© 2007 thomson south-western, all rights reserved n. g r e g o r y m a n k i w powerpoint ® slides...

© 2007 Thomson South-Western, all rights reserved

N. G R E G O R Y M A N K I W

PowerPoint® Slidesby Ron Cronovich

4

ECONOMICSP R I N C I P L E S O F

F O U R T H E D I T I O N

The Market Forces of Supply and Demand

2CHAPTER 4 THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND

In this chapter, look for the answers to these questions: What factors affect buyers’ demand for goods?

What factors affect sellers’ supply of goods?

How do supply and demand determine the price of a good and the quantity sold?

How do changes in the factors that affect demand or supply affect the market price and quantity of a good?

How do markets allocate resources?


Markets and Competition

A market is a group of buyers and sellers of a particular product.

A competitive market is one with many buyers and sellers, each has a negligible effect on price.

A perfectly competitive market:• all goods exactly the same• buyers & sellers so numerous that no one can

affect market price – each is a “price taker”

In this chapter, we assume markets are perfectly competitive.

4

Demand: is a willingness and an ability to pay (comes from the behavior of buyers)

The demand function:

Demand = f{Price, income, the prices of related goods, tastes, etc.}

Prices are the tool by which market coordinates individuals’ desires and limits how much people demand. Thus, price mechanism ensures what people demand matches what’s available Example: when goods are scarce, the market reduces the quantity people demand; as their prices go up, people buy fewer goods, vice versa

other things constant(ceteris paribus)

Demand


Cont,…

The quantity demanded of any good is the amount of the good that buyers are willing and able to purchase.

6

Quantity Demanded

1) Desired quantityIt is the amount that consumers wish to purchase, given the price of the product, other prices, their incomes, their taste and everything else that might matter

2) Effective quantityIt is not an idle dream but it is the amounts that people are willing to buy, given the price they must pay for the product

3) Continuous flow of purchaseIt must therefore expressed as so much per period of time: 1 million units per day, etc.

Quantity Demanded

Source: Lipsey and Courant

7

Quantity demanded rises as price falls, other things constant or alternatively:

Quantity demanded falls as price rises, other things constant

As price changes, people change how much of a particular good they are willing to buy

What accounts for the law of demand?

Individual’s tendency to substitute other goods for goods whose relative price has gone up

An inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded, other things constant

The Law of Demand


The Demand Schedule

Demand schedule: A table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.

Example: Helen’s demand for lattes.

Price of

lattes

Quantity of lattes

demanded

$0.00 16

1.00 14

2.00 12

3.00 10

4.00 8

5.00 6

6.00 4 Notice that Helen’s preferences obey the Law of Demand.


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15

Price of Lattes

Quantity of Lattes

Helen’s Demand Schedule & Curve

Price of

lattes

Quantity of lattes

demanded

$0.00 16

1.00 14

2.00 12

3.00 10

4.00 8

5.00 6

6.00 4

10

Konsumen cenderung membagi pendapatannya untuk mengkonsumsi bermacam barang. Peningkatan harga salah satu barang yang dikonsumsinya berarti lebih sedikit barang lain yang bisa dikonsumsi atau harga relatif barang yang naik tersebut menjadi lebih mahal diukur dengan unit barang lainnya. Hal ini yang mendorong konsumen untuk mengurangi jumlah yang diminta ketika harga naik

Hukum utilitas marginal yang semakin menurun

Semakin banyak unit barang yang dikonsumsi, tambahan kepuasan (utilitas) yang diperoleh dari mengkonsumsi unit barang terakhir akan semakin menurun

Alasan Kurva Permintaan Berslope Negatif

11

From Individual Demand to Market

Demand

Market Demand versus Individual Demand The quantity demanded in the market is the sum of

the quantities demanded by all buyers at each price.

