29International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 1

placement to promote good activ-ity. It is important to have a heatsource with ample infrared heatcoverage and output that can adequately supply the heat neededwithout resulting in high carbondioxide levels from high gas usage.Long cycle times and high spot

heat temperatures will lead to poorresults with overheating; the sameas with the smaller single rings.

SUMMARY

Table 1 lists the recommended target house temperatures forbrooding under conventional singlering vs. whole room layouts. You can see that whole room

brooding requires warmer tempera-tures, which must be consistentthroughout the house to keeppoults comfortable and evenly dispersed. It must be emphasised that ade-

quate air exchange needs to occurregardless of the room temperature,otherwise poult activity and feedingbehaviour will decrease.Regardless of which method is

used to brood poults there is nosubstitute for being prepared priorto when poults arrive. This includes a clean and disin-

fected house and water lines, soundnutrition, properly functioning andcalibrated equipment, and supervi-sion of the brooding process n

For more information on brooding poults visit

www.resources.hybridturkeys.com/brooding-whole-room

brooding area. In other words, thewhole house has become the ring. A heat system with a large

infrared coverage or a large numberof smaller heaters is needed to givethe best result. The target tempera-ture is normally measured near theouter edge of the house or inbetween the heater units, depend-ing on the type of brooder stove.The room target temperature can

range from 31.1-33.3°C, depending onthe heat source and the infraredheat distribution across the floor.The infrared hot spot should

range from 35-46°C. The floor tem-perature across the feed and waterneeds to be in the 32.3-35°C range at

in over heated poults, flip-overs andpoor consumption of water andfeed. This becomes evident when tem-

peratures across the water and feedarea are consistently over 35°C leav-ing the poults no place to escapethe heat. This can result in longer term

uniformity issues across the flock ifleft unchecked.

WHOLE ROOM BROODING

Whole room, also known as largeroom, brooding is simply defined asbrooding turkey poults without theuse of rings to confine them under asingle heat source. This method waspatterned after brooding chicks inthe broiler industry. Whole room brooding is different

from single ring as the overall roomtemperature in the brooder house ismore closely related to the recom-mended temperature profile. This allows the poults to move

freely and have easy access to thefeed and water across the entire

Poult body temperatures between39.4-40°C have been shown to givethe best outcome for consistentstarts (Dr Vern Christensen, 2014).The brooding environment

should provide even distribution ofthe appropriate temperaturesacross the water and feed space,allowing for free movement andoptimum results.This can be accomplished

through a variety of different barnlayouts, each with specific tempera-ture profiles to ensure flocks get offto a good start.

SINGLE RING BROODING

Single ring brooding is the tradi-tional set up that has been used formany years. It consists of small ringsand uses gas or propane firedbrooder stoves (typically 30,000 btueach). The area provided to the poults is

limited by the infrared heat cover-age of the heating unit. The numberof poults per ring is limited to thespace for feed and water access inthe heat zone.Room temperature is normally

measured at the inside edge of therow of rings (furthest side from thebarn wall), but outside of theinfrared heat zone. The recom-mended room temperature hereshould be 29-30°C. The temperaturerange inside the ring should be 40-42°C directly underneath the stovewith 29-31°C at the outer edge ofthe ring, depending on the height ofthe stove. The stove should cycle on and off

at regular intervals to create a tem-perature range between 32-35°Cacross the feed and water space.This allows the birds to move in andout as the stove cycles to find theircomfort zone. Individual stoves that are set too

high or have inconsistent cycles cancreate hot spots that exceed whatis required for the poults.Temperatures directly underneath

the stove that start to exceed 51-54°C during the heat cycle can result

Table 1. The recommended target house temperatures for brooding underconventional single ring versus whole room layouts.

Whole room brooding.

1. Brooding: creating the right environment

Getting poults off to a good start is the most important time in theproduction cycle. It should begin with providing an environmentthat encourages good water and feed consumption. Chilling and

overheating day old poults puts them at a great disadvantage by limitingearly consumption, which in turn delays the development of theintestinal tract and immune system.

Ring brooding Whole room broodingTemperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Week Female Male Female Male1 29-30 29-30 31.1-33.3 31.1-33.32 27.8 27.8 28.9 28.93 26.6 26.6 27.8 27.84 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.55 22.8 22.8 23.3 23.36 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.17 20 18.9 20 19.48 18.9 17.8 18.9 17.89 18.3 17.2 18.3 17.210 18.3 16.7 18.3 16.711 18.3 16.7 18.3 16.712 17.8 16.7 17.8 16.713 17.8 15.5 17.8 15.514 17.8 15.5 17.8 15.515 16.7 14.4 16.7 14.4

by William Alexander, Technical Service Representative, Hybrid Turkeys.

