absorption is characterized by being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s work, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work

Gallup Q-12 Engagement – cause or effect?

I know what is expected of me at work.

I have the materials and equipment I need to do my work right.

At work, I have the opportunity to do what I do best everyday.

In the last seven days, I have received recognition or praise for doing good work.

My supervisor, or someone at work, seems to care about me as a person.

There is someone at work who encourages my development.

At work, my opinions seem to count.

The mission or purpose of my company makes me feel my job is important

My associates or fellow employees are committed to doing quality work.

I have a best friend at work. In the last six months,

someone at work has talked to me about my progress.

This last year, I have had opportunities at work to learn and grow.

#13: How satisfied are you with ________ as a place to work?

VIGORWhen I am working, I feel mentally strong

I can continue for a very long time when I am workingWhen I work at my current job, I feel like I am bursting with energy

At my job, I feel strong and vigorousWhen I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work

DEDICATONI find my work to be full of meaning and purpose

My work inspires meI am enthusiastic about my jobI am proud of the work that I do

I find my work challengingABSORBTION

Time flies when I am workingWhen I am working, I forget everything else around me

I feel very happy when I am working intensivelyI can get carried away when I am working

I am immersed in my work

Engagement

Cause (examples: Q12) I have a best friend at

work I know what is

expected of me at work

My opinions seem to count

My supervisor seems to care about me

Effect (examples) My work inspires me I am immersed in my

work When I get up in the

morning, I feel like going to work

I feel very happy when I am working intensively

Evidence-Based Management

What is evidence-based management?

What are six substitutes that managers often use for the best evidence?

What are the four things leaders can do to create a new-mindset of evidence-based management?

What is the nasty side effect for leaders that practice evidence-based management?