地理学における計量革命と GIS 革命：

GeoComputation とは何か？

矢野桂司立命館大学文学部地理学科

yano@lt.ritsumei.ac.jp

Stan Openshaw 先生のスライドを一部お借りしています。

CSIS Workshop on Research Agenda for Spatial Analysis2003 年 2月 22 日（土）ホテル機山館　宝の間

GISystems

GIStudyGIScience

GIService

Geographic Information S

Land Information Science

Geo-Information Science

Geographic Information Science

地理情報科学

Geomatics and Geoinformatics

GeoComputation

Geoinformation Engineering

空間情報科学

Spatial Information Science

is an emerging interdisciplinary field that aims to advance our basic understanding in the use of digital geographic information to acquire and communicate knowledge about the world. It bridges geography, computer science, psychology, mathematics, philosophy, statistics, surveying, the earth sciences, among other disciplines. GIScience emphasizes basic theoretical and empirical research over unique GIS applications. Also, it harbors a decidedly scientific and engineering perspective on GIS, as opposed to the view of GIS as a tool (Goodchild, 1992; Wright, et al., 1997).

GIScience

http://www.giscience.org/

Geographic Information Science

GIScience 2000First International Conference on Geographic Information ScienceSavannah, Georgia, USA, October 28-31, 2000

 

GIScience 2002Second International Conference on Geographic Information ScienceBoulder, Colorado, USA, September 25-28, 2002

is the follow-up meeting to the highly successful GIScience 2000 conference with over 300 researchers attending. GIScience 2002 will again bring together scientists from academia, industry, and government to analyze progress and to explore new research directions. It will focus on emerging topics and basic research findings across all sectors of geographic information science. The conference program aims to attract leading GIScience researchers from all fields to reflect the interdisciplinary breadth of GIScience, including cognitive science, computer science, engineering, geography, information science, mathematics, philosophy, psychology, social science, and statistics.

GIScience 2002

本日の話題

1. GC の誕生前

2.英国における GC の開花

3. GC の主要な研究テーマ

4. GC の地理学における展開

GC の誕生前1. 1980 年代までの人文地理学にお

ける計量地理学の位置

2. GIS 革命の展開

3. 非計量地理学者からの GIS 批判

Ｇ Ｉ Ｓ

統計地理学

理論地理学

空間統計学

GeoComputation

記述的な統計地理学

社会的関わり

地理的データへの統計手法の問題

欧米と日本の計量地理学の系譜

年代 地理学界の潮流計量地理学の研究トピックス 北米 英国 日本の計量地理学 日本での隣接分野 J ournal

1950 後半 計量革命 Washington Univ.統計学的手法 Garrison,W.L.記述的な空間統計学 Berry,B.J.L.

1960 前半 Chicago Univ. Cambridge Univ.Northwestern Univ. Haggett,P.Michigan Univ. Chorley,R.J.

中葉 システム論 UCSB Bristol Univ.因子生態研究 Haggett,P.

Harvey,D.後半 エントロピー・モデル

行動主義地理学 理論地理学 Ohio State Univ. RS(1967)時間地理学 都市モデル Golledge,R.G. Leeds Univ. E&P(1969)

1970 前半 計量批判 Brown,L. Wilson,A.G. GA(1969)メンタルマップ Pennsylvania State Univ. Batty,M.

人文主義地理学 空間的自己相関 Gould,P. Cliff,A. 多変量解析の地理学中葉 ラディカル地理学 地図パターン問題 Johnston,R.J. 中心地研究 都市工学

Marx主義地理学 MAUP集計問題（ ） Openshaw,S. 地域区分研究 社会工学MDS相対空間（ ） Rushuton,G. 因子生態研究 建築計画学

後半 意志決定モデル Golledge,R.G. 土木計画学時空間系列モデル Bennett,R.J.カテゴリカル分析 Getis,A. Wrigley,N. 都市群システム研究 都市経済学

1980 前半 カタストロフィー McMaster Univ. 日本の都市システム 地域科学立地・配分モデル O'Kelly,M.E. 世界の都市システム 都市解析空間的相互作用モデル Fotheringham,A.S. Gatrell,T.

中葉 空間統計学 UCSB Ｈａｉｎｉｎｇ,R.P. -計量的行動地理学 認知地図研究Goodchild,M.F.

