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ARCHAEOLOGY
Archaeologyisthestudyofthehumanpastusingmaterialremains.Theseremainscanbeanyobjectsthatpeoplecreated,modified,orused.
Portableremainsareusuallycalledartifacts.Artifactsincludetools,clothing,anddecorations.Non-portableremains,suchaspyramidsorpost-holes,arecalledfeatures.
Archaeologistsuseartifactsandfeaturestolearnhowpeoplelivedinspecifictimesandplaces.Theywanttoknowwhatthesepeople’sdailyliveswerelike,howtheyweregoverned,howtheyinteractedwitheachother,andwhattheybelievedandvalued.
Sometimes,artifactsandfeaturesprovidetheonlycluesaboutanancientcommunityorcivilization.Prehistoriccivilizationsdidnotleavebehindwrittenrecords,sowecannotreadaboutthem.
UnderstandingwhyancientculturesbuiltthegiantstonecirclesatStonehenge,England,forinstance,remainsachallenge5,000yearsafterthefirstmonolithswereerected.ArchaeologistsstudyingStonehengedonothaveancientmanuscriptstotellthemhowculturesusedthefeature.Theyrelyontheenormousstonesthemselves—howtheyarearrangedandthewaythesitedevelopedovertime.
Mostcultureswithwritingsystemsleavewrittenrecordsthatarchaeologistsconsultandstudy.Someofthemostvaluablewrittenrecordsareeverydayitems,suchasshoppinglistsandtaxforms.Latin,thelanguageofancient
Forthecompleteencyclopedicentrywithmediaresources,visit:http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/archaeology/
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Rome,helpsarchaeologistsunderstandartifactsandfeaturesdiscoveredinpartsoftheRomanEmpire.TheuseofLatinshowshowfartheempire’sinfluenceextended,andtherecordsthemselvescantellarchaeologistswhatfoodswereavailableinanarea,howmuchtheycost,andwhatbuildingsbelongedtofamiliesorbusinesses.
Manyancientcivilizationshadcomplexwritingsystemsthatarchaeologistsandlinguistsarestillworkingtodecipher.ThewrittensystemoftheMayanlanguage,forinstance,remainedamysterytoscholarsuntilthe20thcentury.TheMayawereoneofthemostpowerfulpre-ColumbiancivilizationsinNorthAmerica,andtheirCentralAmericantemplesandmanuscriptsareinscribedwithacollectionofsquaredglyphs,orsymbols.Aseriesofcirclesandlinesrepresentsnumbers.
BydecipheringtheMayanscript,archaeologistswereabletotracetheancestryofMayankingsandchartthedevelopmentoftheircalendarandagriculturalseasons.UnderstandingthebasicsoftheMayanwritingsystemhelpsarchaeologistsdiscoverhowMayanculturefunctioned—howtheyweregoverned,howtheytradedwithsomeneighborsandwenttowarwithothers,whattheyate,andwhatgodstheyworshipped.
AsarchaeologistsbecomemorefluentinMayanwriting,theyaremakingnewdiscoveriesaboutthecultureeveryday.Today,somearchaeologistsworkwithlinguistsandpoetstopreservetheonce-lostMayanlanguage.
HistoryofArchaeology
Theword“archaeology”comesfromtheGreekword“arkhaios,”whichmeans“ancient.”Althoughsomearchaeologistsstudylivingcultures,mostarchaeologistsconcernthemselveswiththedistantpast.
Peoplehavedugupmonumentsandcollectedartifactsforthousandsofyears.Often,thesepeoplewerenotscholars,butlootersandgraverobberslookingto
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makemoneyorbuilduptheirpersonalcollections.
Forinstance,graverobbershavebeenplunderingthemagnificenttombsofEgyptsincethetimethePyramidswerebuilt.GraverobbingwassuchacommoncrimeinancientEgyptthatmanytombshavehiddenchamberswherethefamilyofthedeceasedwouldplacetreasures.
InEgyptinthemid-1800s,anEgyptianmansearchingforalostgoatstumbledacrossthetombofPharaohRamsesI.(Manyarchaeologistsdoubtthisstoryandsaygraverobbers,workingasanorganizedgroup,routinelyscoutedandplunderedmanytombsinthearea.)RamsesIruledforashorttimeinthe1290sBCE.Besidesthebodyofthepharaoh,thetombheldartifactssuchaspottery,paintings,andsculpture.Themansoldthemummiesandartifactsfromthetombtoanyonewhowouldpay.
ThemummyofRamsesIwoundupinamuseuminNiagaraFalls,Ontario,Canada,whereitremaineduntilthemuseumclosedin1999.TheCanadianmuseumsoldtheEgyptiancollectiontotheMichaelC.CarlosMuseuminAtlanta,Georgia,whichconfirmedthemummy’sroyalstatusthroughtheuseofCTscanners,X-rays,radiocarbondating,computerimaging,andothertechniques.RamsesIwasreturnedtoEgyptin2003.
Oneofthemostwell-knownarchaeologicalfindsisthetombofPharaohTutankhamun,alsoknownasKingTut.UnlikemanyotherEgyptiantombs,graverobbershadneverdiscoveredKingTut.Hisrestingplacelayundisturbedforthousandsofyears,untilitwasdiscoveredin1922.InadditiontomummiesofTutankhamunandhisfamily,thetombcontainedsome5,000artifacts.
Manyearlyarchaeologistsworkedintheserviceofinvadingarmies.WhenGen.NapoleonBonaparteofFrancesuccessfullyinvadedEgyptin1798,hebroughtartists,archaeologists,andhistorianstodocumenttheconquest.Napoleon’stroopstookhomehundredsoftonsofEgyptianartifacts:columns,coffins,stone
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tablets,monumentalstatues.Today,theseEgyptianantiquitiestakeupentirefloorsoftheLouvreMuseuminParis,France.
Somearchaeologistsofthistimewerewealthyadventurers,explorers,andmerchants.Theseamateurarchaeologistsoftenhadasincereinterestinthecultureandartifactstheystudied.However,theirworkisoftenregardedasanexampleofcolonialismandexploitation.Theso-calledElginMarblesareanexampleofthiscontroversy.
