01 dr technologies

7/29/2019 01 DR Technologies

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Section 1 - DR Technologies


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Todays Topics

Section 1 Overview of DG Technologies

Section 2 System Impacts of DR

Section 3 Completing the Circuit

Section 4 Lab Demo Fuel Cell withUltra Caps

Section 5 Lab Demo Micro TurbineStep Response

Section 6 Lab Demo Micro TurbineTransfers


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Section 1 - Introduction

Definition of DG and DR Early Power System Examples of DG

Movement Towards Centralized Power Systems

Why Distributed Generation may Make sense again

Typical Economic Scenarios for DR Cost/Performance

Estimates on Market Potential

Technology Overviews and Outlooks Internal Combustion, Turbines (CT and ) Fuel Cell,

Solar photovoltacics and Wind

Application Issues


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Distributed Generators are:

Small scale generators typically rangingfrom 1 kW up to about 50 MW in size(note:most DG will be less than 10 MW)

Typically interconnected at thedistribution system level at any of thefollowing locations: substation

primary 3 phase feeder primary laterals

distribution secondary

customer side of PCC


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What Are Distributed Resources?

DistributedResources

(DR)

=

Distributed Generation (DG)

+

Storage

+

Integrated with Load

Control/Energy Management; and

Resource Mgt technology


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Distributed Generation Technologies

Small internal combustion-engine generators

Small gas turbine generators

Micro-turbines

Small steam turbine units

Wind turbines

Photovoltaics

Solar thermal electric (stirling engine)

Other stirling engine technologies

Fuel cells


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Energy Storage Technologies

Batteries Lead Acid, Nickel Metal Hydride

Nickel Cadmium

Zinc-Air, Aluminum-Air, Lithium-Air

Ultracapacitors

Flywheels (composite, steel)

Superconducting Magnetic EnergyStorage (SMES)

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)


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Distributed Resources

Central Plant Step-UpTransformer

DistributionSubstation

ReceivingStation



Commercial

Industrial

Commercial

Residential

GasTurbine

RecipEngine

RecipEngine

FuelcellPhoto

voltaics

Micro-turbine

FlywheelBatteries

Fuel CellsGas Turbine

TransmissionBulk Generation

Distribution

Subtransmission


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Historical Perspective

100 years ago: Most customers were within 5 miles of the

central stations that served them

Essentially all electrified areas were

electrical islands and not interconnectedto other cities or electrical islands

These electrical Islands were powered byearly central stations of less than 10 MW in

capacity (the DG size range!) Many commercial buildings, factories and

wealthy homes had their own powersystems!


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First Central Station In New York City

Edisons Pearl Street Station in 1882

each generator was about 100 kW DC


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Degree of Centralization (qualitative)

1900 1950 2000 2050

Year

100%Centralized(all T&D with

large centralstations)

Fully De-centralized

(all DG)

What path

will we take?

NowPURPA (1978)

Energy Policy Act (1992)


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Why go back to DG?

DG technology has improved/changed: DG costs have come down

New renewable, fuel cell and microturbine optionsare scaleable, may offer improved efficiency, andhave low pollution

T&D is becoming more costly newinvestments can be avoided with DG

Modern loads may need more reliable power

Old rules of economies of scale may besuperceded by new rules of economy ofmass production

Public policy is favoring DG


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DG Economics

So what is DG worth? Planning studies show that each watt of power injected at

the distribution system level may have up to double thevalue of each watt of central station generation! (notincluding local reliability and other benefits to the

customer) Local reliability & PQ benefits can in specific cases add

many times this value

Cogeneration will increase value further (perhaps addinganother 25-50% depending on the situation)

Two Perspectives of DG Economics Utility Company Perspective

Electric Customer Perspective


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Utility Company Perspective of Potential DGValue.Requires Supplemental Benefits

Energy Produced

Loss reduction

T&D deferments and/orreleased capacity

PQ and Reliability (additional revenue)

Bulk GenerationAddition with T&D

Upgrade

DistributedGeneration Addition

Environmental credits

Cost

Cost

Benefits

Return

Return

Benefits

withDG


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Ben

efits

DG Value - Electric Customer Viewpoint Case 1(no Cogeneration)

D

ollarsofCostorBenefits

Value of product created with

electricity at equivalent utilityreliability level

Value of increased production (betterproductivity) due to reliabilityenhancement

Traditional T&D with DGenhancement at customer

Cos

tofEnergy

with

DG

Co

stof

En

ergy

Bene

fits

Loss

Return

Traditional T&DApproach with DG

heatrate based

This shows how a DG solution thatcosts more than standard powerstill have total return for the

customer!