23International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 2

Utilisation of disinfectantsapproved for use in the drinkingwater of food animals reduces thelevel of water-borne pathogens.Various sanitation methods are inuse. It needs to be kept in mindthough that turkeys are sensitive totaste and can reduce water intake asa result.

ENVIRONMENT

Good housing environmental condi-tions with low stocking densityshould be provided for effectiveantibiotic-free turkey production.Any bird not experiencing the rightenvironmental conditions accordingto its age will be under stress andmore susceptible to health chal-lenges.

During brooding for example, it isimportant to provide sufficientfeeding and drinking space to avoidcompetition. Stress has a negativeimpact on the birds’ feed intakepattern which can affect intestinalmotility, further impacting on guthealth and disease resistance.

Maintaining precise temperaturecontrol to avoid heat stress or chill-ing and providing the correct venti-lation to take away harmful gasesand humidity as well as providingoxygen is helping to make the birdcomfortable and eat properly.

Turkeys spend their life in closecontact with litter material. The aimis to establish good, dry but dust-free litter conditions to avoid prob-lems like respiratory disease. Highammonium levels in the air lead todamage of the airway tissues andtherefore increased susceptibility toinfection.

SUMMARY

Having had the option to use antibi-otics for many years has resulted inembedded practices that will needto change as the industry movestowards antibiotic-free production.Antibiotic-free production is notreally adding anything new to thecurrent systems, but it requires care-ful attention to detail and makingsure that no areas are left to chance.

Systems need to be tailored tospecific operations, continually bereviewed and practices amended asnecessary. Having a proactive ratherthan a reactive approach should leadto the desired result n

and, if necessary, implement amycotoxin management pro-gramme. Grain damage and condi-tions that could increase mould andinsect spoilage must be minimised.Fats and oils with rancidity shouldbe rejected.

Bacterial contamination of feedand/or water can damage theintestinal tract, leading to an inflam-matory response within the intes-tine and a shorter transit time forthe digesta in the gut. Nutrientavailability is consequently reduced.

Poor environmental control, particularly poor management ofventilation can result in wet litterand/or chilling of the birds and subsequent gut health issues whichfurther exacerbate the poor litterconditions as the outcome ofreduced gut health can be diar-rhoea. This can also lead to dirtyeggs in laying flocks which mayresult in a greater number of eggsbeing rejected or becominginfected. Wet litter is also known tolead to increased foot pad lesions.

WATER QUALITY

Water quality is often overlooked inturkey production systems eventhough it is a vital nutrient and canhave a negative impact on the birdswhen containing harmful pathogensor generally high numbers of bacte-ria, yeast or moulds. Whilst feedquality often gets a lot of attention,it needs to be kept in mind that aturkey will consume about twice asmuch water during its lifetime asfeed.

Even if mains water of good qual-ity is used, daily water line sanita-tion and regular drinker cleaning isrequired in addition to water linecleaning between flocks. This isbecause bacteria, fungi or yeasts canquickly re-establish a biofilm in thewater system. Some additive prod-ucts like vitamins or vaccines pro-vided via the drinking water canalso create conditions favourablefor the growth of biofilms.

Mortality is reduced and healthgreatly improved when this biofilmis removed. Ideally the build-up of abiofilm should be prevented rightfrom the start after thorough clean-ing of the water lines betweenflocks.

A daily water sanitation pro-gramme will therefore benefit thebirds and the water system.

many days the turkey house isrested under dry and clean condi-tions after thorough cleaning anddisinfection rather than how longthe houses are empty. The timedepends on the health challengeson the farm and the geographiclocation.

FLOCK HEALTH

Preventing coccidiosis and necroticenteritis are usually the main con-cerns during antibiotic-free produc-tion. Litter management andstocking density play a part in this.The lack of availability of coccidio-sis vaccines makes this difficultthough.

The use of a vaccination pro-gramme tailored for the locationand situation of the flocks can pre-vent a range of viral and bacterialdiseases. Where needed, the use ofautogenous vaccines, which arespecifically designed for the individ-ual operation and usually aimed atbacterial infections, can be a goodtool to minimise impact of thepathogens common on a farm.