In1801,GreecehadbeentakenoverbytheOttomanEmpire.TheBritishambassadortotheOttomanEmpire,LordElgin,receivedpermissiontoremovehalfofthesculpturesfromthefamousAcropolisofAthens,Greece.ThesemarblesculptureswereapartofbuildingssuchastheParthenon.LordElginclaimedhewantedtoprotectthevaluablesculpturesfromdamagecausedbyconflictbetweentheGreeksandtheOttomans.
ThegovernmentofGreecehasbeenlobbyingforthereturnoftheElginMarbleseversince.MostGreeksviewthesculpturesaspartoftheirculturalheritage.GreecehascutoffdiplomaticrelationstotheUnitedKingdomseveraltimes,demandingthereturnofthesculptures,whichremainintheBritishMuseuminLondon.
Eventually,archaeologyevolvedintoamoresystematicdiscipline.Scientistsstartedusingstandardweightsandmeasuresandotherformalizedmethodsforrecordingandremovingartifacts.Theyrequireddetaileddrawingsanddraftsoftheentiredigsite,aswellasindividualpieces.Archaeologistsbegantoworkwithclassicists,historians,andlinguiststodevelopaunifiedpictureofthepast.
Inthe20thcentury,archaeologistsbegantore-assesstheirimpactontheculturesandenvironmentswheretheydig.Today,inmostcountries,archaeologicalremainsbecomethepropertyofthecountrywheretheywerefound,regardlessofwhofindsthem.Egypt,forexample,isscatteredwitharchaeologicalsitessponsoredbyAmericanuniversities.Theseteamsmust
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obtainpermissionfromtheEgyptiangovernmenttodigatthesites,andallartifactsbecomethepropertyofEgypt.
DisciplinesofArchaeology
Archaeologyisbasedonthescientificmethod.Archaeologistsaskquestionsanddevelophypotheses.Theyuseevidencetochooseadigsite,thenusescientificsamplingtechniquestoselectwhereonthesitetodig.Theyobserve,record,categorize,andinterpretwhattheyfind.Thentheysharetheirresultswithotherscientistsandthepublic.
Underwaterarchaeologistsstudymaterialsatthebottomoflakes,rivers,andoceans.Underwaterarchaeologyencompassesanyprehistoricandhistoricperiods,andalmostallsub-disciplinesasarchaeology.Artifactsandfeaturesaresimplysubmerged.
Artifactsstudiedbyunderwaterarchaeologistscouldbetheremainsofashipwreck.In1985,NationalGeographicExplorer-in-ResidenceDr.RobertBallardhelpedlocatethewreckofRMSTitanic,whichsankintheNorthAtlanticOceanin1912,killingabout1,500people.Ballardandotherscientistsusedsonartolocatethewreck,whichhadbeenlostsincetheoceanlinersank.ByexploringTitanicusingremote-controlledcameras,Ballardandhiscrewdiscoveredfactsabouttheshipwreck(suchasthefacttheshipbrokeintwolargepiecesasitsank)aswellashundredsofartifacts,suchasfurniture,lightingfixtures,andchildren’stoys.
Underwaterarchaeologyincludesmorethanjustshipwrecks,however.SitesincludehuntcampsonthecontinentalshelfoftheGulfofMexico,andportionsoftheancientcityofAlexandria,Egypt,submergedduetoearthquakesandsealevelrise.
Thisbasicframeworkcarriesacrossmanydifferentdisciplines,orareasof
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study,withinarchaeology.
PrehistoricandHistoricArchaeologyTherearetwomajordisciplinesofarchaeology:prehistoricarchaeologyandhistoricarchaeology.Withinthesegroupsaresubdisciplines,basedonthetimeperiodstudied,thecivilizationstudied,orthetypesofartifactsandfeaturesstudied.
Prehistoricarchaeologydealswithcivilizationsthatdidnotdevelopwriting.Artifactsfromthesesocietiesmayprovidetheonlyclueswehaveabouttheirlives.ArchaeologistsstudyingtheClovispeople,forinstance,haveonlyarrowheads—calledprojectilepoints—andstonetoolsasartifacts.TheuniqueprojectilepointswerefirstdiscoveredinClovis,NewMexico,intheUnitedStates,andtheculturewasnamedafterthetown.So-calledClovispointsestablishtheClovispeopleasoneofthefirstinhabitantsofNorthAmerica.ArchaeologistshavedatedClovispointstoabout13,000yearsago.
Asubdisciplineofprehistoricarchaeologyispaleopathology.Paleopathologyisthestudyofdiseaseinancientcultures.(Paleopathologyisalsoasubdisciplineofhistoricalarchaeology.)Paleopathologistsmayinvestigatethepresenceofspecificdiseases,whatareaslackedcertaindiseases,andhowdifferentcommunitiesreactedtodisease.Bystudyingthehistoryofadisease,paleopathologistsmaycontributetoanunderstandingofthewaymoderndiseasesprogress.Paleopathologistscanalsofindcluesaboutpeople’soverallhealth.Bystudyingtheteethofancientpeople,forexample,paleopathologistscandeducewhatkindsoffoodtheyate,howoftentheyate,andwhatnutrientsthefoodscontained.
Historicarchaeologyincorporateswrittenrecordsintoarchaeologicalresearch.OneofthemostfamousexamplesofhistoricarchaeologyisthediscoveryanddeciphermentoftheRosettaStone.TheRosettaStoneisalargeslabofmarblediscoverednearRashid,Egypt,byFrencharchaeologistsin1799.Itbecamean
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importanttoolofhistoricarchaeology.
ThestoneisinscribedwithadecreemadeonbehalfofPharaohPtolemyV.Thedecreewaswrittenandcarvedintothestoneinthreedifferentlanguages:hieroglyphic,demotic,andGreek.Hieroglyphicsarethepicture-symbolsusedforformaldocumentsinancientEgypt.DemoticistheinformalscriptofancientEgypt.BeforethediscoveryoftheRosettaStone,Egyptologistsdidnotunderstandhieroglyphicsordemotic.Theycould,however,understandGreek.UsingtheGreekportionoftheRosettaStone,archaeologistsandlinguistswereabletotranslatethetextanddecipherhieroglyphs.ThisknowledgehascontributedvastlytoourunderstandingofEgyptianhistory.
Historicarchaeologycontributestomanydisciplines,includingreligiousstudies.TheDeadSeaScrolls,forinstance,areacollectionofabout900documents.Thetightlyrolledparchmentandotherwritingsheetswerefoundbetween1947and1956in11cavesnearQumran,WestBank,neartheDeadSea.AmongthescrollsaretextsfromtheHebrewBible,writteninHebrew,Aramaic,andGreek.
