&&&$$$001-000-000$3.1 Глоссарий

1. Nuclear terrorism (smuggling) (ядерный терроризм, контрабанда)– Nuclear terrorism denotes the use, or threat of the use, of nuclear weapons or radiological weapons in acts of terrorism, including attacks against facilities where radioactive materials are present. In legal terms, nuclear terrorism is an offense committed if a person unlawfully and intentionally “uses in any way radioactive material with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury

2. Nuclear materials (ядерные материалы)– Nuclear material refers to the metals gay, uranium, plutonium, and thorium, in any form, according to the IAEA. This is differentiated further into "source material", consisting of natural and depleted uranium, and "special fissionable material", consisting of enriched uranium (U-235), uranium-233, and plutonium-239. Uranium ore concentrates are considered to be a "source material", although these are not subject to safeguards under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

3. Highly enriched uranium and plutonium (высокообогащенный уран и плутоний) – Enriched uranium is a kind of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Natural uranium is 99.284% 238U isotope, with 235U only constituting about 0.711% of its weight. 235U is the only nuclide existing in nature (in any appreciable amount) that is fissile with thermal neutrons.

4. Dirty bomb (грязная бомба)– is a speculative radiological weapon that combines radioactive material with conventional explosives. The purpose of the weapon is to contaminate the area around the explosion with radioactive material, hence the attribute "dirty".

5. Nuclear forensics (ядерная криминалистика)–is the analysis of a sample of nuclear or radioactive material and any associated information to provide evidence for determining the history of the sample material.

6. IAEA (МАГАТЭ)– The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.

7. Transuranium Elements (трансурановые элементы)– is are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium). None of these elements are stable; they all decay radioactively into other elements.

8. Radioactivity (радиоактивность) – is the process whereby unstable atomic nuclei release energetic subatomic particles. The word radioactivity is also used to refer to the subatomic particles themselves. This phenomenon is observed in the heavy elements, like uranium, and unstable isotopes, like carbon-14.

9. Radioactive decay (радиоактивный распад) – the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing particles (ionizing radiation). The emission is spontaneous, in that the atom decays without any

interaction with another particle from outside the atom (i.e., without a nuclear reaction).

10.Gamma ray (гамма лучи) – Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays (denoted as γ), is electromagnetic radiation of high frequency (very short wavelength). They are produced by high energy sub-atomic particle interactions in natural processes and man made mechanisms.

11.Mass spectrometry (масс-спектрометрия) - Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. It is used for determining masses of particles, for determining the elemental composition of a sample or molecule.

12.Mass spectrometer (масс спектрометр)– Is a physical device for separation of ionized atoms or molecules by their mass. Based on the effects of electric and magnetic fields on ion beams moving in vacuum. Was invented by English physicist F. Aston in 1919. This device can be used in physics, chemistry, biology and technics.

13.Mass spectrum – is a pattern representing the distribution of ions by mass (more correctly: mass-to-charge ratio) in a sample. It is usually acquired using an instrument called a mass spectrometer.

14.Ion (ион) is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. The name was given by physicist Michael Faraday for the substances that allow a current to pass ("go") between electrodes in a solution, when an electric field is applied. It is from Greek ιον, meaning "going".

15.Ionization (ионизация) – is the physical process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as electrons or other ions.

16.Cation (катион)– from the Greek word κατά (katá), meaning "down", is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, giving it a positive charge.

17.Mass analyzer (масс - анализатор) – device, in which the sorting of the ions by mass, more precisely against the mass to charge ratio or m / z.

18.The quadrupole mass analyzer – is one type of mass analyzer used in mass spectrometry. As the name implies, it consists of 4 circular rods, set highly parallel to each other. In a quadrupole mass spectrometer (acronym QMS) the quadrupole is the component of the instrument responsible for filtering sample ions, based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). Ions are separated in a quadrupole based on the stability of their trajectories in the oscillating electric fields that are applied to the rods.

19.Detector (детектор) – is a device, which records either the charge induced or the current produced when an ion passes by or hits a surface. In a scanning instrument, the signal produced in the detector during the course of the scan versus where the instrument is in the scan (at what m/Q) will produce a mass spectrum, a record of ions as a function of m/Q.

20.Faraday cup is a metal cup that is placed in the path of the ion beam. It is attached to an electrometer, which measures the ion-beam current. Since a Faraday cup can only be used in an analog mode it is less sensitive than other detectors that are capable of operating in pulse-counting mode.

21.Direct current DC (постоянный ток) – is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by such sources as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams.

22.Radio frequency RF (радиочастота) is a rate of oscillation in the range of about 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which corresponds to the frequency of radio waves, and the alternating currents which carry radio signals.

23.Electron Multiplier (электронный умножитель) – is a vacuum-tube structure that multiplies incident charges. In process called secondary emission, a single electron can, when bombarded on secondary emissive material, induce emission of roughly 1 to 3 electrons. If an electric potential is applied between this metal plate and yet another, the emitted electrons will accelerate to the next metal plate and induce secondary emission of still more electrons. This can be repeated a number of times, resulting in a large shower of electrons all collected by a metal anode, all having been triggered by just one.

&&&$$$003-000-000$3.3 Практикалық сабақтар

Практикалық тапсырмалар теориялық материалды бекіту мақсатымен орындау үшін арналған.

&&&$$$003-001-000$3.3.1 Практикалық сабак №1 General information about professional English language. The world of science

Task: to read the following text and write a short plan that is title of each paragraph of text. You can perform the task in Russian

Science and technologyWe live in the fascinating and challenging world of science. It is a world that more and

more over the ages, and especially in the 20th century has come to affect so much of our lives. It is involved with the way we travel, the homes we live in and the clothes we wear, how we become ill and how medicine can make us better, and has given us fantastic means of communicating and exploring.

