BIOLOGY KEYSTONE REVIEW

Use this powerpoint presentation to complete your viewing guide handout per topic.

At the end of each topic, take time to answer the Keystone Biology practice questions on your handout and discuss.

Good Luck!

To be an Organism (living)

1. It must react to environment2. It must use energy (metabolism)3. It must be made of cells4. It must reproduce5. It must grow and develop

Homeostasis= all 5 conditions met and vital signs are stable

Populations of Organisms change through time. (Evolution)

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TOPIC 1:Biochemistry & Molecules of Life

COMPOUNDSOrganic – Inorganic*carbohydrate has CO2

*lipid C & H H2O

*nucleic acids O2

*proteins

Make up living thingsbuilding blocks of cells

No C & H

Prefixes/Suffixes- Hetero- – different Heterozygous

- Homo- – same Homozygous

- Hydro- – water Hydroponic

- Pseudo- – false Pseudopod

- Lys-, Lyso-, -Lyse – SplitLysosome, Hydrolysis

- a-, an- - without Anaerobic

- pod, -ped – foot Gastropod

- philia – love of Hydrophilic, Philadelphia

- phobia – fear of Arachnophobia

- Cyto – cell Cytochrome

- Chrom, chromo-color Chromatophore

- logy – study of Biology

- zoo, zoa – animal Protozoa

Acids and Bases

Water is a POLAR molecule-weak HYDROGEN bonds attract one another between molecules of water-Gives water its special properties

Hydrogen bonds

Ice floats

Covalent Bonds (such as carbon bonds)

Ionic Bonds

Monomers are small units that make up Polymers in the processcalled POLYMERIZATION

Creating PolymersCreating Monomers from Polymers

macromolecule Elements

Monomer/ polymer

function

Carbohydrate C:H:O1:2:1

MonosaccharidePolysaccharide

Quick / main energy source

Lipids C, H, little O

Glycerol & fatty acids

Long term energy (fats); cell membrane

Nucleic acids C H O P N

Nucleotides Genetic materials

Proteins C H O S N

Amino acids which form polypeptides (protein)

Structure & enzymes

lipids carbohydrates

Keys to answering Biochem Qs

ase- Enzymes (Lactase, Ligase) ol- Alcohols (sorbitol, ethinol) ose- Sugars (Sucrose, Dextrose)

Hydrocarbons-made of only H and C

Chemical reactions have 2 parts: reactants and products

Reactants – compounds that come together to start the reaction

Products – compounds produced by the reaction

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions and lower activation energyThey are not altered by this interaction

Active Site is where the reactant meets the enzyme to lower activation energy

Enzymes can be affected by two main environmental factors:

Temperature

pH

Changes the shape of the enzyme

Can break down the enzyme

TOPIC 2:Cells & Cellular Organization

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

No nucleus Cytoplasm, cell

membrane, DNA, ribosomes

Smaller & simpler Examples: bacteria

True nucleus Cytoplasm, cell

membrane, DNA, ribosomes, ER, Golgi, nucleolus, vacuole, other organelles

Larger & more complex

Examples: plants & animals

Endosymbiotic Theory

Remember: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have their own unique DNA

Cells can only grow so large:

Organelles – tiny structures that

carry out functions of the cell

Functions such as energy, building or transporting

material, storing food or wastes.

Organelles Nucleus

control center Cell membrane

outside barrier controlling what enters and exits

Cell wall rigid outer layer providing structure

Cytoskeleton support

Cytoplasm thick, clear liquid holding organelles.

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Organelles Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

make and process lipids (detoxifies) Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Channels covered with ribosomes used in the synthesis and processing of proteins

Golgi apparatus Stacked membranes with vesicles used for secretion

Ribosome responsible for protein synthesis

Lysosome Digest materials

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Organelles Mitochondria

energy production Cilia/flagellum

hair/tail-like projection used for movement Vacuole

storage Chloroplast-

photosynthesis Centrioles-

Used in animal cell reproduction Cytoskeleton- intracellular protiens that make

microfilaments/microtubules give shape and support to the cell

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Phospholipid Bilayer Structure

Hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

The Scientific Method

Principles help make laws

Topic 3 Cellular Transport

Diffusion – movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration Equilibrium – balanced state

Osmosis – diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Membrane Transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT- NO ENERGY