TheDeadSeaScrollsaretheoldestversionsofBiblicaltextseverfound,datingfrombetweenthethirdcenturyBCEtothefirstcenturyCE.Thescrollsalsocontaintexts,psalms,andpropheciesthatarenotpartoftoday’sBible.DiscoveryofthescrollshasincreasedourknowledgeofthedevelopmentofJudaismandChristianity.
Asubdisciplineofhistoricarchaeologyisindustrialarchaeology.IndustrialarchaeologistsstudymaterialsthatwerecreatedorusedaftertheIndustrialRevolutionofthe1700sand1800s.TheIndustrialRevolutionwasstrongestinWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,somostindustrialarchaeologistsstudyartifactsfoundthere.
OneofthemostimportantsitesforindustrialarchaeologistsistheIronbridgeGorgeinShropshire,England.TheRiverSevernrunsthroughthegorge,andduringtheIndustrialRevolution,itallowedforthetransportofrawmaterials
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suchascoal,limestone,andiron.Infact,theworld’sfirstironbridgespanstheSevernthere.Bystudyingartifactsandfeatures(suchastheironbridge),industrialarchaeologistsareabletotracethearea’seconomicdevelopmentasitmovedfromagriculturetomanufacturingandtrade.
OtherDisciplinesEthnoarchaeologistsstudyhowpeopleuseandorganizeobjectstoday.Theyusethisknowledgetounderstandhowpeopleusedtoolsinthepast.ArchaeologistsresearchingtheancientSancultureofsouthernAfrica,forinstance,studythewaymodernSanculturefunctions.Untilthemid-20thcentury,theSan,maintainedasomewhatnomadiclifestylebasedonhuntingandgathering.AlthoughtheSanculturehadevolvedsignificantly,archaeologistsstudyingthetoolsofthemodernSancouldstillstudythewayancientSantrackedandhuntedanimalsandgatherednativeplants.
Environmentalarchaeologistshelpusunderstandtheenvironmentalconditionsthatinfluencedpeopleinthepast.Sometimes,environmentalarchaeologyiscalledhumanpaleoecology.EnvironmentalarchaeologistsdiscoveredthattheexpansionoftheTaquara/ItararépeopleoftheBrazilianhighlandsiscloselylinkedwiththeexpansionoftheevergreenforestthere.Theforestgrewastheclimatebecamewetter.AstheforestprovidedmoreresourcestotheTaquara/Itararépeople(timber,aswellasplantsandanimalsthatdependedontheevergreentrees),theywereabletoexpandtheirterritory.
Experimentalarchaeologistsreplicatethetechniquesandprocessespeopleusedtocreateoruseobjectsinthepast.Often,re-creatinganancientworkshoporhomehelpsexperimentalarchaeologistsunderstandtheprocessormethodusedbyancientpeopletocreatefeaturesorartifacts.OneofthemostfamousexamplesofexperimentalarchaeologyistheKon-Tiki,alargeraftbuiltbyNorwegianexplorerThorHeyerdahl.In1947,HeyerdahlsailedtheKon-TikifromSouthAmericatoPolynesiatoshowthatancientmariners,withthesametoolsandtechnology,couldhavenavigatedthevastPacificOcean.
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ForensicarchaeologistssometimesworkwithgeneticiststosupportorquestionDNAevidence.Moreoften,theyexcavatetheremainsofvictimsofmurderorgenocideinareasofconflict.Forensicarchaeologyisimportanttotheunderstandingofthe“KillingFields”ofCambodia,forinstance.TheKillingFieldsarethesitesofmassgravesofthousandsofvictimsoftheKhmerRougeregimeofthe1970s.AfterthefalloftheKhmerRouge,forensicarchaeologistsstudiedtheremainsofthebodiesintheKillingFields,discoveringhowandwhentheydied.TheforensicarchaeologistshelpedestablishthattheKhmerRougeusedstarvationandoverwork,aswellasdirectkilling,tosilenceopponentsoftheregime.
Archaeologistsworkinginthefieldofculturalresourcemanagementhelpassessandpreserveremainsonsiteswhereconstructionisscheduledtooccur.Archaeologistsworkingasculturalresourcemanagersoftencollaboratewithlocalgovernmentstobalancetheinfrastructureandcommercialneedsofacommunitywithhistoricandculturalinterestsrepresentedbyartifactsandfeaturesfoundonconstructionsites.
WheretoDig?
Mostarchaeologyinvolvesdigging.Windsandfloodscarrysand,dustandsoil,depositingthemontopofabandonedfeaturesandartifacts.Thesedepositsbuildupovertime,buryingtheremains.Sometimescatastrophes,likevolcaniceruptions,speedupthisburialprocess.Inplaceswhereearthhasbeencarvedaway—likeintheGrandCanyonintheU.S.stateofArizona—youcanactuallyseethelayersofsoilthathavebuiltupoverthecenturies,likelayersofacake.
Citiesandcommunitiesalsotendtobebuiltinlayers.Rome,Italy,hasbeenanurbancenterforthousandsofyears.ThestreetsofdowntownRometodayareseveralmetershigherthantheywereduringthetimeofJuliusCaesar.CenturiesofRomanshavebuiltitup—medievalhomeontopofancienthome,modernhomeontopofmedievalhome.
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Establishingadigsiteinaninhabitedareacanbeaverydifficultprocess.Notonlyaretheinhabitantsoftheareainconvenienced,archaeologistsdon’tknowwhattheymayfind.ArchaeologistslookingforanancientRomanfortress,forinstance,mayhavetofirstexcavateaRenaissancebakeryandmedievalhospital.
Becausemostartifactslieunderground,scientistshavedevelopedmethodstohelpthemfigureoutwheretheyshoulddig.Sometimestheychoosesitesbasedonoldmythsandstoriesaboutwherepeoplelivedorwhereeventsoccurred.TheancientcityofTroy,writtenaboutbyGreekpoetHomerasearlyas1190BCE,wasthoughttobeaworkoffiction.Homer’sepicpoemtheIliadwasnamedafterTroy,whichtheGreeksknewasIlion.UsingtheIliadasaguide,GermanamateurarchaeologistHeinrichSchliemanndiscoveredtheruinsofthecitynearthetownofHisarlik,Turkey,in1870.Schliemann’sfindhelpedprovideevidencethattheTrojanWarmayhaveactuallytakenplace,andthatancientmanuscriptsmaybebasedonfact.