The list of the inventations is rather long. We are on-lookers of great scientific achievements such as television and a computer. We can’t imagine our life withought a notebook or a radio. I’d like to speak in details about computers.

What is a computer?A computer is an electronic device that stores information and allows changes in it

through the use of instructions. A modern computer is capable of doing various tasks, like

word processing and accounting. Personal computers are widely used but working on them requires some techniques.

A computer gives a lot of advantages to a user. The list of the advantages is rather long: computers give us access to the Internet- an international computer network. You can spread a lot of your free time surfing the Internet and get all sorts of information from it. You can enter the chat room with other Internet users and debate urgent problems on line. If you are connectable by e-mail, you can correspond with your own web page and place there information about yourself.

Today computers help people to do many things. Bankers use them to keep track of money. Telephone operators use them to put calls through. Without computers, weather forecasters would make more mistakes. Computers also help scientists to solve their problems. More than that computers help police to keep order in shops. Computers also help doctors to treat patients. Computers allow users to spend their free time and relax. But computers have some disadvantages. Computers can make people lazy. People waste their time when they play different games on a computer. People forget to go to the libraries, they often find information on the Internet. Wicked games can make people, especially children aggressive and stupid.

But in my view they have more advantages, that disadvantages. It’s an open secret that the computer is a source of education, entertainment and communication. And in my life the computer plays a very important role. It helps me to find information and relax. Though scientists have archived so much, scientific minds are still working at some urgent problems. I would like to mention some problems. One of them is finding and using alternative sources of energy. Scientists are also learning how to save and conserve energy. They have many problems with creating highly effective systems of communication. I can’t but mention one of the main problems. It is development of life on the planet.

I’d like to focus on the problem how to make our life longer and happier. It’s a well-known fact that nowadays people have a lot of artificial parts or implants inside them. There are some people who have problems with their health, especially with their hearts. And surgeons operate them on and put on implant inside them. Surgeons think that within 50 years one person in ten will have at least one artificial part inside.

Because science will be around us even more in the future, I think we-tomorrows adults must start learning today to be ready to take our places in this computerized, transistorized, antibiotic, nuclear and supersonic age!

&&&$$$003-001-000$3.3.2 Практикалық сабак №2Task:answered the following test.

1. Қай сан дурыс емеc?

2. Қай жауаб дурыс? I like tennis?

3. Қайсы дурыс емес?

4. Қайсы дурыс емес?

5. Have you seen her сұраққа қандай жауаб дурыс болады?

6. To bay етістікке қарама қарсы етістік

7. Қай сөйлем дурыс емес?

8. Қайсы дурыс емес?

9. Whose book is it? Сұрағына дурыс емес жауабы

10.Қай сөйлем дурыс?

11.Қай сөйлем дурыс?

12. Заводтағы нәрсе сақтайтын жер қалай аталады?

13.Қай сөйлем дурыс емес?

14.Қай сөз now сөзіне қарама қарсы болып келеді?

15.Қайсы дурыс емес?

16.Сөйлемді аяқтаныз as fresh as

17.Қай сөйлем дурыс?

18. Қай сөйлем дурыс?

19.Қайсы дурыс емес?

20.Қай сөйлем дурыс?

&&&$$$003-001-001$3.3.1.3 Практикалық сабак №3

Берілген abstract – ті оқып, талдау керек. Қарамен белгілеген сөйлемдер мен сөздерді жаттап, оларды келесі сабақтарда қолдану керек.

CORDIS focus журналынан алынған мәтін: Advances in neutron detection

Advances in neutron detection.From CORDIS № 22, March 2006

Abstract

This article deals with registration of neutrons. Goals - to give general information about the detection of neutrons, to find partners for the project and to create a neutron detectors.

This paper divided into 3 main parts. The first part gives the reader an overview of the neutrons and neutron scattering.

In the second part describes in detail the small-angle scattering. Detection involves the conversion of the neutrons into charged particles that are then registered by a counter.

The following, finally part tells about a very fast 2D neutron detector for small-angle scattering devices. It is made up of 128 neutron position sensitive proportional counters mounted side by side over a 1 m2 detection area.

In conclusion the author encourages scientists to join the study on the development of detectors.

Key words: Neutron scattering, wavelengths, nanometersized, thermal neutron, detector, small angle scattering, proportional chambers.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.4 Практикалық сабак №4

Берілген мәтінді аударып,оған абстракт жазу.

BIOFUEL - THE OTHER ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCETraditional fossil fuels, such as coal and crude oil, are non-renewable energy

sources that generate harmful pollutants. Biofuel is an alternative energy source that offers

many advantages. European research has targeted the improved conversion of biofuel to a

usable form of raw gas through the application of catalytic materials. The problems

associated with energy production from the consumption of fossil fuels have long been

known. For several years now, research efforts have focused on identifying sustainable,

less problematic sources of energy. Biofuel is one such possibility. It is generated from

biological sources (i.e. living organisms such as agricultural crops, trees,etc.) and can be

either gaseous, liquid or solid in form. Exploitation of biofuels requires both new

technology and new consumer attitudes in order to be successful on a global scale.

Scientists from Sweden, Spain, Finland and The Netherlands have combined their

expertise in a European-funded research project aimed at improving the efficiency of

energy extraction from biofuel. Current methods of gasification of biofuels to produce

raw gas of a quality high enough to be usable by engines are inefficient and generate tar

deposits in the gasifier as a by-product. The tar deposits build up over time and necessitate

periodic cleaning of the gasifier and the ducts between the gasifier and the engine.

The research focused on developing a new technique to convert the accumulated tar

into useful gas components with the aid of catalytic materials. A 100 kWth biomass-to-

electricity unit was constructed for testing purposes. A reversal flow tar converter (RFTC)

was incorporated as part of the new process concept. The SPA (Solid Phase Adsorption)

method, nominated to become the international standard for tar analysis, was applied.