Suppose Helen and Ken are the only two buyers in the Latte market. (Qd = quantity demanded)

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Helen’s Qd

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Ken’s Qd

+

+

+

+

=

=

=

=

6

9

12

15

+ = 18

+ = 21

+ = 24

Market Qd

$0.00

6.00

5.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

Price


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25

P

Q

The Market Demand Curve for Lattes

PQd

(Market)

$0.00 24

1.00 21

2.00 18

3.00 15

4.00 12

5.00 9

6.00 6

14

Price (per DVD)

Alice’s Demand

Terry’s Demand

Raul’s Demand

Market Demand

A $ 0.50 6 3 2 11

B $ 1.00 5 2 1 8

C $ 1.50 4 1 0 5

D $ 2.00 3 0 0 3

E $ 2.50 2 0 0 2

F $ 3.00 1 0 0 1

Another Example

Demand for DVD

15

Alice

Terry

Raul

Market Demand

Prices of DVD

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50Quantities

of DVD1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Cont,…

16

Changes in quantity demanded

Vs.Changes in demand

17

Happens due to price movements, a change in price changes the quantity demanded

Graphically, this situation is showed by a movement along a demand curve

APA

QA

Qd

Price of X

Quantity of X

PB

QB

B

Change in quantity demanded

18

Happens due to the change in anything other than price (the ‘constant factors’)

Graphically, this situation is showed by a shift in demand (a shift in entire demand curve)

Qd1

Price of X

Quantity of X

PA

QA

Qd2

QB

A B

Change in demand


Demand Curve Shifters

The demand curve shows how price affects quantity demanded, other things being equal.

These “other things” are non-price determinants of demand (i.e., things that determine buyers’ demand for a good, other than the good’s price).

Changes in them shift the D curve…


Demand Curve Shifters: # of buyers

An increase in the number of buyers causesan increase in quantity demanded at each price, which shifts the demand curve to the right.


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

P

Q

Suppose the number of buyers increases. Then, at each price, quantity demanded will increase (by 5 in this example).

Demand Curve Shifters: # of buyers


Demand for a normal good is positively related to income. • An increase in income causes increase

in quantity demanded at each price, shifting the D curve to the right.

(Demand for an inferior good is negatively related to income. An increase in income shifts D curves for inferior goods to the left.)

Demand Curve Shifters: income


Two goods are substitutes if an increase in the price of one causes an increase in demand for the other.

Example: pizza and hamburgers. An increase in the price of pizza increases demand for hamburgers, shifting hamburger demand curve to the right.

Other examples: Coke and Pepsi, laptops and desktop computers, compact discs and music downloads

Demand Curve Shifters: prices of related

goods


Two goods are complements if an increase in the price of one causes a fall in demand for the other.

Example: computers and software. If price of computers rises, people buy fewer computers, and therefore less software. Software demand curve shifts left.

Other examples: college tuition and textbooks, bagels and cream cheese, eggs and bacon

Demand Curve Shifters: prices of related

goods


Anything that causes a shift in tastes toward a good will increase demand for that good and shift its D curve to the right.

Example: The Atkins diet became popular in the ’90s, caused an increase in demand for eggs, shifted the egg demand curve to the right.

Demand Curve Shifters: tastes


Expectations affect consumers’ buying decisions.

Examples:

• If people expect their incomes to rise, their demand for meals at expensive restaurants may increase now.

• If the economy turns bad and people worry about their future job security, demand for new autos may fall now.

Demand Curve Shifters: expectations

27

Taxes Taxes levied on consumers increase the

cost of goods to consumers and therefore reduce demand for those goods

Subsidies Subsidies have the opposite effect Subsidies reduce the cost of goods to

consumers and therefore increase demand for those goods

Demand Curve Shifters: taxes & subsidies

28

Population growth does not by itself create new demand. The additional people must have purchasing power (that is, earning income) before demand is change

If population growth results in an extra employed people, then the following statement is usually true:

An increase in population will shift the demand of most products to the right, indicating that more will be bought at each price

Demand Curve Shifters: population growth


Summary: Variables That Affect Demand

Variable A change in this variable…

Price …causes a movement along the D curve

No. of buyers …shifts the D curve

Income …shifts the D curve

Price ofrelated goods …shifts the D curve

Tastes …shifts the D curve

Expectations …shifts the D curve


Cont,…


Taxes …shifts the D curve

Subsidies …shifts the D curve

Populationgrowth …shifts the D curve


Additional Information on Demand

Each individual has his/her owns limitations on how much of goods or services that they can consume..The limit is perhaps time constraint, the number of his/her fortunes or the work of the law of diminishing marginal utility—an increase in consuming one good/service will eventually decrease utility derived from that consumption Consequently, these facts are depicted on the graph by the intersection of the demand curve with each of the axis – Case and Fair