新しい文化地理学 大都市圏研究 応用地域科学研究会後半 ＧＩＳ革命 ＮＣＧＩＡ ＲＲＬ 人口移動研究 IJ GIS(1987)

UCSBSUNY

1990 前半 Geographical Information Systems 重点領域研究『近代化による環境変化の地理情報システム』　 の出版 地理情報システム学会 GIS (1993)理論と応用

ＧＭＡＰ J GS(1994)中葉 Computational地理学 Varenius　 Proj. ＣＡＳＡ TG(1996)

（ＡＩ・CI） GI(1997)GEM(1997)

後半 Geocomputation GeoVISTA 東大空間情報科学研究センターＧＩＳＣ

2000 前半 ？

1980 年代の計量地理学

帰納的計量地理学(inductive number-crunchers)

演繹的計量地理学 (d

eductive modellers)

応用地理学 (Applied / Relevance)

純粋地理学 (Academic)

ｖｓ

ｖｓ

ＧＩＳ革命の展開NCGIA(１９８８ -９７）(National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis)

RRL(１９８７ -９１）(Regional Research Laboratory)

CSIS (１９９８）(Center for Spatial Information Science)

University of California, Santa BarbaraUniversity at BuffaloUniversity of Maine

University of Tokyo

• The Midland RRL (MRRL) at the Universities of Leicester and Loughborough

• The North East RRL (NERRL) at the University of Newcastle

• Northern Ireland RRL (NIRRL) at Queens University, Belfast and the University of Ulster

• The North West RRL (NWRRL) at the University of Lancaster

• The South East RRL (SERRL) at Birkbeck College, University of London

• The Urban and Regional Policy RRL (URPRRL) at the Universities of Liverpool and Manchester

• The GIRL at the London School of Economics (LSE)

• RRL Scotland at The University of Edinburgh.

ＧＩＳ派 vs 社会理論派

Taylor (1990)Goodchild (1990)Openshaw (1991)

Taylor & Overton　

(1991)

Taylor & Johnston　(1995)

Openshaw (1992)

英国における GC の開花

1. Key Person の移動

2. Leeds 大学地理学部の挑戦

3. Stan Openshaw

4. GeoComputation１） GIS 革命２） 人工知能（ AI ）ツールの発展３） パラレル・スーパーコンピュータの出現

the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE)http://www.rae.ac.uk/

Institution name2001

Rating1996

Rating1992

RatingUniversity of Bristol 5* 5* 5University of Durham 5* 5* 5University College London 5* 5* 5University of Edinburgh 5* 5* 5Open University 5* 4 4Royal Holloway, University of London 5* 5 4University of Cambridge 5 5* 5University of Hull 5 4 3University of Leeds 5 5 4London School of Economics and Political Science 5 4 4Loughborough University 5 4 3Queen Mary, University of London 5 4 3University of Newcastle 5 5 4University of Nottingham 5 4 3University of Sheffield 5 5 4University of Southampton 5 5 4University of Birmingham 4 4 4University of East Anglia 4 4 4University of Exeter 4 4 4University of Leicester 4 4 3University of Liverpool 4 4 4University of Manchester 4 4 3University of Oxford 4 4 5University of Wales, Swansea 4 4 3University of Wales, Aberystwyth 4 4 4

Leeds University(The Centre for Computational Geography (CC

G))

Alan G. WilsonStan OpenshawIan TurtonDaniel Dorling

Newcastle UniversityA. Stewart FotheringhamChris BrunsdonMartin Charlton

CASA, UCLMike BattyPaul Longley

Oxford UniversityBill Macmillan

School of Geography,University of Leeds

Wilson 学派(Since 1970)

GMAP 　 Ltd.(Since 1983, Geographical Modelling and Planning)

CCG(Since 1992,

Centre for Computational Geography)

エントロピー最大化モデル都市モデル研究空間的相互作用モデルと立地論

GeoComputation の拠点

応用地理学

GeoCAT(Since 1999, Geographical Consultancy & Training)

GMAP(Since 2001, Global Market Analysis Planning)

Employment Record : •1991- Vice-Chancellor, University of Leeds •1970-1992 Professor of Urban and Regional Geography, University of Leeds •1968-1970 Assistant Director, The Centre for Environment Studies•1967-1968 Director, The Mathematical Advisory Unit of Economic Planning Directorate at the Ministry of Transport•1966-1967 Research Officer, The institute of Economics and Statistics at the University of Oxford•1965-1966 Research Officer, The Institute of Economics and Statistics at the University of Oxford•1964-1966 Scientific Officer, The Rutherford Laboratory of the National Institute for Research in Nuclear Science

Qualifications and education: •1968 B.A. (first class) honours degree in Mathematics, the University of Cambridge

Alan G. Wilson

Professor ofUrban and RegionalGeography

Tij = Ai Bi Oi Dj exp(βdij)

Entropy Maximised

Spatial Interaction Model

Employment　Record　:　•1992-1999　Professor　of　Human　Geography,　University　of　Leeds　•1989-1992　Personal　Chair　in　Quantitative　Geography,　Newcastle　University　•1982-1989　Lecturer　in　Department　of　Geography,　Newcastle　University　Senior　Lecturer　since　1985　•1974-1982　Lecturer　in　the　Department　of　Town　and　Country　Planning,　Newcastle　University.　•1971-1974　Planning　Department,　Durham　County　Council　leaving　as　a　Principal　Planning　Officer　in　the　Research　and　Intelligence　Team　

Qualifications and education: •1993 F.R.G.S. Fellow of Royal Geographical Society •1993 C.Stat (Chartered Statistician) •1988 F.R.S.S. (Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society) •1983 F.I.S. (Fellow of the Institute of Statisticians) •1983 M.B.C.S. (Member of British Computer Society) •1974 Ph.D. in Geography, Newcastle University. •1968 B.A. (first class) honours degree in Geography, Newcastle University.