Reduction of tar components sulphur and chlorine was achieved through catalysis

by dolomite and nickel-based materials. The results of this research can assist the

development of new gas cleaning reactors offering cost reductions and increased thermal

efficiency, providing Europe an opportunity to lead the way in energy production from

alternative fuels.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.5 Практикалық сабак №5

Келесі мәтінге абстракт жазу

SOLAR ENERGY FOR COOLING SYSTEMS

Energy consumption for buildings is a costly expense, while the reliance on non-

renewable forms of energy could lead to environmental problems, such as energy resource

depletion, in the future. With this context in mind, a European consortium has designed a

solar-assisted cooling machine that not only optimises the advantages of solar energy but

also prioritises the qualities needed for commercial success.

Solar energy is a completely renewable energy resource that does not pollute the

environment. These advantages make it worthwhile to utilise solar energy in a cost-

effective and efficient manner. In response, a consortium of German, Spanish and

Portuguese researchers created a solar-assisted gas-driven absorption cooling machine that

can be used for the cooling purposes of many types of buildings.

This new technology improves on the drawbacks of standard solar-driven cooling

machines. Current technology consists of a combination of a single effect absorption

chiller (SE-AC) and furnaces that utilise oil or gas as fuel. When the solar heat supply is

not sufficient for chilling, the system uses heat from the furnace for the absorption

machine. Consequently, this switch in modes leads to a significant decrease in system

efficiency. Therefore, these researchers aimed at designing an absorption cooling machine

that is capable of utilising both solar energy from thermal collectors and natural gas in a

way that exhibits a heightened system efficiency. With a simulation phase that examined

the actual cooling demands of an ordinary house and a hotel for many Iberian cities, the

resulting data were utilised as input for the simulation of three solar-assisted cooling

systems along with three solar collectors in order to compare the different energy and

economic features. As a result, the most effective system was a mixedmode single/ double

effect machine that yields the maximum energy savings along with a minimum increase in

the yearly costs when compared to standard single effect devices. A prototype was

developed and manufactured that optimizes the thermohydraulic properties of the system

for solar usage while maximising the commercial value of the system’s design by building

rectangular main heat exchangers that lead to very compact dimensions of the system.

Moreover, the researchers want to increase the competitiveness of the European

industry within the solar cooling and absorption chiller sectors. Also, the use of this

technology could extend to the residential sector with the subsequent design of a small

solar-assisted absorption cooling machine. Another application is its use in developing

countries. A pure solar cooling device could be developed for places where cooling in

hospitals and food storage is a difficult task.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.6 Практикалық сабак №6

Келесі мәтінді аударып, онын ішінде have to, to be to модальдік етістіктерді тауып, сөйлемде қалай турғанын байқау.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.7 Практикалық сабак №7

Келесі мәтінді аударып, онын ішінде have to, to be to модальдік етістіктерді тауып, сөйлемде қалай турғанын байқау.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.8 Практикалық сабак №8, 9

Химиялық элементтер. Олардың адам денсаулығына зиян келтіруі.Берілген мәтінге слайд құру және абстракт жазу.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.9 Практикалық сабак №10,11

Қоршаған орта. Ластану мәселері. Берілген мәтіндерге абстракт жазу. PLASMA TECHNOLOGY FOR POLLUTION CONTROLThe controlled utilisation of plasma energy has attracted the interest of researchers

for the last three decades. A versatile system, implementing plasma technology, has now been developed for the treatment of polluted liquid and gaseous materials.

Plasma is a gas of charged particles, generally electrons and variousions. Most of the matter in the universe is in the plasma state (e.g. stars, the interplanetary and interstellar media are all plasmas), and they are a potential source of energy. Basic research has revealed some of the properties of plasma and it is now possible to produce

plasma using electromagnetic waves, electrical fields and laser beams. A small number of plasma-based equipment has been developed lately in research projects for use in waste treatment and energy production.

A British company has designed a plasma discharge system, produced by microwave and high voltage that can efficiently kill microorganisms and degrade organic pollutants. This system can be used on both liquid and gas phase materials and can be designed to create plasma of different geometries depending on the treated material. Its efficiency is based on the formation of a plasma layer that generates a mixture of UV radiation, free radicals, ozone and shock waves. The basic principle of the plasma irradiation is to introduce into the treated material, electrons with high energy to create radicals and excited atoms. These active species reacting with other present compounds cause the cleaning process. When suitably controlled, these reactions can transform toxic compounds into non-toxic and removable products, or cause irreversible damage on the cellular mechanisms of the unwanted microorganisms.

The plasma discharge system has been shown to be effective, irrespective of the conductivity of the solution treated, in killing microbes and degrading phenolic pollutants and antifreeze in the tested solutions. The performance and versatility of the system can be proved to be ideal for water and air disinfections and cleaning, waste treatments and sterilisation processes.

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.10 Практикалық сабак №12Қазыргі заманғы IT-технологиялар. Берілген мәтіндерді аударып, абстракт жазу.

NEURAL NETWORK SYSTEM FOR FRAGMENTATION PREDICTION

The prediction system for blast results is made of: * a neural network algorithm able to learn out of available data and to predict blast fragmentation;* a software tool linkable to any ODBC database.Its main characteristics are:* the neural network approach is fully in accordance with the continuous data acquisition methodology;* the system learns from collected data and is able to render information in the range of blasting practice;* the system can be linked to the database of the production control system.

Additionally, the system also provides a blast-orientated control system and a methodology for systematic and accurate assessmentof blast geometry, a hole by hole pattern design as well as data management systems for production parameters either over time, or on a blast per blast basis. For more related information please search for the following results titles: “Blast oriented production control system for openpit mining” and “Quarrying measurement and software system for blast control and blast design”.