This shows how a DG solution thatcosts more than standard powerstill have total return for thecustomer!


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Ben

efits

DG Value - Electric Customer Viewpoint Case 2(with Cogeneration)

D

ollarsofCostorBenefits

Value of product created with

electricity at equivalent utilityreliability level

Value of increased production (betterproductivity) due to reliabilityenhancement

Traditional T&D with DGenhancement at customer

Costof

Energywith

DGB

ene

fits

Return

Traditional T&DApproach

This shows how a DG solution can

really have tremendous total returnby reducing energy cost and raisingproductivity!

This shows how a DG solution can

really have tremendous total returnby reducing energy cost and raisingproductivity!

CH&PCH&P CoGenCoGenSavingsSavings

Co

stof

En

ergy

Loss


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Cost and Performance Trends of DG TechnologiesTechnology Characteristics

(Year) Size Efficiency Installed O&M 1st Year Emissions Foot PrintCost COE Nox

kW % LHV $/kW Cents/kWh Cents/kWh lbs/MMBtu Sq ft/ kW

Combustion TurbineCombined Cycle

2000 500,000 55-58 450-500 0.5-0.9 3.3-3.7 0.03 0.8

2010 60-63 500-525 0.6-0.8 3.3-3.5 0.02

Aeroderivated CT2000 50,000-75,000 41-43 520-830 0.7-1.5 5.1-6.2 0.1 0.4-0.7

2010 43-50 580-800 0.6-1.0 5.6 0.1

Industrial CT

2000 1,000-25,000 32-39 500-700 0.6-0.8 7-7.5 0.1-0.2 0.3-0.7

2010 41-44 550-700 0.6-0.8 6-6.5 0.1-0.2

IC Engines2000 100-3,000 35-38 400-600 0.8-3.0 7.5-9.2 0.3 0.4-1.8

2010 40-50 450-625 0.8-2.0 6.2 0.2

MicroTurbines

2000 30 - 400 22-30 700-800 0.9-1.8 9.1-10.5 0.1-0.4 0.3

2010 33-40 550-600 0.4-1.4 7 0.1-0.2

Stirling Engines2000 1.1 - 5.0 18-22 20,000 0.3-0.8 60 na

2010 25 500-800 0.3-0.4 11 na 5.1-8.0

Fuel Cell PAFC

2000 50-200 39 4,000 1.1-1.8 15-17 ng 0.3

2010 41 1800-2500 1.1 10.9 ng

Fuel Cell PEM2000 3 - 250 35-38 15000-30000 2.5 70 ng 0.8-1

2010 40-42 2000-5000 1.1-1.8 11 ng

Fuel Cell MCFC

2000 250 - 3,000 50-55 8000-10000 1.9 27 ng 0.6-2.0

2010 55-58 1200-2000 1.5 7.7-10 ng

Fuel Cell SOFC2000 2 - 10,000 48-50 30,000-50,000 1.6-1.9 ng 0.3-0.6

2010 50-65 700-1500 0.7-0.9 6.4-8 ng

Photovoltaics

2000 1.1 - 5 na 5000-6500 0.5-2.0 15.1-25.0 0 200

2010 na 2,800-4,000 0.8 9.1-10.1 0

Wind Power2000 50 - 500 na 700-1200 1-1.5 9.1-13 0 600-2000

2010 na 700-800 0.9-1.2 3.6-4.3 0


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DG must be carefully integrated onto thesystem to maximize the T&D support value!

Maximized T&D support value occurs onlywith extremely careful planning, applicationand control of the DG. This means the units

must have: ideal placement and sizing

100% reliable dispatch at the proper times

proper interaction with power system equipment

Must be able to enhance reliability and provide otherbenefits

With poor application negative benefits mayactually be realized!


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Is DG Taking Off ?

ICE Generator and turbine DG markets are growingstrongly.