GUT HEALTH & FEED

In turkeys, many factors affect guthealth and consequently perfor-mance and susceptibility to infec-tion. Good quality feed is essentialfor optimum digestibility. Anti-nutritional factors, including thephysical form of the feed, impededaccessibility to feed due to highstocking density, nutrient content,and mycotoxins play a role inreducing gut health.

Antibiotic-free production pro-grammes need to place particularemphasis on avoiding levels ofmycotoxins that exceed recom-mended limits. The risk levels canbe elevated in many regions.

Producers should be monitoringfeed for mycotoxin contamination

In order to achieve this goal anumber of important factors needto be addressed. These includebreeder health, biosecurity, flockhealth, gut health, water quality andenvironmental management.

BREEDER HEALTH

Sourcing poults from appropriatelyvaccinated, healthy breeder flockswhich have been fed on a well-bal-anced good quality feed is essentialfor them to have the potential towithstand the early challenges ofthe brooding period and to go on todevelop a good, balanced intestinalflora which is essential to antibioticfree production.

BIOSECURITY

A strict biosecurity programmemust be in place. This is necessaryto safeguard the health of theturkeys by preventing the introduc-tion and exposure to infectious disease-causing agents likemycoplasma.

An effective programme requiresidentification of the most likelysources of disease and establish-ment of practices designed to pre-vent the introduction and thespread of these pathogens into andbetween flocks. Practices include‘exclusion’ and ‘containment’.

Exclusion applies for example tovisitors, vehicles and equipmentthat visit other poultry or livestockfarms as well as not sharing staffwith other sides. Containment cov-ers areas like isolating the houses,controlling rodents and insects, andthe entry of wild birds and otheranimals to the house. Showering-inand farm dedicated clothing shouldbe the standard on site.

It is worth noting that the down-time between flocks is equally cru-cial to good performance. In thisregard it is more important how

2. Antibiotic free turkey production

The production of turkeys without the use of antibiotics is anincreasingly common goal across the globe due to the focus onantimicrobial resistance. For too long, the use of antibiotics has

been seen as a quick and easy way for solving production ormanagement related issues rather than tackling the underlying causes.The industry must aim at improving the conditions surrounding the birdsto eliminate the need to use antibiotics. This can only be accomplishedby investment in facilities and training, better management, and a fullyintegrated approach.

by Dr Wiebke Oellrich, Company Veterinarian, Aviagen Turkeys.

27International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 3

a measuring stick tool that makes iteasy to set a drinker line to the correct height based on the sex andage of the turkey. Simply place thestick on the floor next to the T-Maxdrinker and adjust the drinker heightaccordingly. The stick is two-sided – one foradult males and one for adultfemales. Ziggity also offers handyplastic pocket cards with recom-mended heights in both centimetersand inches. All you need is a tapemeasure. Time after time, Ziggity has foundthat best management practices forpoultry watering systems play ahuge role in improved poultry production.We want to help in this effort bynot only providing tools to do so,but explain the reason for doing soas well. n

beaks, and then lift their headswhile still over the vessel and allowgravity to do its thing. By drinking inthis manner – head and beakremaining over the vessel whiledrinking – means any water thatdoes fall from their beaks ends up inthe drinker vessel and not on thefloor.

LESS SPILLAGE

The result of using T-Max drinkersand maintaining an elevated drink-ing posture means an efficient andeffective drinking motion that mitigates spillage. Litter stays drier,there is less ammonia release, a better environment for the turkeys,and improved performance results. Because height is so critical forachieving the best litter and turkeyperformance, Ziggity has developed