Sometimes,archaeologistsusehistoricalmapstofindancientartifacts.In1973,forinstance,archaeologistsusedhistoricalmapsandmoderntechnologytolocatethewreckoftheUSSMonitor,an“ironclad”shipusedbytheUnionduringtheCivilWar.TheMonitorsunkinastormoffthecoastofCapeHatteras,NorthCarolina,in1862.Afterarchaeologistsidentifiedtheironclad,theUnitedStatesdesignatedtheareaasthenation’sfirstmarinesanctuary.
Beforesecuringasite,anarchaeologicalteamsurveysthearea,lookingforsignsofremains.Thesemightincludeartifactsonthegroundorunusualmoundsintheearth.Newtechnologyhasgreatlyincreasedtheirabilitytosurveyanarea.Forexample,aerialandsatelliteimagerycanshowpatternsthatmightnotbevisiblefromtheground.
Othertechnologiesgivecluesaboutwhatliesunderthesurface.These
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techniquesinvolveradarandsonar.Radarandsonartechnologiesoftenuseradiowaves,electricalcurrents,andlasers.Archaeologistssendthesesignalsintotheearth.Asthesignalshitsomethingsolid,theybouncebackuptothesurface.Scientistsstudythetimeandpathsthesignalstaketofamiliarizethemselveswiththeundergroundlandscape.
Accidentalfindscanalsoleadarchaeologiststodigsites.Forinstance,farmersplowingtheirfieldsmightcomeacrosssherdsofpottery.Aconstructioncrewmightdiscoverruinsbeneathabuildingsite.
Anothermonumentaldiscoverywasmadebyaccident.In1974,agriculturalworkersinXian,China,werediggingawell.TheydiscoveredtheremainsofwhatturnedouttobeanenormousmausoleumforQinShiHuangdi,China’sfirstemperor.Thecomplexincludes8,000life-sizedclaysoldiers,horses,chariots,andartillery,popularlyknownastheTerraCottaWarriors.ThearchaeologicalresearchsurroundingtheTerraCottaWarriorshasprovidedinsightontheorganizationandleadershipstyleofQinShiHuangdiandthedevelopmentofChineseculture.
Onceasiteischosen,archaeologistsmustgetpermissiontodigfromthelandowner.Ifitispublicland,theymustobtaintheproperpermitsfromthelocal,state,orfederalgovernment.
Beforemovingasinglegrainofdirt,archaeologistsmakemapsoftheareaandtakedetailedphotographs.Oncetheybegindigging,theywilldestroytheoriginallandscape,soitisimportanttorecordhowthingslookedbeforehand.
Thelaststepbeforediggingistodividethesiteintoagridtokeeptrackofthelocationofeachfind.Thenarchaeologistschoosesamplesquaresfromthegridtodig.Thisallowsthearchaeologicalteamtoformacompletestudyofthearea.Theyalsoleavesomeplotsonthegriduntouched.Archaeologistsliketopreserveportionsoftheirdigsitesforfuturescientiststostudy—scientistswho
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mayhavebettertoolsandtechniquesthanareavailabletoday.
Forexample,duringtheGreatDepressioninthe1930s,programstocreatejobsledtomanyarchaeologicaldigsaroundtheUnitedStates.Somescientistsonthesedigsremovedartifacts,suchaspottery,butthrewawaycharcoalandanimalbones.Theseitemswereconsideredjunk.Today,scientistsareabletocarbon-datethecharcoalandanalyzethebonestoseewhatkindsofanimalspeopleweredomesticatingandeatingatthetime.Itisimportantthatarchaeologiststodaykeepsomepartsofeachsitepristine.
Notallarchaeologyinvolvesdiggingintheearth.Archaeologistsandengineersworkwithsophisticatedtechnologytoprobetheearthbelowwithoutdisturbingtheground.NationalGeographicEmergingExplorerDr.AlbertYu-MinLinleadsaninnovativearchaeologicalprojectcenteredinMongolia.TheValleyoftheKhansprojectisusingdigitalimaging,aerialphotography,radar,anddigitalsurveyingtolocatethetombofGenghisKhan.Usingsatellitetechnology,LinandhisteamcanaccessinformationabouttheprojectwithoutdisturbingthelandorevengoingtoMongolia.
TheBigDig
Theprocessofresearchingandsecuringadigsitecantakeyears.Diggingisthefieldworkofarchaeology.Onoccasion,archaeologistsmightneedtomoveearthwithbulldozersandbackhoes.Usually,however,archaeologistsusetoolssuchasbrushes,handshovels,andeventoothbrushestoscrapeawaytheeartharoundartifacts.
Themostcommontoolthatarchaeologistsusetodigisaflattrowel.Atrowelisahand-heldshovelusedforsmoothingaswellasdigging.Archaeologistsusetrowelstoslowlyscrapeawaysoil.Forverysmallordelicateremains,archaeologistsmightalsodigwithdentalpicks,spoons,orveryfineblades.Often,theywillsiftdirtthroughafinemeshscreen.Tinyremains,suchasbeads,canoftenbefoundthisway.
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Archaeologiststakelotsofnotesandphotographsalongeachstepoftheprocess.Sometimestheyincludeaudioandvideorecordings.Globalpositioningsystem(GPS)unitsanddatafromgeographicinformationsystems(GIS)helpthemmapthelocationofvariousfeatureswithahighlevelofprecision.
Whenarchaeologistsfindremains,theyareoftenbrokenordamagedafterhundredsoreventhousandsofyearsunderground.Sunlight,rain,soil,animals,bacteria,andothernaturalprocessescancauseartifactstoerode,rust,rot,break,andwarp.
Sometimes,however,naturalprocessescanhelppreservematerials.Forexample,sedimentsfromfloodsorvolcaniceruptionscanencasematerialsandpreservethem.Inonecase,thechillofanAlpineglacierpreservedthebodyofamanformorethan5,300years!Thediscovereroftheso-called“Iceman,”foundintheAlpsbetweenSwitzerlandandItaly,thoughthewasarecentvictimofmurder,oroneoftheglacier’screvasses.Forensicarchaeologistsstudyinghisbodyweresurprisedtolearnthathewasamurdervictim—thecrimejusttookplacemorethan5,000yearsago.