Up to 60,000 MW of DG market potential has beenidentified for all source types

About 5,000+ MW of wind turbines will be installedthis year (world wide)

Fuel cells and microturbines are rapidly beingcommercialized (more than 30 companies active)

Solar energy is growing at 20-25% per year and is

more popular than ever - costs are coming down(300 MW to be sold this year)

DOE studies have indicated that 20% of newgeneration could be DG by 2010


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Market Potential of Distributed Generation in the US

Sector/ DR Size Range (kW)

Operation Mode 30-74 75-149 150-299 300-599 600-999 1000-2499 2500-4999 5000-9999 10-20 MW Total

Commercial

Electric Only 440 696 465 392 55 437 11 1 0 2,497

Cogeneration 854 481 309 203 137 180 7 0 0 2,171

Peaking Power 35,206 13,503 6,591 3,120 1,378 527 100 0 0 60,425

Total Commercial 36,500 14,680 7,365 3,715 1,570 1,144 118 1 0 65,093

Industrial

Electric Only 31 31 25 25 75 76 61 48 16 388

Cogeneration 10,605 9,997 9,746 9,822 5,687 4,811 2,327 1,285 657 54,937

Total Industrial 10,636 10,028 9,771 9,847 5,762 4,887 2,388 1,333 673 55,325

Total 47,136 24,708 17,136 13,562 7,332 6,031 2,506 1,334 673 120,418

Total MWTotal MW 2,451 2,767 3,8382,451 2,767 3,838 5,4255,425 5,866 10,554 9,398 10,005 10,095 605,866 10,554 9,398 10,005 10,095 60,399,3994%4% 5%5% 6% 9% 10% 17% 16%6% 9% 10% 17% 16% 17% 17% 100%17% 17% 100%


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Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

The most common and mature DG technology! Used for electric power production for more than 80 years

Hundreds of Gigawatts of ICE generator capacity havebeen manufactured in just the past decade!

ICE units are used in many applications; standby-power,prime-power, and continuous grid parallel operation.

Unit ratings range from a few Kilowatts up to about 10MW - Most applications are under 2 MW

Fuels; Natural gas, diesel, oil, propane, gasoline, etc.

Manufacturers include Caterpillar, Cummins, Waukesha,Detroit Diesel, etc.


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Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

GeneratorGeneratorEngineEngineCooling

System

Cooling

System

Photo Courtesy Caterpillar Corp.


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Functional Diagram of an InternalCombustion Engine Generator System

Generator

Air

Liquid

Cooling

LoopEngine

Depleted

Exhaust

Potential

Additional HeatRecovery By

Cooling System

Fan

Hot Exhaust

AirFilter

Fuel

System

Turbocharger

Compressor

Customer

Facility Bus

Pistons

Interface

transformer

Gen.

Output

AirEngine

Controls

ProcessHeat orSteam

Heat

Recovery

Unit

Generator Protection

Package

CoolingSystem

Utility System

Utility

Interconnection

& Protection

Package


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Example of Reciprocating EngineCHP Plant (CHP=Combined Heat and Power)

Multiple IC engines at CHP

plant within an industrial

facility.

Producing usable heat and

electricity is one of the best

applications!

Multiple IC engines at CHP

plant within an industrial

facility.

Producing usable heat and

electricity is one of the bestapplications!

Photo Courtesy Caterpillar Corp.


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Modular Container Integrated ICE

Modular container houses IC engine-generator, switchgear, generator controls,cooling equipment, and fuel controls in asingle package - this streamlinesinstallation and reduces cost

Diagram Courtesy Caterpillar Corp.

Packaged units up toseveral MW rating


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Multiple ICE units applied for transmission anddistribution support at Commonwealth Edison

Typical substation sites like the one here consist of abouttwenty 1.75 MW trailerable units each interfaced by a 2500kVA step-up transformer - ComEd has deployed severalhundred MW of such sites using rental units


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Cost of ICE Units

Capital Cost is $300-900 per KVA (largeunits of many MVA are the lowest cost)

O&M Costs are about 1 to 3 cents/kWh

Electricity cost is about 7.5-15cents/kWh based on running mode (25-50% lower effective costs forCogeneration).

Note: electricity costs can bemuch higher if generator isoversized for load and poorlyoperated


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Efficiency of ICE Units

Peak electrical efficiency is between 25-38% depending on size, type andconfiguration.

Large diesels have the best efficiency.Natural gas units have slightly lowerefficiency but lower emissions

In CHP applications where heat isrecovered for use, the total efficiencyincluding heat and electricity can be ashigh as 80-90%


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Ongoing Technical Developments

Direct Injection (makes possible leaner, moreefficient burn)

Improved ignition controls and loweremissions

Improved materials, ceramic components,better tolerances (lead to longer life, higherefficiency)

Advanced Cycles

Miller cycle

Combined cycle approaches

Efficiencies of 40-50% achievable this decade


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Future Outlook For ICE Generators?

