YOUNG STOCKMANAGEMENT

Copyright © VEEPRO HOLLAND. Publication from this manual is permitted only after approval of VEEPRO HOLLAND and on condition of statement of the source

Publisher / Editor : VEEPRO HOLLAND Information centre for Dutch cattle P.O.Box 4546800 AL ARNHEM HOLLAND / Tlx: 45541 NRS NL / Phone: * * 31 85 861133 / Fax: * * 31 85 861452

Design & Realization : metal design

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FOREWORD

Young Stock Management is the second ina series of management manuals pub-lished by Veepro Holland.Through these manuals Veepro Hollandaims at providing you with useful manage-ment information. Dairy cattle world-wideneed to receive proper guidance to fullyutilize their potential.

Veepro Holland hopes that this manualmay widen your knowledge about youngstock rearing and consequently contributeto further improvement in the rearingresults of your herd.

Appreciation is due to everyone whocontributed to this manual, especially Dr.Maarten Pieterse of the Department of

Herd Health Management and Reproduc-tion of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,University of Utrecht, and Ing. TjeerdBoxem of the Research Station for AnimalHusbandry at Lelystad, for their encour-agement and constructive criticism.

The authors are indebted to the DairyTraining Centre ‘Friesland’ for their valu-able assistance in the preparation of thismanual.

We also express our thanks to associationsand publishers for making various data andillustrations available to us.

Veepro Holland

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INTRODUCTION

Young stock rearing is an important part ofdairy farming. Here the foundation is laidfor the high-yielding dairy cow of the future.Young stock rearing has proven to be ofgreat influence on future performance.

THE FIRST DAYSHygiene

Good calf rearing starts before the calf isborn. A hygienic environment during thebirth process is essential to preventrearing diseases, such as scour. Cleanhands and disinfected birth-ropes arenecessary as well as a clean and disin-fected calving pen. The calving penshould never be used for sick cows.

The first stage after a calf is born is one ofthe most important periods. Immediatelyafter the calf is born the navel must bedisinfected with an iodine solution, whichshould be repeated the following day.The calf should be rubbed dry with cleanstraw or a clean towel to stimulate bloodcirculation. If a calf coughs up mucus itshould immediately be lifted up by its rearlegs to ensure the release of the mucusfrom its bronchial tubes.

The first few months in a calf’s life are muchmore important than most people realise.Proper attention should be paid to therearing of young calves and no detailsshould be overlooked. Therefore, theperson in charge of calf rearing has one ofthe most responsible jobs on the farm.He or she must be fully aware of this respon-sibility to get the highest possible results.

The purpose of rearing young stock is toraise well-developed heifers, able to calveat an early age, without calving difficulties.The advantages of calving at an early ageare lower rearing costs, early productivityand consequently a higher life-time milkproduction, thus making the cows moreprofitable.

For the prevention of calving difficulties it isessential that the heifers are well-devel-oped. The optimal time for first insemina-tion of a heifer depends more on body-weight than on age. Some heifers achievethe desired weight at about 14 months,whereas others do not reach it before 16months of age. Therefore, the proper agefor insemination and consequently forcalving is determined by the developmentof the heifer. Through good young stockrearing it is possible to inseminate theheifers at an average age of about 14-15months, which results in an average age atcalving of about 24 months.

Well-developed heifers can be inseminated atan early age.

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Especially during the first three days of itslife it is essential to observe the calf closelyto convince yourself that it is drinking suffi-cient colostrum.

Feeding with a rubber teatThe colostrum can also be fed in a bucketor a bottle fitted with a rubber teat. In thisway the calf will get used straight-away tothis method of drinking. The colostrum mustbe fed at body-temperature and the bucketshould be held high enough for ease ofdrinking. This stimulates the digestion andconsequently the absorption of nutrients inthe blood. The advantages of this methodare that the intake of colostrum can beproperly controlled and that the amount ofwork and space needed is lower, as is thechance of contamination.