MAN-MACHINE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM BASED ON ELECTROOCULOGRAPHY

A Spanish research group from the electronic department of the Alcal University has developed a manmachine communication system based on electrooculography. It consists of an electronic system (electronic card) able to catch and to process the electroocular signals of the eye. It is a great advantage for people who cannot vocalise or handle a computer mouse or a keyboard. This group is looking for license and manufacturing agreements, joint venture partners and information exchange.

The man-machine communication system allows establishing communication between a person and a computer or other equipment by means of detection and codification of the ocular movements. Perioculars consist of a system of electrodes that captures the electrooculographic signal of the eye, an electronic card composed by an amplification system with adjustable gain and high time constants, a system of A/D (analogue to digital) conversion and a system microprocessor for the processing of the signal (filtering, improvement, elimination of noise or interferences) and detection of the direction of the glance or codification of the ocular movements. This card has a standard exit for its connection with diverse devices (computer, automated beds, wheelchairs). Also specific software applications have been developed.

A system of electrodes is used in the perioculars (located around the eyes) to detect the horizontal and vertical derivations of the eye. All entrances are selected sequentially by means of an analogue multiplexer. The amplification system with adjustable gain and high time constants amplifies the signal at the suitable levels to allow its correct digitisation, and in addition it eliminates the low frequency component that makes the correct interpretation of the signal difficult. The unit of storage and digital processing consists of adata memory and a system microprocessor. The microprocessor calculates the position of the eye within its orbit and detects the ocular movements. The exit unit generates and sends a data set indicating the current position of the eyes of the patient and the kind of movement made.

The main functions of the software consist in codifying the signal given by the electronic card and allowing communication between the person and the machine. The

developed software depends on the focused application, although it can be divided into several groups:* Communication: the user tries to transmit an idea or phrase to other people.* Control: an interface with several options (turn the light off, turn the television on, open door, etc.) is presented to the user who selectsone.

The man-machine communication system based on electrooculography is formed by a specific electronic card and a personal computer (PC) connected to each other by means of bus RS-232, GPIB or bus ISA, depending on the characteristics of the computer.The electronic card catches the signals from the electrodes and processes the obtained data concerning the bio-amplifiers, the filters, the stage of amplification and filtration, the microprocessor, and the memory unit.

The system is very much favourable because the great degree of freedom allowed by the system is due to the detection and codification of the movements of the eyes for performing certain actions that, although very simple (move a wheelchair, turn the television on, etc.), increase considerably the quality of life. This system allows detecting the ocular movements by means of a system of periocular electrodes (through five sensors) located on the face of the user, that detect the electrical signals generated by the eyes (electrooculography signal).

&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.11 Практикалық сабак №13

Халықаралық конференциялар. Статьяларды жазу.Берілген статьяны қарап шығыныз. Оны мысалға алып келесі тақырыпқа статья құрыныз. Transport of radioactive materials.

UDC 539.16:546.212Seisenbaeva M. K.

COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OF WATER RADIONUCLIDE COMPOSITION ON THE TERRITORY OF SEMIPALATINSK TEST SITE AND

CHERNOBYL POWER PLANTThis paper describes the complete data of the radionuclide composition of the water

on the territory of Semipalatinsk nuclear test site (SNTS) and Chernobyl Power Plant. Researches of radioactive contamination of the river system of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant were taken in period from June to August 1986,and the examination of water samples Semipalatinsk test site for the period from 2008 to 2009.

Key words: radionuclides, gamma rays, river system, radioactive contamination, activity, tritium.

Water features are a major resource not only drinkable, but also an integral part in the economic activity of a country.

Of particular concern is the fact that, to meet the needs of the population, livestock watering, and irrigation facilities for agriculture, the sources, previously exposed to negative effects of man-made disasters, are used. Obvious examples of such exposure are carried out earlier nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk test site (from 1949 to 1993.) and the disaster at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (in 1986).

In these areas, studies have been conducted on water samples polluted with radio nuclides. Comparing the results, findings of the comparative analysis, which shows the degree of change in the concentration of radioactive elements over time [1]. So it makes sense to find out what kind of man-made effects are more hazardous to the water, the Chernobyl accident or nuclear explosions. Studies of radioactive contamination of the river system of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant were taken for June - August 1986, the study of water samples on Semipalatinsk test site – from 2008 to 2009.

In the course of work, the Radium Institute named by V.G. Khlopin on the site of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant have been several series of gamma radiation measurements in the near-bottom water layers and the surface deposits.

The measurements were performed at different sites in the channels, straits and bays of the Dnieper river, including Kiev, mouth of Desna river, in Pripyat and its estuary area, as well as on a number of longitudinal points and 11 hydrological sections of the rivers Pripyat, Dnieper, Black Grouse (mouth) , Braginka (mouth) and gates of Kiev reservoirs: Straholese, Suholuche, Tolokun, Yasnoborodka, Glebovka, Lyutezh, Vyshgorod.

Analysis of the data shows that the bulk of radioactive contamination (90-96% 95Zr, 95Nb, 103Ru, 106Ru and 96-99% 239,240Pu) are distributed on the river system with the fine suspended material and solid runoff. On average about 70% 134,137 Cs and more than 80% 90Sr are in soluble form [2].

The volume activity of radionuclides 95Zr, 95Nb, 103Ru, 106Ru, 141Ce, 144Ce, 134,137 Cs, 90Sr in water river system was in the range of (0,04-7) Bq / l for 239+240Pu - within (0,0002-0,048) Bq / l and did not exceed the permissible levels of activity concentration of radionuclides established by radiation standards (НРБ-99) for drinking water [3].