The market for DG is growing fast enough thatnew technologies (fuel cells, microturbines, PV)wont likely cut into the ICE market share formany years

ICE units still surpass many new DGtechnologies in key performance areas such ascapital cost, efficiency and market acceptance.

Further improvements this decade will keep ICEunits competitive for some time.

Eventually, though, their market share will likelybe diminished by the new technologies.


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Combustion Turbines (CT) Early combustion turbines date back to the 1930s

From the 1970s to present they emerged as the leading type ofgenerator for larger applications (>10 MW unit sizes)

Two basic types include Heavy Frame andAeroderivative

CT units range in size from less than 1 MW to over 400 MW

Advantages include: Small footprint (50-100 m2 per MW) and high power to weight ratio

Quick startup (2-5 minutes typically)

Reasonable Capital cost ($800-1000 per kW for units in the 1 MW size range)

Relatively low emissions and good co-generation potential

Efficiencies at rated output are on the order of 25-35% LHV for smallersimple cycle systems. Advanced larger simple cycle turbine withrecuperation can be up to 45% efficient. Large-scale combined cycleplants may be 55-60% efficient


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Combustion Turbine Operation

Generator

Generator Protection

Package

CustomerFacility Bus

Step-up

transformer

Gen.Output

Combustor

Air

Waste Heatand Exhaust

Heat

Recoveryfor Combined Cycle or

Cogeneration Application

Optional NOxControl

System

(optional)

Fuel System

Compressor Power Stage

HotExhaust

shaft UtilitySystem

Utility

Interconnection

& Protection

Package


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Comparison of Various CT Units (smallsimple cycle versus large combined cycle

Manufacturer Type ModelElectrical

FrequencyNet Plant

ISO Output

Net PlantISO

Efficiency

ABB

CCS

S

KA 26-1KA 24-1

GT10

GT M 7

50 Hz60 Hz

396,000 kW267,000 kW24,630 kW

5,780 kW

58.5%57.4%34.3%

29.6%

GE

CCCCS

S107H

S107FA

PG5371(PA)

50 Hz60 Hz50 Hz60 Hz

480,000 kW400,000 kW376,200 kW258,800 kW26,300 kW

60.0%60.0%56.3%56.0%28.5%

Mitsubishi

CC

SS

501G

MF-111BMF-61

50 Hz60 Hz

454,000 kW343,300 kW

14,570 kW5,925 kW

58.0%58.0%

31.0%28.7%

SiemensCC

GUD 1S.94.3AGUS 1S.84.3A

50 Hz60 Hz

380,000 kW260,000 kW

58.0%58.0%

Combinedor Simple

Cycle

Note: Units highlighted in yellow are in DG size range

Simple cycle CT units are only half asefficient (without CHP) as combined

cycle central station plants!

Simple cycle CT units are only half asefficient (without CHP) as combinedcycle central station plants!


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Examples of DR Scale CT Units

Turbine Type Output Rating (MW) Efficiency (% LHV) Number of Shafts Turbine Shaft Speed

GE/S&S PGT 2 2.0 25% 1 22,500

GE/S&S Typhoon 5.26 30.7% 1 10,290

GE/S&S Cyclone 12.87 33.75% 2 9500

GE/S&S LM 2500 22.80 36.77% 2 3600

GE/S&S LM 6000 PC 43.4 41.2% 2 3600

Note: Data is shown for illustration only and may be subject to change due to on-going technical improvements consult GE for most recent data

Data courtesy of GE

Other CT Facts

Exhaust temperatures are in the range of about 850-1,100O

FTens of thousands of units installed with over 50 years experience

Modular CT units available


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One of the advantages of modular DGsystems is the quick placement on site whenthe unit arrives in one piece

Photo courtesy Solar Turbines

Combustion turbines will dominateearly markets for DR


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Microturbines Microturbines are small turbines based on

aircraft APU and automotive turbochargertechnology

Characteristics: most products are in range of 27-200 kW

electrical efficiency is 25-30% LHV

Many offer cogeneration (CHP) equipment

Most have low (>10,000 units

Landfill gas, propane, natural gas and other fuels

Standalone and grid parallel applications

Most use a high frequency alternator (several kHz) with inverter toconvert power to 60 Hz. All have high rotational speeds (36,000-116,000 rpm)


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Some Micro Turbine Generators

Capstone Unit

(about 28 kW)

Microturbines are aimed at the smallto mid-size commercial and industrialmarkets where generation up to afew hundred kW is desired

- peak shaving/continuous duty- standby and emergency power

- CHP

- stand-alone prime power

The objective is that these willreplace the ICE and also expand thismarket sector due to theiradvantages over ICE!