UncoveredArtifacts
Asartifactsareuncovered,thearchaeologicalteamrecordseverystepoftheprocessthroughphotos,drawings,andnotes.Oncetheartifactshavebeencompletelyremoved,theyarecleaned,labeled,andclassified.
Particularlyfragileordamagedartifactsaresenttoaconservator.Conservatorshavespecialtraininginpreservingandrestoringartifactssotheyarenotdestroyedwhenexposedtoairandlight.Textiles,includingclothingandbedding,areespeciallythreatenedbyexposure.Textileconservatorsmustbefamiliarwithclimate,aswellasthechemicalcompositionoftheclothanddyes,inordertopreservetheartifacts.
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In1961,SwedisharchaeologistsrecoveredtheshipVasa,whichsankin1628.ConservatorsprotectedthedelicateoakstructureofVasabysprayingitwithpolyethyleneglycol(PEG).TheshipwassprayedwithPEGfor17years,andallowedtodryfornine.Today,Vasasitsinitsownenormousmuseum,ahallmarkofSwedishheritage.
Thentheartifactsaresenttoalabforanalysis.Thisisusuallythemosttime-consumingpartofarchaeology.Foreverydayspentdigging,archaeologistsspendseveralweeksprocessingtheirfindsinthelab.
Allofthisanalysis—counting,weighing,categorizing—isnecessary.Archaeologistsusetheinformationtheyfindandcombineitwithwhatotherscientistshavediscovered.Theyusethecombineddatatoaddtothestoryofhumanity’spast.Whendidpeopledeveloptools,andhowdidtheyusethem?Whatdidtheyusetomakeclothing?Didtheirclothingstylesindicatetheirsocialranksandroles?Whatdidtheyeat?Didtheyliveinlargegroupsorsmallerfamilyunits?Didtheytradewithpeoplefromotherregions?Weretheywarlikeorpeaceful?Whatweretheirreligiouspractices?Archaeologistsaskallofthesequestionsandmore.
Thescientistswriteuptheirfindingsandpublishtheminscientificjournals.Otherscientistscanlookatthedataanddebatetheinterpretations,helpingusgetthemostaccuratestory.Publicationalsoletsthepublicknowwhatscientistsarelearningaboutourhistory.
Vocabulary
TermPartofSpeech
Definition
abandoned adjectivedeserted.accurate adjectiveexact.
Acropolis nounlarge,flat-toppedhillthatisthehighestpointofthecityofAthens,Greece.
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aerialphotograph nounpictureofpartoftheEarth'ssurface,usuallytakenfromanairplane.
agriculture nountheartandscienceofcultivatingthelandforgrowingcrops(farming)orraisinglivestock(ranching).
alpineglacier noun massoficethatmovesdownwardfromamountain.
Alpspluralnoun
(highestpeak:MontBlanc,4,807meters/15,771feet)largemountainrangeinsouthernEurope.
amateur adjectivepersonwhostudiesandworksatanactivityorinterestwithoutfinancialbenefitorbeingformallytrainedinit.
ambassador nounpersonwhorepresentsaplace,organization,oridea.
analysis nounprocessofstudyingaproblemorsituation,identifyingitscharacteristicsandhowtheyarerelated.
ancestry noun family(genealogical)orhistoricalbackground.ancient adjectiveveryold.antiquity noun ancientobject.
archaeologist nounpersonwhostudiesartifactsandlifestylesofancientcultures.
archaeology noun studyofhumanhistory,basedonmaterialremains.
artifact nounmaterialremainsofaculture,suchastools,clothing,orfood.
artillery nounweaponsthatlaunchorfirelargeprojectiles,suchascannonsorcatapults.
assess verb toevaluateordeterminetheamountof.
backhoe nounlargepieceofconstructionequipmentconsistingofadiggingbucketonamaneuverablearm.
TermPartofSpeech
Definition
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bacteriapluralnoun
(singular:bacterium)single-celledorganismsfoundineveryecosystemonEarth.
Bible noun holybookoftheChristianreligion.
bulldozer nounvehicleusedformovinglargeobstacles,suchasbouldersortrees.
carbon-date verbtoestimatetheageofanorganismbytrackingthedecayoftheisotopecarbon-14.Alsocalledradiocarbondating.
catastrophe noun disasterorsudden,violentchange.
charcoal nouncarbonmaterialmadebyburningwoodorotherorganicmaterialwithlittleair.
chariot nounvehiclewithtwoorfourwheelsandpulledbyhorses.
Christianity nounreligionbasedontheteachingsofJesusofNazareth.
civilization nouncomplexwayoflifethatdevelopedashumansbegantodevelopurbansettlements.
CivilWar noun(1860-1865)AmericanconflictbetweentheUnion(north)andConfederacy(south).
classicist nounpersonwhostudiesancientGreekandRomancivilization.
climate nounallweatherconditionsforagivenlocationoveraperiodoftime.
Clovispeople noun(13000-9000BCE)oneofthefirstpeopleandculturesnativetoNorthAmerica.AlsocalledLlano.
Clovispoint nounstyleofstoneknife,spearhead,orarrowhead(projectilepoint)foundthroughoutNorthAmericaandassociatedwiththeancientClovisculture.
coal noun dark,solidfossilfuelminedfromtheearth.
TermPartofSpeech
Definition
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coast nounedgeoflandalongtheseaorotherlargebodyofwater.
coffin noun boxcontainingthebodyofadeadperson.
colonialism nountypeofgovernmentwhereageographicareaisruledbyaforeignpower.
commercial adjectivehavingtodowiththebuyingandsellingofgoodsandservices.
community noungroupoforganismsorasocialgroupinteractinginaspecificregionundersimilarenvironmentalconditions.
complex adjectivecomplicated.
conflict nounadisagreementorfight,usuallyoverideasorprocedures.
conquest noun victory.
conservator nounpersonwhorepairs,restores,ormaintainsthequalityofvaluableitems.
continentalshelf nounpartofacontinentthatextendsunderwatertothedeep-oceanfloor.
controversy noun disagreementordebate.crevasse noun deepcrack,especiallyinaglacier.