system by featuring a much smallerand self-cleaning water vessel – amajor departure from open belltype systems with vastly more openwater and more surface that canharbour biofilm. Additionally, with T-Max, spillageis drastically reduced, therebyimproving litter quality. With belltype drinkers, the opposite is thecase – the litter is constantly wet,creating an environment wheremicro-organisms can quickly multi-ply and harm the bird, or foreverstunt its growth because of theadditional energy expended by abird to fend off disease.However, these major advantagesof using T-Max in turkey operationsmentioned above can be quicklylost if producers try to manage thedrinker as if it were a bell drinkerand adjust the height off the floorso that it is even with the turkey’sback.With T-Max, the lip of the drinkerhas to be much higher than aturkey’s back throughout the pro-duction cycle. The reason for this isthat the T-Max is designed to fitwith the turkeys’ drinking behaviour.Turkeys, like other poultry, cannotswallow. They ingest water byscooping it with their beaks andthen lifting their heads and necksand then allowing gravity to movethe water downward into theirdigestive system.At a bell drinker, turkeys lowertheir heads to get some water intotheir beaks and then they lift theirheads back up to ‘swallow’ or letthe water slide into their crops. Go way down to get water andthen all the way back up to swallowand repeat. This up, down, up, downand repeat movement means a lotof water is spilled off their beaksand the litter gets wet – very wet.With Ziggity’s T-Max, the lip ofthe activator should always be atleast even with the beak of theturkey when standing upright withelevated heads. When drinking they lift theirheads over the top of the edge ofthe drinker, scoop water with their

Regular nipple-type drinkers werenot a good solution because turkeyscould easily damage them and thetrigger pins were too small a targetfor turkeys to activate – vital forthe drinking process. However, these problems havebeen resolved with the develop-ment of stronger materials and acompletely new semi-encloseddrinker design that complementsthe way turkeys drink.Ziggity’s T-Max drinkers aredesigned in a manner that releaseswater into a rugged activator vesselduring the drinking process, ensuringthat the vessel is filled with just theright amount of water for consump-tion, but not oversupply that leadsto spillage.Using T-Max drinkers mitigates theproblem of turkeys spreading disease through the watering

3. Setting turkey drinkers at the correct height

Ziggity Systems Inc has seen the adage that ‘old habits die hard’ ringtrue in the turkey segment of the poultry market which, up untilrecent years, relied primarily on open bell type watering systems.

Many turkey farmers continued using open type watering systems longafter broiler producers had changed to enclosed systems because of theturkeys’ aggressive behaviour coupled with poor beak-eye coordination.

by Ziggity Systems Inc. www.poultrywatering.com

A special measuring stick makes iteasy to properly line up the heightof the watering line with the age ofthe turkey by aligning the age markwith the lip of the activator vessel.

Turkeys activating and drinking from a T-Max turkey drinker. Turkeys acti-vate the water release by bumping the activator vessel with their necks,and then can quickly ingest the water from the vessel.

Secure your regular copy of

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Poultry Productionby taking out a subscription

see page 5 or email sw@positiveaction.co.ukwww.positiveaction.co.uk

31International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 4

P=0.007) and lower FCR (1.60 vs 1.63,p=0.006).Although protein levels did not

have a statistical effect on weightor on daily weight gain, theseshowed a statistical decrease in FCR(1.61 vs 1.63, P=0.07). While turkeys fed higher level of

lysine and protein diets ended updrinking more water, this did notstatistically impact water to feedratio during the 0-48 day period. The group fed higher levels of

lysine and protein achieved the bestperformance at 48 days old. Thisresult suggests that the ratios ofamino acid to lysine in the groupsfed low protein diets were not optimal. These findings confirm the inter-

est and relevance of Techna nutri-tional standards within theframework of this experiment.In addition to these trials, we

should be reminded that aminoacids needs usually differ dependingon the objective sought by produc-ers in terms of profitability.Therefore, optimum diet formula-

tions and feeding schedules must betailored to each specific case. n

performance, a trial was run on anexperimental farm (Techna, SaintSymphorien, France, 2016).In this experiment, the aim was to

examine whether two lysine levelscombined with two different pro-tein levels had an impact on BUT 6male turkeys’ feed intake, growthand water consumption during thestarter-grower period (until 48 daysold).The higher level of protein and

lysine was fixed according toTechna’s nutritional standards. Itwas then compared with lowerlysine and protein levels. From 0-48days old, the average protein con-tent in each group varied from24.57-22.43%. The two digestiblelysine levels tested amounted,respectively, to 1.41 and 1.31% (Fig. 2).When increased by 0.1pt,

digestible lysine levels clearlyshowed a positive effect on theweight of turkeys at 48 days.Turkeys fed high levels of lysine

showed significantly higher bodyweight (3.649kg vs 3.393kg, p=0.000),higher daily weight gain (74.6g/d vs69.3g/d, p=0.000), higher daily feedconsumption (119.7g/d vs 113.1g/d,

This concept relates more pre-cisely to the exact balance of essen-tial amino acids required in order tomeet an animal’s needs. The contri-bution of feed should be neitherexcessive nor lacking, and it shouldnot be used for energy purposes. As the cinetic of tissues varies

with age and their proportionchanges, it is admitted that the idealprotein ratio usually evolvesthroughout an animal’s growthcycle. As the needs of animals increase,

due to genetics or other factors,this concept is easily used to pro-vide diets with balanced essentialamino acids depending on the lysinerequirements.