A survey of water bodies, which are potentially drinking and household objects on "northern" parts of the Semipalatinsk test site (STS) was carried out by the Institute of Radiation Safety and Ecology [4]. To investigate the levels of contamination by artificial radionuclides water facilities on the "northern" parts of the STS 58 water facilities were examined.

The studied objects include water halls, wells and some surface waters. Water samples from all sites were analyzed on tritium, 137Cs and 90Sr. Some samples were further defined concentration of 239 +240Pu. The detection limits of the used hardware and methodological support averaged 0.02 Bq / l for 90Sr and 137Cs, 15Bq / l for tritium and 0.001 Bq / l for 239 +240Pu, which is below of the maximum allowable concentrations for these isotopes 10- 1000 times. None of the investigated objects were detected no presence of radionuclides determined that suggests that water consumption data of the objects is completely safe for the people. The content of artificial radionuclides also does not exceed the intervention level for admission to the human body and is mainly located far below the established standards. The specific activity of 137 Cs and 3 H in all water samples is below the detection limits of the equipment used is equal to <0.07 Bq / kg and 8 Bq / l, respectively. The specific activity of 239 +240Pu in the samples <0.0004 to 0.0045 Bq / kg. The specific activity of 90Sr vary from <0.068 to 0.1 Bq / kg [5].

Having reviewed and analyzed all the data presented in the book "Radio-ecological state of the" northern "part of the territory of the Semipalatinsk test site" during 2010 and in the "Proceedings of the Radium Institute named by V.G. Khlopin " in 2009, it was concluded that the impact of nuclear bombs as well as from the release of radioactive elements after the explosion of nuclear power plants affects in any case, no matter what it was many years ago, or just a few months after release. Also found on the results of the

data sources, the most common radionuclide in water objects on STS and the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is – 137Cs, 90Sr and 239,240 Pu.

References:1. Report "Learning mode and balance routine observations of the condition and the

rational use of groundwater in the East Kazakhstan region (East Region) in 2003-2006" / Vladimirtseva V.M., Skuratova N. / /. - № GR 3 VK-02-47/MPV-24/27-TRF. - Inv. Number 13205. - TOO "GRK" Topaz "Modal VC game, Ust-Kamenogorsk, 2006/P. 1-25.

2. Radioactive contamination of the river system Pripyat-Kiev Reservoir-Dnepr in 1986 as a result of the accident the Chernoby. V.P. Tishkov, A.V. Stepanov, O.S. Tsvetkov\\lWritings the Radium Institute of the V.G. Khlopina \ P – 46-63.

3. Нормы радиационной безопасности (НРБ-99) СП 2.6.1.758-99./С.12-264. Actual questions Radioecology Kazakhstan: monograph. Issue 1: Radio-

ecological condition "northern" part of the territory of the Semipalatinsk test site / under arms. S.N.Lukashenko; rec.: M.S.Panin, V.А.Soloduhin. - Pavlodar: Printing House, 2010\ P. 294-230

5. Features assessing radiation groundwater status on the territory of the Semipalatinsk test site / Polyakov L.E., Kruglikov D.A., / / Bulletin of the NNC. – 2008\ P- 106-109.

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Берілген рефератқа 3 беттік статья және слайд құру керек.

Federal Educational AgencyState Establishment of Higher Education

Tomsk Polytechnic University

Department: Physical TechnicalSpecialization: Physics

Mass Spectrometry as a Component of Nuclear Forensics

Student of group 0М102: M. K. SeysenbaevaLanguage consultant: R. I. Tolbanova Supervised by: D. S. Isachenko

Tomsk 2011

ABSTRACT

The project work purpose is to show, that mass spectrometry plays major role in

nuclear forensics.

The given project work consists of five sections: introduction, the basic part, the

conclusion, the list of the literature and a glossary. In introduction data about Nuclear

smuggling are considered. In the first part some information about new science – nuclear

forensics is given. The methodology developed in nuclear forensics may also be applied

for source attribution of nuclear material in contaminated scrap metal or environmental

samples. Also pre-detonation and post-detonation are discussed in this project work. The

second basic part consists of four sections devoted to general information, ionization

methods, mass analyzer and ion detectors.

Nowadays, further development modern techniques to solve problems of nuclear

forensics require. One of them is mass spectrometry. But to develop this new brunch of

science high schools has to produce specialists in this field.

There is a list of literature and a glossary in which some terms used in this project

work are given.

Key words: nuclear forensics, mass spectrometry, mass analyzer, ion detectors,

post-detonation.

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................30

NUCLEAR FORENSICS....................................................................................31

Post-Detonation Nuclear Forensics...................................................................32

THE MASS SPECTROMETRY..........................................................................33

General information...........................................................................................33

Ionization methods.............................................................................................34

Mass analyzer.....................................................................................................36

Magnetic Sector....................................................................................................36

Quadruple mass analyzer.....................................................................................37

Ion detectors........................................................................................................39

Faraday Collector.................................................................................................39

The Continuous Electron Multiplier....................................................................40

CONCLUSION....................................................................................................41

REFERENCES.....................................................................................................41

GLOSSARY.........................................................................................................42

INTRODUCTION

Nuclear smuggling is one of the most important international security issues, since

the risk of misuse of nuclear materials pose a threat to the entire international community.

In a broad sense, refers to nuclear smuggling illicit trafficking in nuclear and radioactive

materials and radiation sources. Traditionally, however, this concept applies primarily to

weapon-grade materials - highly enriched uranium and plutonium, as it is this category of

materials is of greatest interest to both countries trying to develop a covert nuclear

weapons program, and for terrorist organizations. The threat of nuclear terrorism in recent

years have increasingly discussed at the international level. Special attention is paid to the

potential creation of terrorist nuclear explosive device or a so-called "dirty bombs" with

nuclear materials. Illicit trafficking in nuclear materials and radioactive substances began

to pay greater attention in 1990, in connection with the detection of cases of nuclear

smuggling. This raises several issues related to the identification, designation, degree of

risk, background and ways of transportation of the detained material. Answers to these

questions could only give specialized expertise, so the services responsible for

investigating cases of nuclear smuggling, resorted to various research institutes and

enterprises with the necessary equipment to conduct such studies. However, the specifics

of the analysis and the sensitivity of the results require more careful and thorough

approach.