ACTIVE TRANSPORT- ENERGY

Diffusion- high to low

Osmosis- water

Facilitated Diffusion- High to low through transport protein

Down the concentration gradient

Ion pump- low to high

Endocytosis- intake large material in vesicles

Exocytosis-release large material in vesicles

Up the concentration gradient 35

DIFFUSION THROUGH CELL MEMBRANESMolecules need to be soluble in lipids to

diffuse through the membrane (nonpolar)without the aid of a protein

For example:Oxygen

Water is an exception to this rule

Isotonic – same strength on both sides of the membrane

Hypertonic – above strength;Higher concentration of solute;Not enough water on the inside of the cell (shrivels)

Hypotonic: below strength; lower concentration of solute; full of water inside the cell

Plamolysis Turgor Pressure

Facilitated Diffusion – movement of larger particles through special

CHANNEL PROTEINS.NO ENERGY is required.

Example: Glucose

Active Transport – movement across membrane AGAINST the concentration gradient.Needs ENERGY to occur.

Sodium Potassium Pump (active transport example)

Topic 4: Cell Division

Why do cells divide?? get bigger repair reproduction

Homologous Chromosomes

Cell ReproductionMITOSIS- BODY CELLS MEIOSIS- SEX CELLS

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

2 cells -exact copies

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

4 cells - half the # of chromosomes

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Cell cycle

Interphase

G1 = growth phase

S = DNA Synthesis

G2 = more growth & makes more organelles

Cell Division (Mitosis)

Cell division results in two identical daughter cells.The process of cell divisions occurs in three parts: Interphase - duplication

of chromosomes and preparing the nucleus for division

Mitosis – organized division of the nucleus into two identical nuclei

Cytokinesis- division of the cell and cellular contents into two identical daughter cells

Mitosis

Prophase: *chromosomes are visible*nuclear envelope breaksMetaphase: *chromosomes line up in middle*spindle fibers attach

Anaphase: spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apartTelophase: chromosomes loosen and nuclear envelope re-forms

Results in 2 2Ncells

Daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell

Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction

To go through Sexual reproduction, organisms need to use meiosis to create sex cells

Asexual Reproduction-creating exact copy

Meiosis – cell division to produce gametes (sperm & egg)

Produces cells with haploid (single set) chromosomesHuman gametes – sperm & egg – have 23 chromosomes each.

Meiosis is a REDUCTION DIVISION 2N (diploid) to N (haploid)

2 sets of divisions Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Meiosis IInterphaseProphase I – homologous chromsomes pair up and form tetrads (4 sister chromatids) CROSSING OVER – parts of chromatids may exchange genes creating new combinations of alleles

Crossing over

Meiosis Results in Genetic Variationcrossing overindependent assortment – chromosomes line up randomly during metaphase I and metaphase IIgenes of different traits can segregate, or spread out, independently during the formation of gameteserrors in meiosis can produce harmful effects

Nondisjunction and Patau’s syndrome

Karyotype of a normal male

Karyotype of a Patau’s male (notice chromosome #13 has three chromosomes instead of two

Create a Venn Diagram Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis using the following words:

Diploid Cell Prophase 1 and 2Haploid Cell Metaphase 1 and 2Prophase Anaphase 1 and 2Metaphase Telephase 1 and 2Anaphase Body CellsTelephase GametesCytokinesis Somatic CellsCrossing Over2 identical cells4 different cellsPMAT OncePMAT twiceHomologous chromosomes separateCreates cells with 46 chromosomesCreates cells with 23 chromosomesSpermEggs

Topic 5 Cellular Energy

AUTOTROPH HETEROTROPHS

PRODUCERS -Creates own

chemical energy (photosynthesis, chemosynthesis)

Plants, algae, bacteria

CONSUMERS Can’t make own

food, must obtain energy from another source

Animals, fungi

Energy Molecules: Lipids: long term

Carbohydrates: short term energy

ATP: INSTANT energy form

PhotosynthesisPhoto=lightsynthesis=production

Process in which the sun’s energy is converted into stored energy in the form of carbohydrates

Caretenoids reflect fall colors Chloropylls-reflect green

Photosynthesis

LIGHT DEPENDENT LIGHT INDEPENDENT

Need light Photolysis

(breaking water molecule apart with light)

Set up H+ ions

Dark reactions Calvin Cycle Carbon fixation:

fix carbon dioxide and make it glucose

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS

•Occurs in chloroplasts

•Sunlight energy splits H20 molecule (PHOTOLYSIS)