Microturbines are aimed at the smallto mid-size commercial and industrialmarkets where generation up to afew hundred kW is desired

-peak shaving/continuous duty

- standby and emergency power

- CHP

- stand-alone prime power

The objective is that these will

replace the ICE and also expand thismarket sector due to theiradvantages over ICE!


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Block Diagram of Typical Microturbine

Diagram From EPRI Report

TR114182


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Some Microturbine Products

Manufacturer

Size

(kW)

Electrical

Efficiency

(LHV)

Turbine RPM Pressure

Ratio

Commercial

Availability

Honeywell

(Parallon 75)

75 28.5-30% 80,000 3.5-5

Bowman

(TG45)

45 22.5% 116,000 4.2

Capstone(Microturbine)

30 26% 96,000 3.0

NREC

(PowerWorks)

70 33% 36000 Not Available

Turbec (T100) 100 30% 70,000 Not Available

All

manufacturers

are expected to

be fully

commercial by

2001-2002

Notes:

All products above operate with turbine inlet temperatures somewhere between 1500 and 1700oF

Manufacturer estimated duration between overhau ls ranges between about 30,000 and 80,000 hours

From EPRI Report TR1000419


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NREC 70 kW Microturbine Unit

Induction Generator Based Microturbine


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Emissions of Nox - Good but still notbetter than well equipped larger CTs

NOx

Emissions(lbs/MMBTU)

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

CombustionTurbine

Combined CyclePlant

Aero CTIndustrial CTMicroturbineInternalCombustion

Engine


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Microturbine Summary

Microturbines are at early commercial stage and willlikely see solid market growth this decade

Currently the ICE can outperform microturbines in bothcost and efficiency - microturbines need to improve inthese categories to compete with ICE

Microturbines need to be heavily loaded to obtain thebest economics (just like an ICE)

Some early Microturbines (based on tests) have poorerload following capability than an ICE - this would impact

stand-alone applications. Microturbines have low emissions compared to ICE which

is a distinct advantage over ICE technology


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Fuel Cell

Multiple ONSI PC25 200 kWFuel Cells Power Postal

Facility in Alaska


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What is a fuel cell?

A fuel cell is essentially equivalent to abattery; it produces dc power via anelectrochemical reaction

The big difference between a fuel celland a battery is that a fuel cell has acontinuous supply of reactants that areexternally supplied to the cell. A battery

has internal reactants that are depleted.


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Why is the Fuel Cell so Promising?

It can have the lowest emissions of any fuel basedpower generation technology

It has better electrical conversion efficiency thanmost other DG technologies (40-60% dependingon type - higher in combined cycle applications)

Cogeneration is an option

It has potential (due to few moving parts) to bemore reliable and longer lasting than CT or ICEtechnologies

It is quiet, scaleable and well suited to manyapplications - including premium powerapplications


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A. Hydrogen gas flows over the anode. B. Electrons are stripped from the hydrogen and flowthrough the anode to the external circuit.

C. Hydrogen ions move through electrolyte to cathode.

Electrons move into cathode from load.

Oxygen is introduced to the cathode.

D. Hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen

combine to form water (steam).

Diagrams Courtesy U.S. Department of Defense

Principle of Fuel Cell Operation


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&

A Fuel Cell Power System

Fuel Cell Stack


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There are four major types of fuel cells

200

= 200

()

100

=1000

250

= 650

.

()

7

< 100


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Sample Sites: 200 kW PAFC Fuel Cells

PC25 Fuel Cell Power Plant Installation at South

County Hospital, Wakefield, RI.

PC25 Fuel Cell Power Plant Installation at Hamilton

Sundstrand Data Center in Windsor Locks, CT.

Photos Courtesy International Fuel Cell Corp.


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Comparison of Four Key Fuel Cells

Parameter or Characteristic Fuel Cell Designation (Type of Electrolyte)

Electrolyte TypePolymer

ElectrolyteMembrane (PEM)

Phosphoric Acid(PAFC)

Molten Carbonate(MCFC)

Solid Oxide (SOFC)

Charge Carrier (the ion that passesthrough the electrolyte)

H+ H+ CO3= O=

State of Electrolyte Solid Immobilized

Liquid

Immobilized Liquid Solid

Operating Temperature 80o C 200o C 650o C 1000o C

Cogeneration Capability orCombined Cycle Capability

Domestic heatingonly (circulatinghot water heating

systems/potablehot water)

Low qualitysteam (heating

or processes

needing lowquality steam)

High quality steam or

combined cycle gasturbine or steam

turbine

High quality steam

or combined cyclegas turbine or steam

turbine

Electrical Efficiency (%LHV) 40% 40-45%

50-60% (higher

efficiencies possiblewith combined cycle

process)

60% (higher

efficiencies possiblewith combined cycle

process)

Catalyst Platinum Platinum Nickel Perovskites

Is external reformer required to

run on natural gas (CH4)?