Now a new line of research - nuclear forensics is developing. Since the nuclear

smuggling goes beyond one state, it automatically becomes a subject of international

attention and cooperation. So in 1996, was created the International Technical Working

Group on nuclear smuggling, closely engaged in the consideration of cases of illicit

trafficking in nuclear materials, the systematization of lessons learned, technical guidelines

and protocols in the field of nuclear forensics.

To meet the challenges of maintaining security and preventing illegal traffic in nuclear

materials have the following departments of the IAEA: The Department of safeguards and

the Department of Nuclear Safety, respectively. To solve these problems, answer to a

question about switching peaceful activities in the field of atomic energy for military

channel in the case of guarantees and the question of the origin of nuclear materials in case

of illegal trafficking is important to choose the right method for the analysis of nuclear

materials. The most powerful method for analyzing the nuclear materials is mass

spectrometry, which allows accurate measurement of even very small amounts of uranium

and plutonium in the "swipe" samples.

NUCLEAR FORENSICS

Nuclear forensic science originated and was developed during the Cold War. Since

then, the world has changed dramatically, but the need for experts that narrow

specialization is not decreased but even increased - due to the threat posed by international

terrorist cells. Meanwhile, today in all the national laboratories, work not more than 50

nuclear detectives. Moreover, half of them in the next 10-15 years will retire and a new

generation of experts of this profile have not appear itself, because many American

universities have finished to prepare specialists in this field. Since the beginning of the

1990s, cases of illicit trafficking involving nuclear material were started being reported.

As a result, nuclear material has become a part of the forensic investigations and a new

discipline - nuclear forensic science - was developed. Obviously, the question on the

origin of the material, its intended used and the last legal owner needs to be answered. The

methodology developed in nuclear forensics may also be applied for source attribution of

nuclear material in contaminated scrap metal or environmental samples, e.g. illegal

dumping of nuclear waste or accidental release. The source attribution can be achieved

using the characteristics inherent to the nuclear material. For each seized sample a specific

analytical strategy needs to be developed, taking into account the particular conditions of

the seizure, the very nature of the material and of its packing and other evidence. The

analytical strategy is based on a step-by-step approach, where experimental results are

compared to information on nuclear material of known origin contained in a relational

database. Based on the actual findings, the next step is defined and performed. Numerous

analytical techniques are used in the investigations, including radiometric and mass

spectrometric techniques as well as electron microscopy. The Institute for Transuranium

Elements (ITU) has worked on the field of nuclear forensic science from the beginning

and has contributed significantly to its development. The instrumentation available in the

laboratories is specifically adapted for work with nuclear material. The instruments are

routinely applied for nuclear material analysis in several areas, e.g. safeguards, material

science, contractual work, method development, environmental studies. Since 1992,

around 30 samples of seized nuclear material (from natural uranium to weapons grade

plutonium, from particles to bulk material) have been analyzed in the context of nuclear

forensic investigations [1].

Post-Detonation Nuclear Forensics

Nuclear forensics, in a field of nuclear explosions investigation, makes two

important things. First – developing methods to detect fissile materials (pre-detonation),

and the second – detection post-detonation radioactive particles.

After nuclear explosion, radio chemists would seek to obtain minute quantities of

debris from the nuclear device near ground zero and/or in the atmosphere. They would

first separate the atoms into groups of chemically similar elements and then measure the

radioactivity of each group. To do so, scientists often employ gamma-ray spectroscopy to

measure the time of emission and the energy of each detectable gamma ray,

electromagnetic radiation produced by radioactive decay.

The energy of the detected gamma ray is unique to each isotope of a specific

element, thereby indicating its presence in the debris. Furthermore, the rate at which that

isotope emits its signature gamma ray decays in time according to its unique half-life,

thereby providing a second identifier of the isotope. By knowing the chemistry of elements

that have been separated, the energy of the gamma rays of any radioactive atoms in that

chemical group, and the rate at which the emission of the gamma rays at each particular

energy level decays over time, scientists can obtain an accurate measurement of many of

the isotopes of the chemical elements in the debris. Because there is always experimental

uncertainty, particularly with small samples, all three processes (separation, energy

measurement, and time dependence) may be used.

Three types of atoms are of particular interest in a forensic analysis:

Atoms of fissile material that did not undergo fission. Examining them allows

scientists to identify the material used to make the device and, when compared to the

number of fission fragments, to measure the efficiency or sophistication of the

weapon.

New atoms created by fission and by other nuclear reactions within the fissile material.

When scientists compare these, they can obtain considerable insight into the nuclear

processes that were involved during the actual explosion.

Atoms of material near the fissioning core that were subjected to an intense

bombardment of neutrons during the explosion and became radioactive as a

consequence. These atoms provide insight into the components of the weapon and the

energy of the neutrons that activated the components.

Post-detonation forensics are by no means limited to the steps noted above, nor does

the description of even these steps do justice to the creativity and sophistication of

instrumentation and techniques that have evolved since the beginning of the nuclear age

and which continue to evolve and improve in the face of nuclear terrorism. The

Departments of Defense, Homeland Security, and Energy have substantial and continuing

research and operational programs in the field [2].

THE MASS SPECTROMETRY

General information

Mass spectrometers can be divided into three fundamental parts, namely the

ionization source , the analyzer , and the detector(Figure 1).

The sample has to be introduced into the ionization source of the instrument.