REDUCING CRUDE PROTEIN

Formulating feed according to theideal protein concept allows for alower protein level in diets whichcan help maintain good breedingconditions. Indeed, high levels ofprotein are likely to cause wet litter,resulting in serious issues such asfootpad disease, breast blister andoverall poor performance. Reducing dietary crude protein

content by formulating according toamino acids needs can also haveeconomic and environmental benefits.To evaluate the effect of crude

protein and lysine level on turkey

As shown in Fig. 1, the averageweight of french commercial turkeymales currently revolves around15.3kg at 130 days old, while 25 yearsago, the average slaughter weightwas 10kg at 106 days old (datadrawn from Aviperf Techna data-base). Therefore, in order to copewith this evolution, the share ofprotein and amino acids supplied byturkey diets must absolutely matchthese higher requirements.

IDEAL PROTEIN CONCEPT

Protein is well known to have amajor effect on growth perfor-mance, and this especially appliesto the supply of amino acids. Lysineand methionine are the most limit-ing amino acids in commercial cornsoya-bean diets. Threonine, valineand isoleucine are the next mostlimiting amino acids. In addition, therelationship between the variousamino acids has a major impact onturkey growth.In other words, feeding higher lev-

els of one without consideration ofthe other may result in an aminoacid antagonism which can limitgrowth. Usually, lysine is used as the

amino acid reference point in orderto express all other essential aminoacids relative to the lysine percent-age: this is what is referred to as‘the ideal protein concept’.

4. Matching protein and lysine requirements in turkeys

The average growth performance potential of turkeys has increasedover recent decades, mainly due to genetic progress. In the frenchcontext of commercial production, which mostly specialises in

medium strains, daily weight gain rose from 80g/d in the 1990s to 121g/din 2016.

Fig. 1. Male liveweight 1992-2016. French commercial market - Aviperf data-base.

16.515.514.513.512.511.510.59.58.5

1992-2016

Male liveweight (kg)

3.7

3.6

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2

n CP 22.43%/Lys d 1.31% n CP 23.11%/Lys d 1.31% n CP 23.66%/Lys d 1.41% n CP 24.57%/Lys d 1.41%

Weight at 48 days (kg)

76

74

72

70

68

66

64Avg. daily weight gain (g) 1.64

1.62

1.60

1.58

1.56

FCR

305

300

295

290

285

280

275

270Water intake (ml/day/bird)

Fig. 2. The impact of two different lysine levels combined with two different protein levels on BUT 6 male turkeys from 0-48 days.

by Samia Messaoud, Techna France Nutrition, Groupe Techna: www.feedexpertise-techna.com

29International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 5

essary to reduce this humidity assoon as possible (target: 40% <RH<60%) for the health of the birds.

OTHER FACTORS

l Stocking density:Density can be very influential as itis the temperature around the birdsthat can make a large impact ontheir comfort. Moreover, in a poul-try house more than 80% of theheat is produced by the animals. Itis recommended that bird numbersare reduced in order to reduce theamount of heat the ventilation system must remove.

l Litter management:Wet litter will increase the moisturelevels in the barns and once manurebegins to compost, it will add heat.

l Nutrition:If an increase in feed conversion isnoted, one method of compensat-ing is to offer a more dense diet andincrease the energy provided by fatrather than carbohydrates. The useof electrolytes in their diet can alsohelp to manage the physical effectsof high temperatures.

During extremely hot days thereare a few additional options tomanage heat stress:l Reduce or remove feed duringthe hottest period of the day andinstead light the barns at night sothe birds can eat and drink whenthe temperature has dropped.l For a longer period, add a nightsnack in their diet by lighting for 2-3hours in the middle of the night. n

To find out more visitresources.hybridturkeys.com

High pressure fogging systems arealso used to cool down ambient air.This method is slightly less efficientthan the pad-cooling, but it is easierto install, especially in existingbuildings and easier to maintain.The air velocity must first be used

at about 24˚C (75˚F) or, more precisely, before the animals beginto pant and then, in a second stage,pad-cooling or fogging can be usedat 28°C (82˚F).