Stan Openshaw

Professor ofHumanGeography

Modifiable Areal Unit 　 Problem

M A U P（可変単位地区問題）

Employment Record : •2000- Professor of Quantitative Human Geography, University of Leeds •1996-2000: Lecturer and Reader in Geography, School of Geographical Sciences, Bristol University (and University Fellow 1999-2000). •1994-1995: British Academy Fellow and Senior Research Associate, Department of Geography, Newcastle University (and Fellow in the Department of Town and County Planning, Newcastle). •1991-1993: Joseph Rowntree Foundation Fellow, Housing and Society Research Group, Newcastle University - working in the Departments of Town and Country Planning, Social Policy and Geography.

Qualifications and education: •2001: Member of the Institute for Teaching and Learning •1991: PhD 'The Visualization of Spatial Social Structure' University of Newcastle •1989: BSc (Hons) Geography Mathematics and Statistics. First Class, University of Newcastle

Daniel Dorling

Professor ofQuantitativeHumanGeography

Dorling, D. (1995): A new social atlas of Britain. Wiley.

Cartogram

GeoComputation

GIS 革命

AI・CIHPC

データ

パワー

スマート・ツール

SPATIALDATA

AND..

there are now LOTS of

it!

Everyday there are More

DATA than previously

More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and More Data and

+

More DATA

+

More DATA

and

More DATA

=

A bigger ...

•DATA Lake ?•DATA Swamp ?•DATA Warehouse ?•DATA Mountain ?

NO.. NO.. just a BIGGER GIS

database most of which will hardly ever be

analyzed or used other than for drawing maps

Indeed

spatial data are being created and stored many times

faster than they can be processed!

So the NEED is for user friendly

Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis

capable of being safely and easily used and understood by people who

do not have higher degrees in the statistical or spatial sciences

超高速パラレル・スーパーコンピュータ

テラフロップ・コンピュータ（１秒間に１兆回）

計量革命時の１０の９乗倍

エントロピーモデルの１０の８乗倍

GIS 革命期の１０の６乗倍

1.　空間データに適した手法の開

発

2.　コンピュータの集中的利用

3.　データ・フリー、探索的アプ

ローチ

GeoComputation

is the use of computing techniques to solve

geographical problems that are too complex to

solve 'by hand'.　

GeoComputation

1. weak GeoComputation

2. strong

GeoComputation

A. Stewart Fotheringham

Global model -> Local model

GIS 環境下での新しい計量地理学

帰納的計量地理学(inductive number-crunchers)

演繹的計量地理学 (d

eductive modellers)

探索的技法(Exploratory)

確証的技法 (Confirmatory)

ｖｓ

ｖｓ

GeoComputation

GeoComputation は•GIS の別名ではない•計量地理学ではない•極端な帰納主義でない•理論が欠けているわけではない•哲学がないわけでない•道具箱ではない

  GeoComputation '01 - University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

GeoComputation '00 - University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, United Kingdom

GeoComputation '99 - Mary Washington College, Virginia, USA

GeoComputation '98 - University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

GeoComputation '97 - University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

GeoComputation '96 - University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

http://www.ashville.demon.co.uk/geocomp/

GeoComputation Conference

GC の主要な研究テーマ

1. パラレル空間的相互作用モデル

2. 新しいパラメータ推定方法

3. 最適配置問題へのパラレル・コンピュテーション

4. 自動化モデリングシステム

5. パラレル可変単位地区問題や最適地理的分割問題

6. パラレル空間分類法

7. パラレル地理学的パターンと地理学的関係の発見方法

パラレル

空間的相互作用モデル

Tij = Ai Oi Wjα Hj

γ exp(βdij)

Hj = Σ ｋ　 P ｋπ / djk

σ

Competing Destinations Spatial Interaction Model

with 5 parameters

Applying GAM to the study of Long Term Limiting Illness data

for 6,905 census areas in Northern England

Age-Sex Adjusted Clusters

GC の地理学における展開

人文地理学の

更なる発展のためには、

計量地理学派と社会理論学派の

協調が不可欠