Once inside the ionization source, the sample molecules are ionized, because ions are

easier to manipulate than neutral molecules. These ions are extracted into the

analyzer region of the mass spectrometer where they are separated according to their

mass (m) -to-charge (z) ratios (m/z). The separated ions are detected and this signal

sent to a data system where the m/z ratios are stored together with their relative

abundance for presentation in the format of m/z spectrum.

Fig 1 - Simplified schematic of a mass spectrometer

The analyser and detector of the mass spectrometer, and often the ionisation source

too, are maintained under high vacuum to give the ions a reasonable chance of travelling

from one end of the instrument to the other without any hindrance from air molecules. The

entire operation of the mass spectrometer, and often the sample introduction process also,

is under complete data system control on modern mass spectrometers[3].

Ionization methods

A variety of ionization techniques are used for mass spectrometry. Most ionization

techniques excite the neutral analyte molecule which then ejects an electron to form a

radical cation. Other ionization techniques involve ion molecule reactions that produce

adduct ions. The most important considerations are the physical state of the analyte and

the ionization energy. Electron ionization and chemical ionization are only suitable for gas

phase ionization. Fast atom bombardment, secondary ion mass spectrometry, electrospray,

and matrix assisted laser desorption are used to ionize condensed phase samples. The

ionization energy is significant because it controls the amount of fragmentation observed

in the mass spectrum.

Although this fragmentation complicates the mass spectrum, it provides structural

information for the identification of unknown compounds. Some ionization techniques are

very soft and only produce molecular ions, other techniques are very energetic and cause

ions to undergo extensive fragmentation. Although this fragmentation complicates the

mass spectrum, it provides structural information for the identification of unknown

compounds.[2]

Electrospray Ionisation (ESI) is one of the Atmospheric Pressure Ionisation (API)

techniques and is well-suited to the analysis of polar molecules ranging from less than 100

Da to more than 1,000,000 Da in molecular mass(Figure 2).During standard electrospray ionization, the sample is dissolved in a polar, volatile solvent and pumped through a

narrow, stainless steel capillary. A high voltage of 3 or 4 kV is applied to the tip of the capillary, which is situated within the

ionization source of the mass spectrometer, and as a consequence of this strong electric field, the sample emerging from the tip

is dispersed into an aerosol of highly charged droplets, a process that is aided by a co-axially introduced nebulising gas flowing

around the outside of the capillary. This gas, usually nitrogen, helps to direct the spray emerging from the capillary tip towards

the mass spectrometer.

Fig 2 – Standard electrospray ionization source

The charged droplets diminish in size by solvent evaporation, assisted by a

warm flow of nitrogen known as the drying gas which passes across the front of

the ionization source (Figure 3).

Fig 3 – The electrospray ionization process

Eventually charged sample ions, free from solvent, are released from the droplets,

some of which pass through a sampling cone or orifice into an intermediate vacuum

region, and from there through a small aperture into the analyzer of the mass spectrometer,

which is held under high vacuum. The lens voltages are optimized individually for each

sample [3].

Mass analyzer

Magnetic Sector

The first mass spectrometer, built by J.J. Thompson in 1897, used a magnet to

measure the m/z value of an electron. Magnetic sector instruments have evolved from this

same concept. Sector instruments have higher resolution and greater mass range than

quadruple instruments, but they require larger vacuum pumps and often scan more slowly.

The typical mass range is to m/z 5000, but this may be extended to m/z 30,000. Magnetic sector

instruments are often used in series with an electric sector, described below, for high resolution and tandem mass spectrometry

experiments.

Fig 4 – Magnetic Sector mass spectrometer

Magnetic sector instruments (Figure 4) separate ions in a magnetic field according

to the momentum and charge of the ion. Ions are accelerated from the source region into

the magnetic sector by a 1 to 10 kV electric field. This acceleration is significantly greater

than the 100 V acceleration typical for a quadruple instrument. Since the ions are charged,

as they move through the magnetic sector, the magnetic field bends the ion beam in an arc.

This is the same principal that causes electric motors to turn. The radius of this arc (r) depends upon

the momentum of the ion (μ), the charge of the ion (C) and the magnetic field strength (B).

(1)

Ions with greater momentum will follow an arc with a larger radius. This separates ions

according to their momentum, so magnetic sectors are often called momentum analyzers.

The momentum of the ion is the product of the mass (m) and the velocity (v). The charge

of the ion is the product of the charge number of the ion (z) and the charge of an electron (e).

Substituting these variables into eq. 1 yields:

(2)

The velocity of an ion is determined by the acceleration voltage in the source region (V)

and the mass to charge ratio (m/z) of the ion. Equation 2 rearranges to give the m/z ion

transmitted for a given radius, magnetic field, and acceleration voltage as:

(3)

Only one m/z value will satisfy Equation 3 for a given radius, magnetic field and

acceleration voltage. Other m/z ions will travel a different radius in the magnetic sector.

Older magnetic sector instruments use a photographic plate to simultaneously detect ions

at different radii. Since each m/z has a different radius, they strike the photographic plate

at a different location. Modern instruments have a set of slits at a fixed radius to transmit a

single m/z to the detector. The mass spectrum is scanned by changing the magnetic field or

the acceleration voltage to transmit different m/z ions. Some new instruments use

multichannel diode array detectors to simultaneously detect ions over a range of m/z

values [2].

Quadruple mass analyzer

The quadruple mass spectrometer is the most common mass analyzer. Its compact

size, fast scan rate, high transmission efficiency, and modest vacuum requirements are

ideal for small inexpensive instruments. Most quadruple instruments are limited to unit

m/z resolution and have a mass range of m/z 1000. Many bench top instruments have a

mass range of m/z 500 but research instruments are available with mass range up to m/z

4000.