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Relative humidity plays a veryimportant role in the comfort ofbirds, which they are much moresensitive to than humans. The presence of water vapour in

the air increases the sensation ofheat when it is hot and makes theair feel cooler when it is cold.As humidity increases, the effec-

tiveness of panting decreases aswell as the cooling produced bypads or foggers decreases. It is nec-

air inlet area. It can be reduced byseveral other factors, such as pad-cooling cells, the age of the fans orpoor maintenance, obstacles suchas light shutters upstream anddownstream from the fans. Some outside light covers can

divide the fan power by two. If theyare not essential, they can beremoved in case of severe heat.An additional tip is to reduce the

cross sectional area of the buildingto increase air speed by adding ceil-ing triangle deflectors.In an open building with curtains,

it is easy, inexpensive and fairly effi-cient to add circulation fans inorder to create a strong air flow onthe birds. A good rule is to placeone 40,000m3/h fan every 200m²of building surface.Opening the gates (while ensuring

a fence is in place to contain thebirds) is also a good way to increaseventilation.

COOLING SYSTEMS

Tunnel ventilation is often associ-ated with a pad-cooling system. Theair which passes through the dampcells is cooled by drying them. Thisis the most efficient system in poul-try houses. The drier outside air, themore efficient cooling.

The comfort zone of an adult turkeyis between 13 and 24°C (55-75°F). It isin this interval that we must lookfor the optimum performance area.

WIND CHILL

Using air speed is a very goodmethod of cooling down the birds.Tunnel ventilation is a very efficienttechnology used in poultry build-ings to remove heat from buildingsand animals.The air velocity in the poultry

house depends on the power of theexhaust fans and the cross sectionalarea of the building. It is most oftenrun between 2-3m/sec (400-600ft/min). It is recommended toincrease the air speed if the follow-ing elements are in play: a highertemperature, a higher humidity,older birds, larger animals, a higherstocking density, or wet litter.The efficiency of the exhaust fans,

and therefore the air velocity,depends on the static pressure inthe building, which depends on the

5. Summer ventilation and maintaining good performance

Every summer, with different intensities depending on the year, thetechnical and economic performance of turkeys in the barn candecline. Of course, exposure to high heat results in higher mortality,

but even just from 24°C (75°F) and up we start to see a decline inperformance. A loss of 2kg live weight and 2% meat yield is not rare aswell as an increase in feed conversion and decreased livability.

by Pierre Dulac, Technical Support Manager, Hybrid Turkeys. www.hybridturkeys.com

Pad-cooling system for efficient cooling.

Circulation fans create a strong airflow on the birds.

Opening gates is a good way to increase ventilation.

27International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 6

ity should not just be conducted atthe mill, farm assessments give agood indication as to what is pro-vided to the bird especially if thesample is taken directly from thefeed pan. This can be conducted viathe use of a hand sieving device, theprocedure is straightforward andpractical for most farms to conduct. There are many courses of action

which the mill can take to improvepoor feed physical quality. Behnke(1994) quantified the effect of different feed manufacturingprocesses on pellet durability, themain areas identified were grinding,conditioning and pelletisingprocesses however changes in theformulation can also have an effectfor example even 5% addition ofwheat based materials can improvepellet durability very significantly.The key point is that poor feed

physical quality is not acceptableand there are means to improvefeed physical quality.

SUMMARY

l Feed physical quality has a significant impact on turkey performance, perhaps significantlymore than previously determined.l Optimising feed physical qualitynot only supports farm performance but also improves processing yield.l Communication of feed physicalquality standards between the farmand the mill is vital to ensure thatthe needs of the modern bird areunderstood and are met.l There are several approaches toimproving feed physical qualitywithin the mill, some of which donot involve significant investment.lMonitoring of feed physical qual-ity in the mill and also on the farmis vital to ensure that feed form iscontinuously meeting standard. n