The demand curve will intersect with axis if…

Axis causes…

Price (Y) the limitation on consumer’s income and wealth

Quantity (X) the limitation of time and the work of the law of

diminishing marginal utility

Cont.,…


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

P

Q

Cont.,…

34

Kurva permintaan akan memotong sumbu harga (Y) sebagai akibat terbatasnya pendapatan dan kekayaan rumah tangga. Akan ada tingkat harga tertentu yang maksimal bisa disanggupi oleh konsumen

Kurva permintaan akan memotong sumbu kuantitas (X) sebagai akibat keterbatasan waktu dan hukum utilitas marginal yang semakin menurun. Keterbatasan waktu menyebabkan jumlah yang diminta konsumen pada saat harga suatu barang adalah nol terbatas. Pada tingkat konsumsi tertentu, tambahan utilitas yg didapat dari mengkonsumsi suatu barang sama dengan nol. Sehingga mengkonsumsi lebih banyak dari titik ini tidak memberikan manfaat bagi konsumen.

Kurva Permintaan Memotong Sumbu

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1: Demand curve

A. The price of iPods falls

B. The price of music downloads falls

C. The price of compact discs falls

35

Draw a demand curve for music downloads. What happens to it in each of the following scenarios? Why?

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1: A. price of iPods falls

36

Q2

Price of music down-loads

Quantity of music downloads

D1D2

P1

Q1

Music downloads and iPods are complements.

A fall in price of iPods shifts the demand curve for music downloads to the right.

Music downloads and iPods are complements.

A fall in price of iPods shifts the demand curve for music downloads to the right.

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1: B. price of music downloads falls

37

The D curve does not shift.

Move down along curve to a point with lower P, higher Q.

The D curve does not shift.

Move down along curve to a point with lower P, higher Q.



D1

P1

Q1 Q2

P2

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1: C. price of CDs falls

38

P1

Q1

CDs and music downloads are substitutes.

A fall in price of CDs shifts demand for music downloads to the left.

CDs and music downloads are substitutes.

A fall in price of CDs shifts demand for music downloads to the left.



D1D2

Q2


Supply

Supply comes from the behavior of sellers.

The quantity supplied of any good is the amount that sellers are willing and able to sell.

Law of supply: the claim that the quantity supplied of a good rises when the price of the good rises, other things equal


The Supply Schedule

Supply schedule: A table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied.

Example: Starbucks’ supply of lattes.

Notice that Starbucks’ supply schedule obeys the Law of Supply.

Price of

lattes

Quantity of lattes supplied

$0.00 0

1.00 3

2.00 6

3.00 9

4.00 12

5.00 15

6.00 18


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15

Starbucks’ Supply Schedule & Curve

Price of

lattes

Quantity of lattes supplied

$0.00 0

1.00 3

2.00 6

3.00 9

4.00 12

5.00 15

6.00 18

P

Q

Market Supply versus Individual Supply

The quantity supplied in the market is the sum of the quantities supplied by all sellers at each price.

Suppose Starbucks and Jitters are the only two sellers in this market. (Qs = quantity supplied)

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

Starbucks

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Jitters

+

+

+

+

=

=

=

=

30

25

20

15

+ = 10

+ = 5

+ = 0

Market Qs

$0.00

6.00

5.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

Price


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

The Market Supply Curve

PQS

(Market)

$0.00 0

1.00 5

2.00 10

3.00 15

4.00 20

5.00 25

6.00 30


Supply Curve Shifters

The supply curve shows how price affects quantity supplied, other things being equal.

These “other things” are non-price determinants of supply.

Changes in them shift the S curve…


Supply Curve Shifters: input prices

Examples of input prices: wages, prices of raw materials.

A fall in input prices makes production more profitable at each output price, so firms supply a larger quantity at each price, and the S curve shifts to the right.


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

Suppose the price of milk falls. At each price, the quantity of Lattes supplied will increase (by 5 in this example).

Supply Curve Shifters: input prices


Supply Curve Shifters: technology

Technology determines how much inputs are required to produce a unit of output.

A cost-saving technological improvement has same effect as a fall in input prices, shifts the S curve to the right.