In the mass spectrometer, an electric field accelerates ions out of the source region

and into the quadruple analyzer. The analyzer consists of four rods or electrodes arranged

across from each other (Figure 5). As the ions travel through the quadruple they are

filtered according to their m/z value so that only a single m/z value ion can strike the

detector. The m/z value transmitted by the quadruple is determined by the Radio

Frequency (RF) and Direct Current (DC) voltages applied to the electrodes. These

voltages produce an oscillating electric field that functions as a band pass filter to transmit

the selected m/z value. The RF voltage rejects or transmits ions according to their m/z

value by alternately focusing them in different planes (Figure 5). The four electrodes are

connected in pairs and the RF potential is applied between these two pairs of electrodes.

During the first part of the RF cycle the top and bottom rods are at a positive potential and

the left and right rods are at a negative potential. This squeezes positive ions into the

horizontal plane. During the second half of the RF cycle the polarity of the rods is

reversed. This changes the electric field and focuses the ions in the vertical plane. The

quadruple field continues to alternate as the ions travel through the mass analyzer. This

causes the ions to undergo a complex set of motions that produces a three-dimensional

wave.

The quadruple field transmits selected ions because the amplitude of this three-

dimensional wave depends upon the m/z value of the ion, the potentials applied, and the

RF frequency. By selecting an appropriate RF frequency and potential, the quadruple acts

like a high pass filter, transmitting high m/z ions and rejecting low m/z ions. The low m/z ions have a greater acceleration rate so the wave for these ions has a greater amplitude. If this amplitude is great the ions will

Fig 5 - Quadruple mass analyzer

collide with the electrodes and can not reach the detector. The low m/z value cutoff of the

quadruple is changed by adjusting the RF potential or the RF frequency. Any ions with a

m/z greater than this cutoff are transmitted by the quadruple. A DC voltage is also applied

across the rods of the analyzer. This potential combined with the RF potential acts like a

low pass filter to reject high m/z ions. Because they respond quickly to the changing RF

field the motion of the low m/z ions is dominated by the RF potential. This motion

stabilizes their trajectory by refocusing each time the RF potential changes polarity.

Because low m/z ions are quickly refocused, the DC potential does not affect these ions.

High m/z ions, however, do not refocus as quickly during the RF cycle. The DC potential

has a greater influence on their trajectory and they slowly drift away from the center of the

quadruple. At the end of the analyzer, they are too far off-axis to strike the detector. The

combination of high and low pass filters produced by the RF and DC potentials is adjusted

to only transmit the selected m/z value. All ions above or below the set m/z value are

rejected by the quadruple filter. The RF and DC fields are scanned (either by potential or

frequency) to collect a complete mass spectrum. Quadruple mass analyzers are often

called mass filters because of the similarity between m/z selection by a quadruple and

wavelength selection by an optical filter or frequency selection by an electronic filter [2].

Ion detectors

Detection of ions is based upon their charge or momentum. For large signals a faraday

cup is used to collect ions and measure the current. Older instruments used photographic

plates to measure the ion abundance at each mass to charge ratio. Most detectors currently

used amplify the ion signal using a collector similar to a photomultiplier tube. These

amplifying detectors include: electron multipliers, channeltrons and multichannel plates.

The gain is controlled by changing the high voltage applied to the detector. A detector is

selected for it's speed, dynamic range, gain, and geometry. Some detectors are sensitive

enough to detect single ions.

Faraday Collector

The original mass spectrometers used photolytic plates as detectors. However, the

design of Nier in 1947 initiated the use of electronic detectors (hence the term mass

“spectrometry” instead of “spectroscopy”). For isotope ratio measurements and some

inorganic MS, Faraday cup collectors are used as the detector. Otherwise, the most

commonly used detectors are the electron multiplier and the micro channel plate. In both

of these detectors, ions strike a metal plate, leading to a cascade of electron emissions that

result in a measurable current.

The Continuous Electron Multiplier A "continuous-dynode" structure is feasible if the material of the electrodes has a high resistance, so that the functions

of secondary-emission and voltage-division are merged. This is often built as a funnel of glass coated inside with a thin film of

semi-conducting material, with negative high voltage applied at the wider input end, and positive voltage near ground applied

at the narrower output end. Electrons emitted at any point are accelerated a modest distance down the funnel before impacting

the surface, perhaps on the opposite side of the funnel. At the destination end a separate electrode (anode) remains necessary to

collect the multiplied electrons (Figure 6). This structure is also known as (single) channel electron multiplier (CEM), and one

of the most common is sold under the trade name Channeltron.

Fig 6 – Electron multiplier

Another geometry of continuous-dynode electron multiplier is called the micro

channel plate. It may be considered a 2-dimensional parallel array of very small

continuous-dynode electron multipliers, built together and powered in parallel too. Each

micro channel is generally parallel-walled, not tapered or funnel-like [5].

CONCLUSION

Mass spectrometry methods are unique techniques for analysis of nuclear materials.

There are various methods for measurement of uranium, plutonium and thorium isotopic

composition. They can not only measure the very low level of these radionuclides, but also

significantly reduce the sample amount needed for the analysis, they are therefore better

than radiometric techniques, especially for low-level environmental samples. Therefore,

methods of mass spectrometry in nuclear forensics have proliferated. However, an acute

shortage of specialists in this field of research. And in this regard, universities must create

new narrowly focused specialty.

REFERENCES

1. Nuclear forensic investigations: Two case studies. M. Wallenius *, K. Mayer, I.

Ray.

2. Arms Control Today October 2006 « Who Did It? Using International Forensics to

Detect and Deter Nuclear Terrorism»

3. An Introduction to Mass Spectrometry. Scott E. Van Bramer.

4. An Introduction to Mass Spectrometry. Dr Alison E. Ashcroft.

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_multiplier

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