Yes YesReformation can be

integrated into thestack for some desi ns

No

Commercialization Status

By 2001 or 2002

(several residentialproducts almost

ready)

Since early1990s

(several hundred200 kW ONSI

units alreadyrunning)

2000-2001(many demonstrationsand early commercial

products up to about2 MW)

2001

(demonstrations upto a few hundred

kilowatts)


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Combined Cycle Fuel Cells Are UnderDevelopment

The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell with Gas Turbine being developed by SiemensWestinghouse promises to have very high electrical converstion efficiency.

Efficiencies in the range of 60-65% LHV are possible with smaller units.

Large units may reach 70% LHV.

The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell with Gas Turbine being developed by SiemensWestinghouse promises to have very high electrical converstion efficiency.

Efficiencies in the range of 60-65% LHV are possible with smaller units.

Large units may reach 70% LHV.


52/80

Fuel Cell Issues That Will Slow Market Entry

Cost currently is $4000/kW or more limiting it to nicheand environmental markets - must be less than$1500/kW to be competitive in the mainstream

Stack life is short (this needs to be improved)

Improved fuel processors needed (still costly, complex) Inverters need to be more reliable and lower cost

Must be operated at high load to yield the besteconomics (may not run well at very light loads)

In stand-alone applications, load following is poor Even when above are solved, it still is a new technology

- needs time to gain operating experience and publicconfidence


53/80

Photovoltaics

Sun

Photovoltaics convert sunlight directly intoelectricity suing solid state PN junction devices.PV is one of the most promising energy sourcesfor small scale DG applications

Photovoltaics convert sunlight directly into

electricity suing solid state PN junction devices.PV is one of the most promising energy sourcesfor small scale DG applications


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Sunlight to DC conversion Efficiency for VariousPV Module Technologies

PV Cell Type

Typical PVModule

Efficiency(most products now)

AchievableTypical

Efficiency(by 2010)

Single Crystal 11-15% 15-25%

Polycrystal 10-15% 15-25%

Amorphous 5-10% 10-15%


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Conditioning PV Power

Inverter(converts dc to ac power)

AC Power

DC to DCConverter

SUN

PV Array

12 to 50 Volts DC for most

smaller systems

400-600 Volts DC for mostlarge 3 phase systems >100kW

Single Phase

120/240 V, 60 Hz

or

Three Phase120/208 V or

277/480 V , 60 Hz

90-95%Efficient

1000 Watts Light Energy

130 Watts DC

125 Watts DC

97%Efficient

113 Watts AC


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Photovoltaic Installations

Building Integrated PV PV Concentrator Systems

Photos Courtesy NREL


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Building Integrated PV

Photo Credit PowerLight CorporationPhoto Credit John Haigwood

Photo Credit Warren

Gretz



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Solar Resource Map(the Southwest is Best!!!)


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Sunlight Has Sufficient Energy Density to Be ASurprisingly Effective Energy Source

Lake Mead (Hoover Dam)

has an area of 640 km2 .

The dam has a capacity

of 2,080 MW. If the samearea was covered with15% efficient solar

modules, the peak solar

output at noon could beat least 60,000 MW!Note: This includes a large margin for DC-

AC inverter loss and the spacing between

PV array rows

Hoover Dam


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Capacity Factors of PV System

Annual Capacity Factor =

Actual PowerProduced Per Year

kW Rating x 8760 hours

Some Sample Capacity Factors:Albany New York 0.15

Atlanta, Georgia 0.18

Albuquerque, New Mexico 0.26

Albuquerque, NM: A typical PV module with anarea of 10 m2 would produce about 2,960 kWhper year DC (subtract 10% for inverter loss)

Albuquerque, NM: A typical PV module with anarea of 10 m2 would produce about 2,960 kWhper year DC (subtract 10% for inverter loss)


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Photovoltaic Costs

p Current costs for PV systems are about $4-6 per peak wattAC as a complete system including inverter and allmounting hardware (not including battery energy storage)

p By 2010 costs could be less than $3 per watt AC (withoutbattery storage)

New PV cell technology, improvedbalance of system components,and increasing field applicationexperience are helping to reducePV system costs!