Supply Curve Shifters: # of sellers

An increase in the number of sellers increases the quantity supplied at each price,

shifts the S curve to the right.


Supply Curve Shifters: expectations

Suppose a firm expects the price of the good it sells to rise in the future.

The firm may reduce supply now, to save some of its inventory to sell later at the higher price.

This would shift the S curve leftward.


Summary: Variables That Affect Supply


Price …causes a movement along the S curve

Input prices …shifts the S curve

Technology …shifts the S curve

No. of sellers …shifts the S curve

Expectations …shifts the S curve

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2: Supply curve

51

Draw a supply curve for tax return preparation software.

What happens to it in each of the following scenarios? A. Retailers cut the price of

the software.

B. A technological advance allows the software to be produced at lower cost.

C. Professional tax return preparers raise the price of the services they provide.

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2: A. fall in price of tax return software

52

The S curve does not shift.

Move down along the curve to a lower P and lower Q.

The S curve does not shift.

Move down along the curve to a lower P and lower Q.

Price of tax return software

Quantity of tax return software

S1

P1

Q1Q2

P2

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2: B. fall in cost of producing the software

53

The S curve shifts to the right:

at each price, Q increases.

The S curve shifts to the right:

at each price, Q increases.



S1

P1

Q1

S2

Q2

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2: C. professional preparers raise their price

54

This shifts the demand curve for tax preparation software, not the supply curve.

This shifts the demand curve for tax preparation software, not the supply curve.



S1


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

Supply and Demand Together

D S Equilibrium: P has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded


D S

$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

Equilibrium price:

P QD QS

$0 24 0

1 21 5

2 18 10

3 15 15

4 12 20

5 9 25

6 6 30

The price that equates quantity supplied with quantity demanded


D S

$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

Equilibrium quantity:

P QD QS

$0 24 0

1 21 5

2 18 10

3 15 15

4 12 20

5 9 25

6 6 30

The quantity supplied and quantity demanded at the equilibrium price


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

D S

Surplus:when quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded

Surplus Example: If P = $5,

then QD = 9 lattes

and QS = 25 lattes

resulting in a surplus of 16 lattes


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

D S


Facing a surplus, sellers try to increase sales by cutting the price.

This causes QD to rise

Surplus

…which reduces the surplus.

and QS to fall…


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

D S


Facing a surplus, sellers try to increase sales by cutting the price.

Falling prices cause QD to rise and QS to fall.

Surplus

Prices continue to fall until market reaches equilibrium.


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

D S

Shortage:when quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied

Example: If P = $1,

then QD = 21 lattes

and QS = 5 lattes

resulting in a shortage of 16 lattes

Shortage


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

D S


Facing a shortage, sellers raise the price,

causing QD to fall

…which reduces the shortage.

and QS to rise,

Shortage


$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

P

Q

D S


Facing a shortage, sellers raise the price,

causing QD to falland QS to rise.

Shortage

Prices continue to rise until market reaches equilibrium.


Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in Eq’m

1. Decide whether event shifts S curve, D curve, or both.

2. Decide in which direction curve shifts.

3. Use supply-demand diagram to see how the shift changes eq’m P and Q.

1. Decide whether event shifts S curve, D curve, or both.

2. Decide in which direction curve shifts.

3. Use supply-demand diagram to see how the shift changes eq’m P and Q.

To determine the effects of any event,


EXAMPLE: The Market for Hybrid Cars

P

Q

D1

S1

P1

Q1

price of hybrid cars

quantity of hybrid cars


STEP 1:

D curve shifts because price of gas affects demand for hybrids.

S curve does not shift, because price of gas does not affect cost of producing hybrids.

STEP 2:

D shifts rightbecause high gas price makes hybrids more attractive relative to other cars.

EXAMPLE 1: A Change in Demand

EVENT TO BE ANALYZED: Increase in price of gas.

P

Q

D1

S1

P1

Q1

D2

P2

Q2

STEP 3:

The shift causes an increase in price and quantity of hybrid cars.


EXAMPLE 1: A Change in Demand

P

Q

D1

S1

P1

Q1

D2

P2

Q2

Notice: When P rises, producers supply a larger quantity of hybrids, even though the S curve has not shifted.