It is an absolute must to thoroughly cleanand disinfect the buckets or feeding bottlesand rubber teats before and after eachfeeding, as otherwise they can be a sourceof contamination.

Bucket feedingThe calf is taught to drink out of a bucket bypushing its mouth into the milk.Advantages of feeding the milk from abucket are that the bucket is easy to cleanand that it is easier to change over from milkfeeding to water.

Feeding of colostrum

A newly born calf does not have antibodiesfor protection against diseases andtherefore depends entirely on its mother’scolostrum for protection. For this reason, itis essential that the calf receives about 1-2litres of colostrum in stages from its ownmother within half an hour after its birth.If no colostrum is available from the mother,colostrum from another freshly calvedolder cow should be used. In case there isno other freshly calved cow available, it isadvisable to store some colostrum in thefreezer. Feeding of colostrum must con-tinue for at least three days after birth andshould be done about 3 to 4 times daily.With each feeding about 1½-2 litres shouldbe given.

Clean buckets are essential.

Leaving the calf with its motherIt is possible to leave a newly born calf withits mother for the first 12-24 hours to allowsucking. An advantage of this method isthat the milk is always at body tempera-ture. However, a disadvantage is that youmay have difficulties controlling the intakeof colostrum and there will be a consider-able chance of contamination.

The calf should be transferred to anindividual calf pen or crate.

It is essential that the calf receives somecolostrum directly after it is born

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THE MILK PERIOD

Whole milk or milk replacer

Three days after birth there can be agradual change to twice daily feeding ofwhole milk or milk replacer. Whole milkwith a fat content of about 4% can be fed toan amount of 4-5 litres per day during thefirst month. Milk replacer has a lower fatcontent of about 2% and should be fed at arate of 5-6 litres per day. Every day feedingof milk should be done at regular intervals.When the calf is about four weeks of age,the amount of milk may gradually bedecreased to about 2-3 litres per day at theage of two months.

Ideally, milk should always be fed at bodytemperature. However, daily variations inthe temperature of heated milk may causemore digestive disorders than cool milk.

High-quality roughage

From the first week onwards the calvesshould have access to high-quality rough-age, such as excellent hay or high drymatter grass silage. This is important tostimulate the development of the rumen atan early age. High-quality roughage shouldalways be available at free choice.The feeding of hay in a rack will keep itclean, which is important for the preventionof diseases.

High-quality roughage stimulates rumendevelopment.

Concentrates

Together with roughage a handful of palat-able concentrates of at least 16% digestiblecrude protein (calf starter pellets) should besupplied as an appetizer from the first weekonwards. Let the calves get used to eatingconcentrates by placing a handful of pelletsagainst their mouths after milk has been fed.They will lick the pellets and soon they will beeating concentrates. Gradually increase theamount of concentrates to about 1 kg per dayafter a period of six weeks.Afterwards the amount can be furtherincreased to about 1½ kg per day.

Milk feeding should be done at regular intervals.

Water

If the supply of milk is gradually decreased,the calf will step-by-step drink more water.Water is indispensable and should beavailable ad lib, especially in places withhigh ambient temperatures. Water shouldbe withdrawn from the calves about onehour before milk feeding and returnedabout two hours afterwards in order toencourage dry matter intake.

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Do not feed more concentrates than thecalf will eat within one day. A large accu-mulation of concentrates in the trough maybecome unpalatable and will discouragethe calf from eating. Never leave oldfeedstuffs behind in the trough or buckets.They will get mouldy and become a sourceof contamination.

The calf starter concentrates should bereplaced by palatable weaner pellets witha digestible crude protein content of 14-15% and the amount should gradually beincreased to about 2 kg per day.Continue feeding high quality grass silageor hay. Wet and fresh grass should not befed during the first six months.

WEANINGWeaning can take place at the age of about2-2½ months or, better still, when the calvesare weighing about 75 kgs and they areeating about 1 kg of concentrates per day.During the last week before weaninggradually reduce milk feeding to once perday. It takes a master’s eye to correctlyjudge the stage of weaning.When a calf has been suffering from anillness you should postpone weaning untilthe calf has fully recovered.