New PV cell technology, improvedbalance of system components,and increasing field applicationexperience are helping to reducePV system costs!

Premium power applications of PVand building integrated PVproducts are adding value to PVapplications!

Premium power applications of PVand building integrated PVproducts are adding value to PVapplications!

PV CostHeadedDown

$

Year


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PV Future Outlook?

Within 10 years PV is likely to become one ofthe most commonly used DG sources at theresidential level

Continued PV cost decreases and new PV

products that provide ancillary value willdramatically expand the PV market

PV is already cost effective in the remote-offgrid market. It should be cost effective forgrid support applications within this decade

New energy storage technologies, such asultracapacitors will add value to PV andfurther accelerate its deployment


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Solar-Thermal Electric using Stirling Engine(under development)

SAIC 25 kWDish/Stirling System

Photo courtesy STM Power

Stirling Engine


64/80

Wind Power Wind Power is a major success storyAbout 5,000 MW will be installed this

year (world wide)

About 17,000 MW total accumulatedworld capacity has been installed

Costs are now about 4-5 cents/kWh forlarge wind-farms in very good windresource areas (small units are in rangeof 10-20 cents/kWh)


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Wind Resource Map Courtesy: NREL

New Mexico has nearly 50,000MW of untapped wind resources!


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Example Wind Installations


Photo Credit: Brian Smith & NREL Photo Credit: Bergey & NREL

Zond Z-40 Wind Turbine Units, 550 kWEach, Located near Fort Davis, Texas

Bergey Excel10 kW Unit


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Wind Turbines - A Wide Range of Sizes Available


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Wind Power Cost Continues to Decline Dramatically

Cost per kilowatt-hour ofelectricity from 100 turbine

wind farms in constant

1996 dollars (projecteddata from 1999-2015)

Cost per kilowatt-hour ofelectricity from 100 turbine

wind farms in constant

1996 dollars (projecteddata from 1999-2015)

Capital Cost is$700-1200/kW


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Reasons for Decline in Wind Energy Costs

Variable speed designs and better bladematerials have increased the efficiency ofsystems

Increased scale of production (economies of

mass production) Power conditioning units have replaced less

effective direct coupled induction units

Individual turbines have grown in size

yielding economies of scale. The latestgeneration being about 1.5 to 2 MW perturbine.


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Large Wind Turbine Configuration

MicroprocessorControl

IGBTDrivers

AC OutputTerminals

A

B

C

N

Filters6 pole IGBT

switching bridge

Contactor

Generator StatorWinding

Variable ACPower

DC Power AC Power

Full Wave

RectifierPermanentMagnet Rotor


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Wind Power Outlook?

Continued price reductions are expected; costs of 3 centsper kWh may be achieved in another 10 years for large-scale wind farms (small units may be 10-15 cents/kWh)

Wind will be a significant contributor to new utilitygeneration for T&D system support during the next 10

years Since larger (>10 MW) wind farms yield the besteconomics, these will be the bulk of new capacity added

Small scale wind (


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DG Optimum Economic Sizing

Energy cost data used to promote DG are usually based onoptimum sizing and operating conditions. This means that: the DG operates at full, constant load and is not oversized for

motor starting or load following issues - this minimizes the cost perusable kW of generation capacity

Running the unit at full constant load also is a very efficient pointon the efficiency curve for the generator

Non-optimal sizing will increase the cost of energy from theunit ( could more than double the cost)

Operating in parallel with the utility system can allow

optimal conditions to be achieved because the utility loadfollows. The DG just runs at constant full output and doesnot need to start motors!

St d l DG M t b Si d t H dl th


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Stand-alone DG Must be Sized to Handle theLoad Peaks and Motor Starts

Stand-alone service means the unit may need to beoversized by a factor of two or more beyond sizeneeded to serve the average load.