CTscanner noun
(computerizedtomographyscanner)devicecombiningX-rayandcomputerizedequipmenttoprovidecross-sectionalimagesofinternalbodystructures.AlsocalledaCATscanner.
culturalheritage noun traditionsandcustomsofaspecificpopulation.
culturalresourcemanagement
nounthepracticeofstudyingandpreservingancientremainsonsiteswhereconstructionisscheduledtooccur.
current nounsteady,predictableflowoffluidwithinalargerbodyofthatfluid.
TermPartofSpeech
Definition
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datapluralnoun
(singular:datum)informationcollectedduringascientificstudy.
DeadSeaScrolls noun(100BCE-135CE)leather,papyrus,andcopperscrollscontainingancientJewishwritings.
debate verb toargueordisagreeinaformalsetting.deceased adjectivedead.decipher verb tofigureoutorinterpret.decree noun formalorlegalorder.deduce verb toreachaconclusionbasedoncluesorevidence.
demotic noun(700BCE-400CE)informalwrittenlanguageofancientEgypt.
dentalpick nounsmall,sharpinstrumentusedtoremovematerialfromteeth.
designate verb tonameorsingleout.
digitalimaging nounprocessofcreating,processing,storing,anddisplayingimagesmadefrombinarycode.
diplomaticrelations
noun theformaltiesbetweennations.
discipline noun fieldofstudy.disease noun aharmfulconditionofabodypartororgan.
DNA noun
(deoxyribonucleicacid)moleculeineverylivingorganismthatcontainsspecificgeneticinformationonthatorganism.
domesticate verb totameoradaptforhumanuse.
dust nountiny,dryparticlesofmaterialsolidenoughforwindtocarry.
dye noun pigmentusedtocolorclothoranotherobject.
earthquake nounthesuddenshakingofEarth'scrustcausedbythereleaseofenergyalongfaultlinesorfromvolcanicactivity.
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economic adjectivehavingtodowithmoney.
Egyptologist nounpersonwhostudiesthecultureandhistoryofancientEgypt.
ElginMarbles noun(440-430BCE)largecollectionofancientGreekstatuarydisplayedintheBritishMuseum,London,England.AlsocalledtheParthenonMarbles.
EmergingExplorer nounanadventurer,scientist,innovator,orstorytellerrecognizedbyNationalGeographicfortheirvisionaryworkwhilestillearlyintheircareers.
emperor noun rulerofanempire.encase verb toencloseorcompletelyconfine.
engineer nounpersonwhoplansthebuildingofthings,suchasstructures(constructionengineer)orsubstances(chemicalengineer).
enormous adjectiveverylarge.environmentalarchaeologist
nounpersonwhostudieshowenvironmentalconditionsinfluencedpeopleinthepast.
erode verb towearaway.
ethnoarchaeologistnoun
personwhostudieshowpeopletodayuseandorganizeobjectsinordertounderstandhowtheyusedandorganizedobjectsinthepast.
evergreen noun treethatdoesnotloseitsleaves.excavate verb toexposebydigging.experimentalarchaeologist
nounpersonwhoreplicatestechniquesandprocessesusedtocreateoruseobjectsinthepast.
exploit verb touseortakeadvantageofforprofit.explorer noun personwhostudiesunknownareas.
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Definition
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Explorer-in-Residence
noun
pre-eminentexplorersandscientistscollaboratingwiththeNationalGeographicSocietytomakegroundbreakingdiscoveriesthatgeneratecriticalscientificinformation,conservation-relatedinitiativesandcompellingstories.
extend verb toenlargeorcontinue.extinct adjectivenolongerexisting.familiarize verb tounderstandhowsomethingworksoroperates.
feature nounnon-portablearchaeologicalremains,suchaspyramidsorpost-holes.
fiction nounmedia,suchasbooksorfilms,thatareimaginativeandnottruestories.
fieldwork nounscientificstudiesdoneoutsideofalab,classroom,oroffice.
flood noun overflowofabodyofwaterontoland.fluent adjectiveabletospeak,write,andunderstandalanguage.
food nounmaterial,usuallyofplantoranimalorigin,thatlivingorganismsusetoobtainnutrients.
forensicarchaeologist noun
personwhoexcavatesandstudiestheremainsandartifactssurroundingareascontaininggraves,orsitesofmurderorgenocide.
formal adjectiveofficialorstandardized.fortress noun protectedplace.Alsocalledafort.fragile noun delicateoreasilybroken.
geneticist nounscientistwhostudiesthechemistry,behavior,andpurposesofDNA,genes,andchromosomes.
GenghisKhan noun (1162-1227)founderoftheMongolempire.
genocide nounintentionalmassmurderofaspecificreligious,cultural,orethnicgroup.
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Definition
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geographicinformationsystem(GIS)
nounanysystemforcapturing,storing,checking,anddisplayingdatarelatedtopositionsontheEarth'ssurface.
glacier noun massoficethatmovesslowlyoverland.GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)
nounsystemofsatellitesandreceivingdevicesusedtodeterminethelocationofsomethingonEarth.
glyph nounwrittenmarkorsignthatindicatesthemeaningofwhatiswritten,suchasaletterorsymbol.
gorge noundeep,narrowvalleywithsteepsides,usuallysmallerthanacanyon.
govern verbtomakepublic-policydecisionsforagrouporindividuals.
government nounsystemororderofanation,state,orotherpoliticalunit.
GrandCanyon nounlargegorgemadebytheColoradoRiverintheU.S.stateofArizona.
graverobber nounpersonwhostealsvaluableobjectsfromatomb,mausoleum,orotherburialsite.
GreatDepression noun(1929-1941)periodofveryloweconomicactivityintheU.S.andthroughouttheworld.
grid nounhorizontalandverticallinesusedtolocateobjectsinrelationtooneanotheronamap.
HebrewBible nounholywritingsoftheJewishfaiththatcorrespondwiththeOldTestamentwritingsoftheChristianfaith.AlsocalledtheHebrewScriptures.
HeinrichSchliemann
noun (1822-1890)Germanarchaeologist.
heritage noun culturalorfamilybackground.
hieroglyphicspluralnoun
writtenlanguageusingimagestorepresentwords.
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highlandspluralnoun
plateauorelevatedregionofland.
historicalmap nounrepresentationofspatialinformationdisplayingsitesofhistoricalinterest.
historicarchaeology
nounstudyofpeople,culture,andcivilizationsthatdevelopedwritingsystems.