FROM WEANING TOCALVING

Recommended growth rates

Once a calf has been weaned, the riskyperiod of calf diseases and possiblemortality should have passed. The expen-sive period of feeding has lapsed and theemphasis can now be shifted to a rationresulting in the recommended rates ofgrowth. These rates of growth are shown intable 1. The aim is to achieve a live-weightof about 510-550 kgs after first calving.

The amount of concentrates fed should graduallybe increased.

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Feeding

If good quality roughage is fed, it is notnecessary to feed concentrates when thecalves are over nine months of age.When the roughage is of poor quality (e.g.straw), concentrates will still be needed tomeet the nutritional requirements forgrowth and maintenance. A guideline inthis case can be 1 kg of concentrates as abasis + 1 kg per 100 kgs of body-weight.If the feeding of concentrates is stopped,one should find out if the animal receivessufficient minerals. Otherwise a mixture ofminerals must be fed as a supplement tothe ration. It is not advisable to feed a largeproportion of maize silage. The animalsmight become over-conditioned (fat).This can easily happen with young stockover one year of age. It may cause calvingdifficulties as well as fattening of the tissueof the udder, which has a negative effect onthe quality of the udder around calving.

74 - 77220 - 230365 - 385495 - 530510 - 550

0 - 2 3 - 8 9 -1516 - 2223 - 24

550 - 600800 - 850675 - 725600 - 650300 - 350

Table 1 Recommended daily growth rates per day for Holstein Friesian young stock at different ages

periods in months daily growth in grammes weight at end of period in kgs

weight after calving

Monitoring growth rates

Besides weighing is measuring of thechest-size another method to monitor therate of growth. The animals are measuredbehind the shoulder with a measuring tape.There is a relation between chest-size andbody weight as is shown in table 2.

Table 2 Relation between chest-size and body weight for Holstein Friesians

chest-size weight in cm in kg

Good quality roughage remains important.

Insemination

Breeding heifers should start when theyhave reached a live-weight of about 350kg. This will be at an age of about 14-15months if the recommended rates ofgrowth have been achieved.

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It is very important to select a proven sirewhich is known for its ease of calving.Natural service by a young unproven siremay look convenient when the heifers aregrazing in paddocks far away from the farmfacilities. However, the breeding perform-ance of unproven sires is unknown.They may also cause calving difficulties,which may result in less viable calves.On top of this calving difficulties may lead toextra difficulties in getting the freshlycalved heifer pregnant again and couldresult in a lower milk production.

IDENTIFICATION

A good identification system is necessaryfor proper young stock management to beable to keep accurate records of the youngstock. Any marking for temporary orpermanent identification should be doneaccurately at an early age, preferably justafter birth. Permanent identification mayinclude photographing or sketching theyoung calf for herdbook registration and foryour own farm records. Furthermore, youcan apply eartags or freeze branding forquick identification of the animal.

Eartagging

Nowadays the plastic eartags are verypopular. They are available preprinted withnumbers or as blanks. In the Netherlandsthere is a nation-wide system in whichevery calf, bull or cow has eartags with itsown unique life-time number. If blanks areused, you can write your own information,e.g. sire, date of birth and number of theheifer calf with a special tag pen.

The tag must be inserted in the middle ofthe ear between the muscular tissue.The eartag should be large enough to beread from a distance of at least 10 metres.The eartag should preferably be yellow withthe information in black water-proof ink.

Freeze branding

Freeze branding, either with dry ice andalcohol or with liquid nitrogen destroys thepigmentation of the black skin and newwhite hair will grow. The method is ratherpainless and the markings are easy to readfrom a distance. It is a good method ofidentification in combination with anumbered collar.

Eartagging is a good method of identification.

Individual housing will control the spreading ofdiseases.