This has two negative effects: higher capital cost per kW of average usable output

lower efficiency resulting in higher fuel cost

Load

Time

Generator Must Be Sized to Handle Peaks

Average Load is Small

Compared to Peaks

10 kW

50 kW

R f St d l DG t L


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Time

Frequency droop (governor

and throttle response)

Voltage droop (exciter response)

Step

Increase In

Load

Load

Frequency

Voltage

Step

Decrease

In Load

Voltage overshoot

Acceptable

Frequency

window

Acceptable

Voltage

window

Frequency overshoot

Response of Stand-alone DG to LargeLoad Step


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Peak Efficiency

0% Efficient10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000

Output as Percent of Generator Rating

Efficiency is Best at 50% or higher loading

75% of Peak

Efficiency

50% of Peak

Efficiency

25% of Peak

Efficiency

MicroturbineFuel Cell

PV Inverter

Diesel ICE

Note: these are illustrative curves only- consult manufacturer for data to a

specific generator or inverter model

Note: these are illustrative curves only- consult manufacturer for data to a

specific generator or inverter model

Most DG will Benefit from Storage


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Most DG will Benefit from StorageTechnologies

Batteries Flywheel

Ultracapacitors

SMES

Teaming Arrangements of DG Prime


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Teaming Arrangements of DG PrimeEnergy Sources and Power Converter

Common Name of

Prime Energy Source

StorageNote 1

or Generation

Type Device?Mode of Prime Power Output

Most Common Type of Power ConverterNote 2 (used tocondition prime-power to usable power frequency)

Fuel Cell Generation Direct current Inverter (static power converter)Photovoltaic Generation Direct current Inverter (static power converter)

Wind Turbine Generation Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction Generator or high frequency alternator with inverter Stirling Engine Generation Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction Generator or high frequency alternator with inverter

Reciprocating Engine Generation Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction or Synchronous Generator Microturbine Generation Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction Generator or high frequency alternator with inverter

Combustion Turbine Generation Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction or Synchronous Generator Hydro Electric Generation/Storage Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction or Synchronous Generator

SMES Storage Direct current Inverter (static power converter)Batteries Storage Direct current Inverter (static power converter)

Flywheel Storage Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) high frequency alternator with inverter Compressed Air Storage Mechanical energy (rotating shaft) Induction or Synchronous Generator

Super-Capacitors Storage Direct current Inverter (static power converter)

Notes:

1. A storage device generates when it is dispatching its stored energy

2. These are the most common converter types applied with these technologies - use of other types is not ruled out

3. Flywheels used for common PQ ridethrough applications may drive a rotating generator, however, most flywheels for DR is alternators with inverters

FuelPrime Energy

SourcePower

Converter60 Hz Power


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Comparison of Generation Technologies

On grid windfarms, off-grid telecom,

instruments and other sites

700-

1,200

Not configured for this

capability

NA0.2 kW up

to 5 MW

Wind

Turbines

Residential offgrid, net metered residentialon-grid, green power, offgrid telecom and

instruments

4,000-6,500

Not normally configured forthis capability someproducts are available

NA1 W up to10 MW

Photovoltaics

Industrial/commercial facilities, criticalpower, low emissions niche markets

4,000-50,000

Good potential forcogeneration (can be up to

90% efficient)35-60%


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Cost of Generation Technologies

Not an option4-20

(3-15)

700-1,200

(500-1000)Wind Turbine

Not usually anoption

20-40

(10-20)

4,000-6,500

(2000-3000)Photovoltaics

Yes15 or more

(5-10)

4,000-50,000

(350-1500)Fuel Cell

Yes9-15

(7-10)

700-1,000

(350-700)Microturbine

Yes7-15

(4-10)

300-900

(300-700)ICE

Yes5-15

(4-10)

500-1000

(400-700)

Modular DG Scale CTPackages

Possible but notusually done at

this scale

3-4

(2.5-3.5)

400-500

(300-500)

Combined Cycle CT (theseare large central station

scale plants)

CogenerationPotential

(if yes then effective cost

of energy may be reducedby 10-50% depending on

application)

Life Cycle BasedCost of Energy

Cents/kWhNow

(Year 2010)

Capital Cost($/kW)

Now

(Year 2010)

Type of Generation

Technology


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Evaluating the Use of DG Technologies

We must consider factors such as: The obtainable benefits (are energy costs lower than using a

conventional approach? Will higher reliability be achieved? Will T&Dsupport be achieved? Will lower emissions be achieved?)

The true life cycle cost of the DG equipment (are costs based onrealistic estimates of fuel prices, unit operating efficiency,

equipment life and maintenance?) Permitting and emissions restrictions (can the DG be permitted

considering noise, aesthetics, air pollution and zoning issues?)

Fuel source reliability(does the fuel delivery infrastructure exist? Isthe fuel source reliable? Will costs remain stabile)

What are the Hidden Risks (technology obsolescence, lack ofmaintenance support, spare parts, etc.)

Utility Interface (what are costs and problems associated with this?[to be discussed in Sections 3 and4])

01 dr technologies

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