For more information on how toexamine feed physical quality

through the use of Aviagen Turkeyshand sieves, please contact:

yoakley@aviagen.com

ence in FCR. Another possibleexplanation for the degree of effecton FCR may be related to thepreparation of the ‘poor’ feed treat-ment. The degree of fine material within

the poor feed treatment was verysignificant and also the extent ofpulverisation during the feed grind-ing process may have resulted in amore extreme ‘poor’ feed form thanassessed in some other trials whichcompared pellets to mash diets. Nonetheless, the poor treatment

was representative of poor feedform in the field and the resultsreinforce the importance of ensuring feed physical quality isoptimal and is adequately assessedwithin the organisation.Assessment of feed physical qual-

ity is usually measured by a sievingassessment of crumbs and a pelletdurability index (PDI). Table 1 showsthe target particle size profile forstarter diets in a crumb form.Pelleted products must contain a

minimised quantity of fine particles(<1mm), aiming for less than 10%fines (farm sample assessment) withthe remainder as intact pellets.Pellet durability assessments are

normally made at the mill labora-tory via specialised devices such asa Holmen Tester or TumblingTester, a durability of >90% is realistic for most pelleted feeds.These assessments involve placing

a sample of feed through an aggres-sive process which is aimed at replicating the physical insults tothe pellet in the field. This assess-ment allows the mill to know thatmanufactured feeds meet physicalquality standards.Assessment of feed physical qual-

similar to feed physical qualitywhich can sometimes be seen in thefield. The results showed there wasa significant depression in body-weights to 20 weeks of age; thepoor treatment resulted in a 12.3%reduction in bodyweight loss relative to the control. FCR deterio-rated by 36% in the poor treatmentrelative to the control at 20 weeksof age.The negative effect of poor feed

form on bodyweight was evidentthrough the lifetime of the birds.The negative effect of the poortreatment was detected as early asthree weeks of age and continued,with increasing effect, to the end ofthe trial period.Breast meat yield was assessed at

20 weeks of age, the poor treat-ment reduced breast meat yield by7.5%. This effect on breast meatyield is most likely related to theeffect of feed form on physiologicaldevelopment to this age i.e. thebirds fed the poor feed form werephysiologically less developed at 20weeks of age compared to the birdsfed the control, hence breast meatwas not as well developed.The effect of feed form on perfor-

mance was much greater than previ-ously observed, in particular themagnitude of effect on FCR wasunexpected. The data suggests thatthose birds fed the poor feed formate significantly more feed thanbirds fed the control diet but didnot convert this feed to liveweight. Feed wastage is often evident

when birds are fed poor qualitypellets, while feed wastage was evident in some pens, this wassuperficial and not enough toaccount for the degree of differ-

Many factors influence feed con-sumption; environment and man-agement being two of the mostimportant. Feed form is known tohave a significant impact on con-sumption and poor crumb or pelletquality results in the occurrence offines which can have a negativeeffect on feed intake.The effect of feed physical quality

on bird performance is wellestablished; work by Nixey (1994)demonstrated that even a moderateimprovement in pellet qualityresulted in a 5% improvement inperformance. Brewer (1989) fedturkeys diets containing 10% and50% fines, the resulting feed conversions were 2.61 and 2.71respectively.

FEED FORMS EVALUATED

A small scale evaluation examiningthe effect of different feed formswas conducted in ATL facilities inthe UK. This involved feeding B.U.T.6 males ‘good’ and ‘poor’ qualitycrumbs and pellets from 0-20weeks. Diets were prepared accord-ing to the ATL recommended nutri-ent specifications and feedingprogramme. The starter diet wasprovided as a sieved crumb for the‘good’ feed physical quality controland an unsieved crumb for the‘poor’ feed physical treatment. The‘poor’ pellet quality treatment wasprepared by hammer grinding pel-lets to a fine consistency (fines) andthen blended with intact pellets toresult in a 50:50 mix of pellets andfines.The mix of fines and pellets

resulted in a feed physical quality

6. The effect of feed form on turkey performance

Aviagen Turkeys (ATL) provide guidelines on the nutritionalspecifications required to achieve breed performance objectives.However in order for birds to respond to feed nutrient density the

birds need to be able to consume the required amount of feed on aregular basis to achieve these objectives.

by Marcus Kenny, Company Nutritionist, Aviagen Turkeys Ltd, UK. www.aviagenturkeys.com

Intact pellets. Fines. Pellet and fines blend.

Table 1. Crumble particle size profile.

Particle size <1mm 1-2mm 2-3mm >3mm

Starter 1 0-10% 45-55% 30-40% 0%

Starter 2 0-10% 25-30% 35-45% 10-15%

27International Poultry Production • Volume 25 Number 7

vitamin A).

PROPHYLAXIS

As a prophylaxis the followingprogramme can be applied:

Defungal 200ml/1000l of drinkingwater/12 hours daily.Duration of treatment: 3-5 days,starting from first week of birds' life. Application route: Drinking line.