HOUSING

Individual housing

Preferably young calves should beindividually housed for about 3 weeks,because they tend to suck each other.This sucking allows easy transmission ofdiseases. Calfcrates, pens or movablehutches can be used for individualhousing. The housing should be con-structed in such a way that the calf getsenough fresh air without draft and goodprotection from cold winds and rain.

9Rotational grazing

Rotational grazing may help to eliminateparasites. Frequent moving of young stock tonew paddocks helps to get heavier animals.Parasites never disappear completely.Pasture rotation simply supplies the youngstock with new and fresh roughage and theeffect of contamination with parasites will bereduced through good nutrition. The youngstock will build up better resistance toinfection with parasites.

Because climate control indoors is difficult,it might be advisable to house the calvesoutside. In addition to this, calves need aclean environment with dry bedding.With this in mind, the chances of spreadingof diseases will be considerably reduced.

Group housing

After this period of individual housing thecalves can be housed in groups of 3-5calves per pen, preferably on straw bed-ding. The individual pens used should nowbe cleaned, disinfected and, if possible, leftempty for at least a week. It is also possibleto house the calves in a cubicle housingsystem with a slatted floor. It is importantthat there is enough space for each animaland that the cubicles are dry and comfort-able to lie down.

The calves feel comfortable in a dry and cleanstraw bedding.

Good growth through quality pastures.

Good results have been achieved bygrazing young stock ahead of the milkingcows in pastures that have been mownsince the last grazing. These good resultscome from quality pastures and from lesscontamination of the grass by worms andlarvae. The young stock should nevergraze after the cows, because of a muchgreater risk of severe infestation.

HEALTH

Good health is essential for achieving therecommended rates of growth. Herdhealth management and disease preven-tion play an important role in controllingany outbreak of diseases. The preventionand treatment of the most frequent rearingdiseases will be discussed.

GRAZING

Grazing good quality grass can contributeto good growth. Young stock grazing inpastures will be infested withendoparasites. It is of great importance toensure that the infestation will be onlymoderate. In this way the young stock willbuild up enough resistance to parasitesand no growth problems will occur.

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Scour

Scour can easily be identified. The dung isliquid, it has a whitish colour and a strongsmell. The calf has a dull appearance anddrinks slowly or refuses to drink at all.

Respiratory diseases

Non-optimal growth and calf mortalityduring the first four months are mainlycaused by respiratory infections, such aspneumonia. Typical symptoms of pneumo-nia are coughing, a high fever, watery eyesand mucus running from the nose.

Respiratory diseases mostly occur be-tween the second and the fourth months ofthe calf’s life. By that time the antibodiesfrom the colostrum have disappeared.

PreventionFeeding of colostrum and clean housingwith good ventilation can prevent most ofthe problems. Good ventilation will de-crease the pressure of infection by con-stantly supplying fresh air. This is a neces-sity in the prevention of respiratory dis-eases. To prevent the spread of respiratorydiseases it is advisable to house theyearlings and young calves separately.Vaccination of calves over three months ofage against one or more respiratorydiseases is recommended. It will certainlygive a better protection to the young stock.

TreatmentIf an animal is suffering from pneumonia,the treatment should be focussed on theprevention of secondary bacterial infec-tions. A treatment with antibiotics for at leastfive days will be successful in most cases.

PreventionRule number one for the prevention ofscour is optimal hygiene. This will avoid alot of unnecessary trouble. If you are reallyfacing problems with scourings, then avaccination programme of pregnant cows,six to two weeks before calving, assists inpreventing calf scourings.

TreatmentWhen scour appears an electrolytesuspension should be fed until it ceases.Milk feeding should not be stopped for toolong. Two to four times a day, half a litre ofmilk can be fed next to the electrolytesuspension. If everything goes well theamount and frequency of milk feeding canbe gradually increased.When the scour is caused by nutrition it willdisappear after 2 days. If no improvement isnoticed after 2 days the scour might havebeen caused by bacteria, and treatmentwith a broad spectrum antibiotic should beapplied. If there are often problems withscourings a veterinarian should be con-sulted to find the cause of the disease.