Homer noun(~800BCE)probablyfictitiousauthoroftheancientGreekepicsTheIliadandTheOdyssey.
hypothesis nounstatementorsuggestionthatexplainscertainquestionsaboutcertainfacts.Ahypothesisistestedtodetermineifitisaccurate.
Iceman noun(3300-3255BCE)naturallymummifiedbodyofamanfoundintheAlpsbetweenItalyandSwitzerland.Nicknamed"Otzi."
Iliad noun(~750BCE)epicbytheGreekpoetHomer,abouteventsoftheTrojanWar.
inconvenience verb todisturborbother.industrialarchaeology
nounstudyofthematerialscreatedduringtheIndustrialRevolution.
IndustrialRevolution
nounchangeineconomicandsocialactivities,beginninginthe18thcentury,broughtbythereplacementofhandtoolswithmachineryandmassproduction.
influence verbtoencourageorpersuadeapersonororganizationtoactacertainway.
infrastructure nounstructuresandfacilitiesnecessaryforthefunctioningofasociety,suchasroads.
inhabit verb toliveinaspecificplace.innovative adjectivenew,advanced,ororiginal.inscribe verb tomarkorengraveasurface.iron noun chemicalelementwiththesymbolFe.
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Definition
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ironclad nounsteam-propelledwarshipprotectedbyplatesofironoranothermetal.
Jewish adjectivehavingtodowiththereligionorcultureofpeopletracingtheirancestrytotheancientMiddleEastandthespiritualleadersAbraham,Isaac,andJacob.
Judaism nounreligionbasedontheholybookoftheTorahandtheteachingsurroundingit.
JuliusCaesar noun (100BCE-44BCE)leaderofancientRome.
KhmerRouge noun(1975-1979)communist,dictatorialgovernmentofCambodialedbyPolPot.
KillingFields nounsitesinCambodiawherethousandsofvictimsoftheKhmerRougeregimeareburiedinmassgraves.
Kon-Tiki noun(1947)raftusedbyexplorerThorHeyerdahltosailfromSouthAmericatothePolynesianislands.
lab noun(laboratory)placewherescientificexperimentsareperformed.
landscape noun thegeographicfeaturesofaregion.
laser noun
(acronymforlightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation)aninstrumentthatemitsathinbeamoflightthatdoesnotfadeoverlongdistances.
Latin noun languageofancientRomeandtheRomanEmpire.
limestone nountypeofsedimentaryrockmostlymadeofcalciumcarbonatefromshellsandskeletonsofmarineorganisms.
linguist noun personwhostudieslanguage.
lobby verbtotrytoinfluencetheactionofgovernmentorotherauthority.
looter noun thief.magnificent adjectiveveryimpressive.
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Definition
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manufacturing noun productionofgoodsorproductsinafactory.manuscript noun writtenmaterial.marble noun typeofmetamorphicrock.mariner noun sailor.
marinesanctuary noun
partoftheoceanprotectedbythegovernmenttopreserveitsnaturalandculturalfeatureswhileallowingpeopletouseandenjoyitinasustainableway.
massgrave nounlargeburialsitewithmanycorpses,usuallyunidentified.
mausoleum noun impressivetomborburialsite.
Maya nounpeopleandculturenativetosoutheasternMexicoandCentralAmerica.
medieval adjectivehavingtodowiththeMiddleAges(500-1400)inEurope.
merchant noun personwhosellsgoodsandservices.
meshnoun,adjective
sheetofwireswoventogetherwithsmall,uniformopenings.
monarch noun kingorqueen.
Monitor noun(1861-1862)steam-poweredmilitaryshipprotectedbymetalplates(an"ironclad")commissionedbytheU.S.NavyduringtheCivilWar.
monolith nountallcolumnorstatuemadefromasingleblockofstone.
monument nounlargestructurerepresentinganevent,idea,orperson.
mummy nouncorpseofapersonoranimalthathasbeenpreservedbynaturalenvironmentalconditionsorhumantechniques.
murder verb tokillaperson.
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Definition
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museum nounspacewherevaluableworksofart,history,orsciencearekeptforpublicview.
myth noun legendortraditionalstory.NapoleonBonaparte
noun(1769-1821)militarygeneralandemperorofFrance.
navigate verb toplananddirectthecourseofajourney.
nomadic adjectivehavingtodowithawayoflifelackingpermanentsettlement.
nutrient nounsubstanceanorganismneedsforenergy,growth,andlife.
obtain verb togetortakepossessionof.
OttomanEmpire noun(1299-1923)empirebasedinTurkeyandstretchingthroughoutsouthernEurope,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.
overwork verb todemandtoomuchofsomeoneorsomething.
paleopathology nounstudyofthehistoryofadiseaseorthehistoryofdiseaseinancientcultures.
parchment nouncarefullypreparedskinofgoatsorotheranimalsusedasmaterialonwhichtowrite.
Parthenon noun(438BCE)ancienttempletothegoddessAthenaontheAcropolisofAthens,Greece.
permit nounofficial,writtenpermissiontodosomething.Sometimescalledalicense.
pharaoh noun rulerofancientEgypt.
plownoun,verb
toolusedforcutting,lifting,andturningthesoilinpreparationforplanting.
plunder verb toroborsteal.
Polynesia nounislandgroupinthePacificOceanbetweenNewZealand,Hawaii,andEasterIsland.
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Definition
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portable adjectiveabletobeeasilytransportedfromoneplacetoanother.
post-hole noundepressionwheresupports(posts)forastructureoncestood.
pottery nounpots,vessels,orothermaterialmadefromclayorceramic.
pre-Columbian adjectivehavingtodowiththeAmericasbeforethearrivalofChristopherColumbusin1492.
prehistoric adjectiveperiodoftimethatoccurredbeforetheinventionofwrittenrecords.
prehistoricarchaeology
nounstudyofpeople,culture,andcivilizationsthatdidnotdevelopwritingsystems.
prior adjectivebeforeoraheadof.pristine adjectivepureorunpolluted.
projectilepoint nounarchaeologicaltermusedtodescribeasharpstonetoolthatcouldbethrown(projected),suchasanarrowhead,spearhead,dart,orblade.
prophecy noun predictionofthefuture.psalm noun sacredsongormusicalpoem.