•releases H+ ions to set up a concentration gradient•releases oxygen as a by product

Overview of Light Reactions

LIGHT DEPENDENT/ INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

CO2 goes through multiple steps to combine and rearrange into a 6 carbon sugar (glucose)

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

-NOT BREATHING!-process in which the energy of food (glucose) is converted to usable energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen-all cells undergo cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration-starts with Glycolysis

glyco – sugar lysis – split-splits 6 carbon glucose into two 3 carbon pyruvate-invest 2 ATP yield 4ATP (2ATP net gain)

After Glycolysis

Glycolysis

No oxygen available(anaerobic)

Alcohol fermentation lactic acid fermentation

Oxygen (aerobic)

Krebs CycleElectron Transport Chain

No Oxygen

Fermentation – replenishes items needed for glycolysis when NO OXYGEN is available

OxygenKrebs Cycle – takes pyruvic acid (3 carbons) and breaks it down to CO2

Electron Transport Chain – takes H+ ions & pushes them through a transport protein

that movement through protein charges ATP

Net Gain = 36 ATPs

Topic 6 DNA & its Processes

Functions of DNA• stores genetic info• copies genetic info for new cells produced during cell division• transmits genetic info from one generation to the next

Structure of DNA

Monomer = nucleotide nucleotide includes a 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate and a nitrogen base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)

Double helix

Bases pair up adenine ---- thyminecytosine ---- guanine

Genetics

Chromosomes (made of DNA) are the unit of heredity (genetics)

Protein Synthesis- DNARNAProtein Any change to the DNA is a mutation

ATTCG ATCG – deletion ATTGCG – addition ATTGG- substitution

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DNA Replication

-process of taking a strand of DNA and making an identical copy

Structure of RNA

Monomer is a nucleotide with a 5carbon sugar RIBOSE, phosphate & nitrogen base (A, G, C & URACIL)

Single stranded

3 types mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

messengerRNA (mRNA) – copy instructions from DNA

ribosomalRNA (rRNA) – located in ribosome, helps with protein synthesis

transferRNA (tRNA) – transfers amino acids to ribosomes to create proteins

Protein Synthesis•process of making proteins by stringing together amino acids to form polypeptide chains• transcription (RNA synthesis) copies a small section of DNA (a gene) creating mRNA•uses base pairing rules• translation reading instructions from mRNA to make protein

Protein SynthesisProteins are code for by genes on DNA.1. mRNA “reads” the gene

and carries the message to the ribosomes

2. At the ribosomes proteins are created

3. The proteins produced will be transported in a vesicle to the Golgi apparatus which will package the proteins and export proteins in another vesicle to the cell or other cells.

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The Genetic Code

-four base pairs on mRNA (AUGC) code for 20 amino acids that build proteins

-3 consecutive bases on mRNA are called a CODON & code for specific amino acids

-AUG – start codon begins protein synthesis-UAA, UAG, UGA – stop codons end protein synthesis

What amino acids does the following mRNA strand code for?

AUG CGA CUU UGA

Mutations

Mistakes or changes in the DNA that are heritable (able to be passed down to the next generation)Point mutation – changes in one or a few nucleotides missence/nonsence

Types of point mutations

Mutations can be beneficial

Red Spot on Friggit Bird

Original DNATHE CAT ATE THE FAT RAT.

Silent MutationTHA CAT ATE THE FAT RAT

Nonsense MutationTHE CAT ATE THE.

Missense MutationTHE CAR ATE THE FAT RAT.

Frameshift MutationTHE CCA TAT ETH EFA TRA T.THC ATA TET HEF ATR AT.

Chromatin to Chromosomes

An Allele is a version of a geneFor example the Gene is for fur color, the alleles are brown fur or black fur

Chromosomal mutations

Involve changes in the number or structure of the chromosomes

-often causes severe effects

Chromosomal Mutations Deletion – loss of all or

part of chromosome Duplication – extra

copies of part

Inversion – reverse direction of part of chromosome

Translocation – part breaks off and attaches to another

Nondisjunction

Biotechnology

DNA Fingerprinting Gene Therapy

Biotechnology (continued)

Cloning Recombinant DNA

The Human Genome

Genetic Engineering

Making human proteins from bacteria