Good hygiene keeps a calf healthy.

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Your veterinarian can advise you on thebest possible treatment. A good healthrecord with close monitoring of the youngstock is very important for early detection ofany health problems.

External parasites

PreventionExternal parasites and skin diseases, likemange, lice, ringworm and warts can beprevented through good hygiene, ventila-tion, and shaving of all young stock beforehousing. It is recommended to isolate theinfected young stock. The only sure way ofringworm prevention is to avoid contact withinfected animals. The housing may also bea carrier for parasites. Under all circum-stances overcrowding must be avoided.It is recommended to clean and thoroughlydisinfect the young stock pens after theanimals have been moved outside.

Internal parasites

Even with good management internalparasites have to be controlled.Regular deworming is needed when thedung samples contain a too high level ofparasite eggs. This should start at the ageof 2 months and be repeated every 3months.

Vaccinations

You should consult your veterinarian abouta vaccination programme for your youngstock against diseases like Foot and mouthdisease, Black-Quarter, Anthrax andBrucellosis.

DEHORNING

The purpose of dehorning is to eliminatethe risk of injury to other animals and topeople working with the herd. Dehorningshould preferably be done at the age ofabout 3-4 weeks, when the horn bud is felt.This has certain advantages overdehorning at an older age, such as: lesswork, no decreasing feed consumption andno reduced growth and moreover it will givebetter results. The base of the horn shouldbe anaesthetised. The clipping of hairaround the horn will make the dehorningjob easier.

Prevention through good ventilation.

TreatmentA number of anthelmintics are veryeffective in eliminating an infestation withmange and lice. Warts can be controlledwith an injection of Anthiomaline.Ringworm can be eliminated by paintingthe infected lesions with a copperbasedchemical or a mixture of diesel oil andcreosote. Nowadays effective drugs arealso available. In all cases consult yourveterinarian for the best treatment againstparasites and skin diseases.

Dehorning can be done with a specially designedround iron.

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Round iron

The best method for dehorning is to use aspecially designed round iron which ismade red hot. The tool should be pushedand turned round on the horn until a whiteedge can be seen. It is important that this isnot done too deep. Overdoing may causebrain damage. It requires about 10-20seconds, depending on the thickness ofthe skin. After the dehorning the horn pitshould be sprayed with gentian-violet toprevent possible infections.

REMOVING EXTRA TEATS

The removal of extra teats can be per-formed with a pair of sharp curved scissorsafter thoroughly cleaning and disinfectingthe place on the udder. Apply tincture ofiodine or gentian-violet to control infec-tions.The best time to remove extra teats istogether with the dehorning. In case ofdoubt, it is advisable to wait until thecalves are older. When this minor opera-tion is done properly there will be very littlebleeding and the scar will hardly be visibleat calving.

SUMMARY

Improvement of young stock rearing willresult in a lower average age at first calving.This means less rearing costs with anearlier profitability and a higher life-timemilk production. Therefore, good youngstock rearing is the basis for economic dairyfarming. Well-developed heifers will beable to calve at an age of about 2 years.

The emphasis in rearing young stockshould be placed upon nutrition in order toachieve the recommended rates of growthand the prevention of rearing diseases.

The basic guidelines for good young stockrearing are:

1.high hygienic standards at birth ensures the calf a good start;2.colostrum must be fed directly after birth and should be continued for at least three days, several times a day;3.calves should be housed individually for about 3 weeks;4.good identification is of utmost impor- tance;

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5.feeding of whole milk or milk replacer should be gradually decreased and accordingly, the intake of good quality roughage, concentrates and water should be increased;6.calves should be weaned at an age of 2 - 2½ months;7.after weaning, feeding of high quality roughage remains important in order to achieve the recommended rates of growth;

8.clean and properly ventilated housing is very important in the prevention of scour and respiratory diseases;9.pasture rotation will result in good growth and only a moderate infestation with internal parasites;10.inseminate the maiden heifers at a body-weight of about 350 kgs with semen of a proven sire, which is known for its ease of calving.