PtolemyI noun(367-283BCE)GreekgeneralwhobecamepharaohofEgypt.AlsocalledPtolemySoter.
PtolemyV noun(210-181BCE)Egyptianpharaoh.AlsocalledPtolemyEpiphanes.
publish verbtoprovideawrittenpieceofwork,suchasabookornewspaper,forsaleordistribution.
pyramid nounthree-dimensionalshapewithasquarebaseandtriangularsidesthatmeetinapoint.
QinShiHuangdi noun (259-210BCE)firstemperorofChina.
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Definition
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radar noun(RAdioDetectionAndRanging)methodofdeterminingthepresenceandlocationofanobjectusingradiowaves.
radiocarbondating nountoestimatetheageofanorganismbytrackingthedecayoftheisotopecarbon-14.Alsocalledcarbon-dating.
radiowave noun
electromagneticwavewithawavelengthbetween1millimeterand30,000meters,orafrequencybetween10kilohertzand300,000megahertz.
rawmaterial nounmatterthatneedstobeprocessedintoaproducttouseorsell.
regime noun systemofgovernment.rely verb todependon.
Renaissance nounperiodofgreatdevelopmentinscience,art,andeconomyinWesternEuropefromthe14thtothe17thcenturies.
RobertBallard noun(1942-present)oceanographerandNationalGeographicExplorer-in-Residence.
RomanEmpire noun(27BCE-476CE)periodinthehistoryofancientRomewhenthestatewasruledbyanemperor.
RosettaStone noun
(196BCE)largeblackstonecarvedwithadecreeaboutthecoronationofPharaohPtolemyV.Thedecreeiscarvedinthreelanguages:Greek,demotic,andhieroglyphic.
rot verb todecayorspoil.
rust verbtodissolveandformabrittlecoating,asirondoeswhenexposedtoairandmoisture.
San nounpeopleandculturenativetosouthernAfrica.AlsocalledBushmen.
sand noun small,loosegrainsofdisintegratedrocks.
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Definition
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satelliteimagery noun photographsofaplanettakenbyorfromasatellite.scholar noun educatedperson.
scientificjournal nounmagazinethatfocusesondevelopmentsinscientificresearch.
scientificmethod nounmethodofresearchinwhichaquestionisasked,dataaregathered,ahypothesisismade,andthehypothesisistested.
script noun textorsystemofwriting.
scroll nounrolled-upsheetofpaperorotherthinmaterialforwriting.
sealevelrise nounincreaseintheaveragereachoftheocean.Thecurrentsealevelriseis1.8millimeters(.07inch)peryear.
sediment nounsolidmaterialtransportedanddepositedbywater,ice,andwind.
sherd noun fragmentofpottery.Alsoshard.shipwreck noun remainsofasunkenmarinevessel.
sift verbtoseparatelargerpiecesofmaterialfromsmallerones.
significant adjectiveimportantorimpressive.sincere adjectivegenuineorreal.slab noun flat,thickpieceofmaterialsuchasearthorstone.
soil nountoplayeroftheEarth'ssurfacewhereplantscangrow.
sonar nounmethodofdeterminingthepresenceandlocationofanobjectusingsoundwaves(echolocation).
sophisticated adjectiveknowledgeableorcomplex.specific adjectiveexactorprecise.starvation noun dyingfromlackoffood.Stonehenge noun prehistoricmonumentinSalisburyPlain,England.
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Definition
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storm nounsevereweatherindicatingadisturbedstateoftheatmosphereresultingfromupliftedair.
subdiscipline noun fieldofstudywithinalargerareaofresearch.submerge verb toputunderwater.
subway nounundergroundrailway;apopularformofpublictransportationinlargeurbanareas.
survey nounastudyoranalysisofcharacteristicsofanareaorapopulation.
system nouncollectionofitemsororganismsthatarelinkedandrelated,functioningasawhole.
tax nounmoneyorgoodscitizensprovidetogovernmentinreturnforpublicservicessuchasmilitaryprotection.
technology nounthescienceofusingtoolsandcomplexmachinestomakehumanlifeeasierormoreprofitable.
temple noun buildingusedforworship.
TerraCottaWarriors
noun
(~210BCE)collectionofthousandsoflife-sizeclayfiguresofsoldiers,horses,chariots,andotherartifactsinXian,China,buriedwithQinShiHuangdi,China'sfirstemperor.
territory nounlandananimal,human,orgovernmentprotectsfromintruders.
textile noun clothorotherwovenfabric.ThorHeyerdahl noun (1914-2002)Norwegianexplorer.timber noun woodinanunfinishedform,eithertreesorlogs.time-consuming adjectivetakingalongtimetofinish.
Titanic nounluxurycruiseshipthatsankintheNorthAtlanticOceanin1912.
tomb noun enclosedburialplace.
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trade nounbuying,selling,orexchangingofgoodsandservices.
transportationengineer
nounpersonwhoplans,designs,andmaintainsfacilitiesfortransportingpeopleandgoods.
TrojanWar noun(~1194-1184BCE)ancientconflictbetweentheGreeksandtheTrojans,writtenaboutbyancientpoetsandhistoriansinworkssuchastheIliad.
troop noun asoldier.trowel noun hand-heldshovelwithaflatblade.
Troy nounancientcityontheAegeancoastofwhatisnownorthwesternTurkey.AlsocalledTroiaandIlion.
tunnel-boringmachine
nounenormousmachinethatdrillstunnelsforsubwaysorundergroundrailwaylines.
Tutankhamun noun (1341-1323BCE)Egyptianpharaoh.underwaterarchaeologist
nounpersonwhostudiesartifactsandfeaturesfoundatthebottomoflakes,rivers,andoceans.
Union adjectivehavingtodowithstatessupportingtheUnitedStates(north)duringtheU.S.CivilWar.
urbancenter noundenselypopulatedarea,usuallyacityanditssurroundingsuburbs.
vast adjectivehugeandspreadout.
volcaniceruption nounactivitythatincludesadischargeofgas,ash,orlavafromavolcano.
warp verb tobendoutofshape.wealthy adjectiveveryrich.
wind noun
movementofair(fromahighpressurezonetoalowpressurezone)causedbytheunevenheatingoftheEarthbythesun.
X-ray nounradiationintheelectromagneticspectrumwithaveryshortwavelengthandveryhighenergy.
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Definition
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