Prevention against Aspergillosis(additional measures):Defungal 200ml; Mintamix200ml/10l of warm water.Frequency of administration: 2-3times per week. Duration of treatment: First twoweeks of birds' lifeApplication route: Spray.

DURING DISEASE OUTBREAK

Barns should be fumigated withenilconazole according to labeldirections. Defungal may addition-ally help reduce the challenge.

Defungal 200 ml/1000l of drinkingwater/12 hours daily.Duration of treatment: five days,starting from first signs of occurrence.Application route: Drinking line.

Aspergillosis outbreak (additionalmeasures): If enilconazole is notapplied daily, then between successive applications of enilconazole spray application ofDefungal is recommended. n

When the coating is removed,ulcers of varying intensity arenoticeable.

Management of flocks in respect offungal infections, as with manyother health issues, should befocused on prevention, as treat-ment of the disease is difficult andoften ineffective. The best available solution to pro-

tect birds against infection is strictadherence to sanitation on thefarm. However, both during prophy-laxis as well as during disease out-break, additional measures can betaken, such as application of herbalpreparations. In our practice we often apply

with positive results: Defungal (acombination of herbal materials andpotassium iodide) and Mintamix (acombination of herbal materials and

occurs as a result of consumptionof fodder, water or bedding contaminated with blastospores.l The most important factor whichencourages spreading of the fungalspores in the organism and thedevelopment of symptoms is long-lasting antibiotic treatment.l Spores populate mostly the beakcavity, oesophagus, crop andproventriculus.l Under appropriate conditions fordevelopment the fungus can spreadon the surface of these organs andfungal filaments may penetrate intothe top layers of epithelium. The latter undergoes pathological

outgrowth and a grey and yellowcoating in the form of a pseudo-membrane appears on the surfaceof epithelium.l Non-specific symptoms, such aslack of appetite, inhibition ofgrowth, decrease in activity or ruffled feathers are commonlyfound in the course of the disease.l Pendulous crop, neck stretchingand beak opening as well as nervousticks are also sometimes found.l Confluent yellow or white coating tightly covering the mucosacan be seen in post-mortem obser-vation of preferential sites of fungaldevelopment (usually in the crop).

ASPERGILLOSIS

Caused by: Aspergillus fumigatus, A.flavus, A. niger, A. nidulans.

l One of the most dangerous diseases among turkey poults isaspergillosis.l It usually develops in poults during the first two weeks of life.l The occurrence of the diseasehas been linked to poults hatchingor rearing in an environment contaminated with fungal spores. l Young birds during their rearingare most vulnerable to the diseasebut it may also occur in older birds.l Fungal spores enter the organismthrough the respiratory tract. Whenthey reach parabronchi and epithe-lium of the air capillaries, the sporessprout and reach the circulatorysystem from there.l The disease usually has an acutecharacter and causes a sudden,uncontrollable increase in flockmortality.l Characteristic mycosis symptomsare dyspnoea, frequent gasping, neckstretching and closing eyes.l Main post-mortem lesions aresingle or multiple whitish fungalnodules in lung tissues and air sacs.l Hyperaemia of the upper andlower respiratory tract and focalfungal lesions in the brain are alsofound.l Sometimes necrotic lesions innasal turbinates and fungal nodeson the surface of the cornea arenoticeable as well.l Prevention is currently thepreferred approach to control thisdisease.

CANDIDIASIS

Caused by: types of yeast – Candidaalbicans, C. crusei, C. tropicalis –and often referred to as a fungalinfection.

l It usually affects poults youngerthan three weeks, sometimes older,and 11-14 week-old birds.l The infection is foodborne and

7. Fungal infections in turkey flocks

The most common fungal infections in turkey flocks areaspergillosis and candidiasis. In order to develop they needcontributory factors, such as inappropriate conditions affecting

bird welfare, the use of mouldy bedding material, fodder contaminatedwith fungal spores, lack of vitamins or accompanying infections causinglowered immunity.

by Albert Nakielski, DVM, Specialist of Poultry Diseases, BioPoint, Stawiguda, Poland. www.biopoint.eu

Caseous nodules due to aspergillosis in an air sac (2-week old turkey male).

Candidiasis – crop surface wrinkled and coated with confluent mass ofwhite pseudomembrane (8-week old toms).