Always be careful to distinguish b/w a shift in a curve and a movement along the curve.

Terms for Shift vs. Movement Along Curve

Change in supply: a shift in the S curve• occurs when a non-price determinant of supply

changes (like technology or costs)

Change in the quantity supplied: a movement along a fixed S curve • occurs when P changes

Change in demand: a shift in the D curve• occurs when a non-price determinant of

demand changes (like income or # of buyers)

Change in the quantity demanded: a movement along a fixed D curve• occurs when P changes


STEP 1:

S curve shifts because event affects cost of production.

D curve does not shift, because production technology is not one of the factors that affect demand.

STEP 2:

S shifts rightbecause event reduces cost, makes production more profitable at any given price.

EXAMPLE 2: A Change in Supply

P

Q

D1

S1

P1

Q1

S2

P2

Q2

EVENT: New technology reduces cost of producing hybrid cars.

STEP 3:

The shift causes price to fall and quantity to rise.


EXAMPLE 3: A Change in Both Supply and Demand

P

Q

D1

S1

P1

Q1

S2

D2

P2

Q2

EVENTS: price of gas rises AND new technology reduces production costs

STEP 1: Both curves shift.

STEP 2: Both shift to the right.

STEP 3: Q rises, but effect on P is ambiguous: If demand increases more than supply, P rises.


EXAMPLE 3: A Change in Both Supply and Demand

STEP 3, cont.

P

Q

D1

S1

P1

Q1

S2

D2

P2

Q2

EVENTS: price of gas rises AND new technology reduces production costs

But if supply increases more than demand, P falls.

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 3: Changes in supply and demand

72

Use the three-step method to analyze the effects of each event on the equilibrium price and quantity of music downloads.

Event A: A fall in the price of compact discs

Event B: Sellers of music downloads negotiate a reduction in the royalties they must pay for each song they sell.

Event C: Events A and B both occur.

2. D shifts left

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 3: A. fall in price of CDs

73

P

QD1

S1

P1

Q1

D2

The market for music downloads

P2

Q2

1. D curve shifts

3. P and Q both fall.

STEPS

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 3: B. fall in cost of royalties

74

P

QD1

S1

P1

Q1

S2

The market for music downloads

Q2

P2

1. S curve shifts

2. S shifts right

3. P falls, Q rises.

STEPS

(royalties are part of sellers’ costs)

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 3: C. fall in price of CDs AND fall in cost of royalties

75

STEPS

1. Both curves shift (see parts A & B).

2. D shifts left, S shifts right.

3. P unambiguously falls.

Effect on Q is ambiguous: The fall in demand reduces Q, the increase in supply increases Q.

STEPS

1. Both curves shift (see parts A & B).

2. D shifts left, S shifts right.

3. P unambiguously falls.

Effect on Q is ambiguous: The fall in demand reduces Q, the increase in supply increases Q.


CONCLUSION: How Prices Allocate Resources

One of the Ten Principles from Chapter 1: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.

In market economies, prices adjust to balance supply and demand. These equilibrium prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby allocate scarce resources.


CHAPTER SUMMARY A competitive market has many buyers and

sellers, each of whom has little or no influence on the market price.

Economists use the supply and demand model to analyze competitive markets.

The downward-sloping demand curve reflects the Law of Demand, which states that the quantity buyers demand of a good depends negatively on the good’s price.


CHAPTER SUMMARY Besides price, demand depends on buyers’

incomes, tastes, expectations, the prices of substitutes and complements, and # of buyers. If one of these factors changes, the D curve shifts.

The upward-sloping supply curve reflects the Law of Supply, which states that the quantity sellers supply depends positively on the good’s price.

Other determinants of supply include input prices, technology, expectations, and the # of sellers. Changes in these factors shift the S curve.


CHAPTER SUMMARY The intersection of S and D curves determine

the market equilibrium. At the equilibrium price, quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.

If the market price is above equilibrium, a surplus results, which causes the price to fall. If the market price is below equilibrium, a shortage results, causing the price to rise.


CHAPTER SUMMARY We can use the supply-demand diagram to

analyze the effects of any event on a market:First, determine whether the event shifts one or both curves. Second, determine the direction of the shifts. Third, compare the new equilibrium to the initial one.

In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.

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