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING- Calf rearing, Lecture notes by Dairy Training Centre ‘Friesland’.- Calf and heifer rearing, Dairy Handbook, NADF of Zimbabwe.- Rearing of Calves and Heifers, and Ruminant Digestion, Lecture Notes FAO Dairy Training School, Kenya.- A Veterinary Book for Dairy Farmers, Roger Blowey, Farming Press.- The complete practical handbook for cattle farmers, Dr. P.A. Gilbert-Green, Zimbabwe.

Dairy Training Centre Friesland (DTC-Friesland) is established by various Dutchfarmers’ organisations and controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture. The Centre conductsa variety of international training-programmes and courses. We also provide consultancyand management services.

All courses have a strong practice-oriented character based on the training concept oflearning by doing. The practical training is very intensive; one instructor deals withgroups of six students and for subjects like milking even with three students only.DTC-Friesland offers training in the following subjects:

- Dairy Husbandry* machine-and handmilking, milking machines, milk hygiene* feeding, ration-calculation, feedplans, quality of feedstuffs* fertility management, heat detection* breeding, use of A.I., culling, body conformation* housing, tying/cubicle systems, hygiene* health, mastitis control, hoofcare* calfrearing* farm economics* farm administration

- Forage production* pasture management* foddercrops* silage making* farm machinery

- Milk processing* manufacture of cheese, butter, yoghurt,

ice-cream, etc.* milk collection and payment systems* marketing* management of a dairy unit

- Sheep-husbandry- Dairy goat husbandry- Intensive beef-production- Horse-keeping and animal traction- Teaching-methodology

Visits to farmers organizations, A.I.-stations, Health and Extension service etc. areintegrated in the courses to provide a good picture of the dairy sector in the Netherlands.

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Controlling the growth rates of theyoung sock as part of the training

Dairy Training Centre Friesland

AD HOC COURSESOur major activity is the organization of ad hoc courses on request, preferably for groupsof a multiple of six participants. These training programmes are tailor-made and com-pletely designed according to the requirements of the client. The courses deal with one ormore of the earlier mentioned subjects. Duration of the courses varies from 1 week toseveral months.The courses are conducted in English. For some special subjects training can beprovided in French, Spanish or German as well.If facilities are available locally, our staff is prepared to conduct courses abroad as well.

SIX-WEEKS COURSE: MODERN DAIRY FARM MANAGEMENTThis course is especially designed for persons in charge of a large-scale dairy enterprise,and includes all aspects involved in managing a dairy herd. The course offers a goodopportunity to refresh one’s knowledge and learn about recent developments in dairy-farmmanagement. The course is conducted annually in September/October.However, for groups of at least six persons it can be organized at any time during the year.

TRAINING FACILITIES ANDSTAFFThe centre has four farms, eachwith a different managementsystem. One farm is especiallyequiped for international courses.The total stock at the four farmsincludes 250 dairy cows,50 fattening-bulls, 45 dairy-goats,85 sheep and 12 Friesian horses.Additionally, the centre maintainsclose relations with twentyneighbouring farms which areused for practical training.Our staff consists of fifty dedicatedand well-qualified trainers.All have up-to-date knowledge ofmodern dairy-farm management,and over 70 man-years experience is present in various dairy development projectsthroughout the world.

ACCOMMODATIONA newly constructed hostel provides full board and lodging in single or double bedrooms.The hostel provides an international kitchen, and many recreational facilities.Social excursions are organised during the weekends to enable the students to getacquainted with the Dutch culture.

For more detailed information on the activities of DTC Friesland, please contact:

Dairy Training Centre FrieslandP.O. Box 859062 ZJ OenkerkThe NetherlandsTelephone : +31 5103-1562Telefax : +31 5103-1628Telex : 46838 dtcfr nl

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Individual calf pens on one of the centre’s farms.