FOURFOLD MEDITATION:OUTER, INNER, SECRET, AND SUCHNESS*

Y a e l B e n t o r (H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y o f Je r u s a l e m )

Ever since the discourse on the Four Noble Truths, Buddhist teachings have often taken the form of tetrads. Even when the fourth stage is conceived as beyond all categorisation and enumeration, it nevertheless follows the three initial steps. The present article is concerned with tetrads that follow the pattern of outer, inner, secret, and suchness. While outer and inner refer to objects and subject, and suchness to the true nature of things, the secret element varies with the system to which the tetrad belongs. It is in fact the third stage that provides an indication as to which school of thought the tetrad is akin. An important characteristic of the tetrads considered here is that they cross the boundaries of individual traditions. Even though on the whole, the Buddhist tantric tradition tends to draw solid lines of distinction between sutra and tantra, Ratnakarasanti in his P rajnaparam itopadesa does link1 the fourfold meditation described in the Lankavatarasutra (X 256f.) with that of the Guhyasamaja- tantra (XV 135).2 He also links these with the Avikalpapravesa- dharanl (Toh.142). Around the early 13,h century, Lee sgom pa related the tetrad of outer, inner, secret, and suchness offerings with the four stages in his delineation of taming the engagement of awareness (rig pa brtul zhugs kyi spyod pa) by means of meditation on the mandala (p.122). We shall review a number of fourfold

* This research was supported by The Israel Science Foundation, which was founded by The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. This paper grew out of my research on the generation process. The starting points were Lee sgom pa’s description of the generation process in four stages and Ratnakarasanti’s instructions for graded meditation in both sutra and tantra, including the generation process. For more details, sec below. I would like to express my thanks to Lambert Schmithauscn for his very illuminating comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

1 As has been pointed out already by Katsura (1976), Wayman (1977), Namai (1991) and others.

2 The verse number follows the enumeration of Matsunaga (1978). According to the edition of Fremantle (1971) it is vs. 133 and according to Bagchi (1965), vs. 132.

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meditations, such as those of the Lankavatara Sutra with its various commentaries, including those by Kamalaslla and Ratnakarasanti, the fourfold meditations presented in the Yogacara treatises ascribed to Maitreya, the meditations on the formless realm, the meditation on the four offerings, and Lee sgom pa’s depiction of the generation process. A common thread runs through them.

In a number of his works, Ratnakarasanti describes a gradual meditation in four stages of yoga (rnal 'byor gyi sa, yogabhumi). These works include the Prajnapdramitopadesa, the Prajndparam- itabhavanopadesa and the Madhyamakdlahkapratipadasiddhi? The four stages of yoga are:

1. Apprehending things to the extent they exist.2. Apprehending mind-only or mental-processes-only (sems tsam la

dmigs pa).3. Apprehending suchness (de bzhin nyid la dmigs pa).4. Non-apprehending or non-objectifying («dmigs su med pa).4

Summarising Ratnakarasanti’s explanation of the four stages of yoga:5

In the first stage the yogis apply their minds (yid la byed pa) to the diversity of phenomena in the world that are the objects of the six senses. Then they apply their minds to the six senses and the six consciousnesses, in order to comprehend the mental activities that engage with the world. By combining calm abiding (zhi gnas) and penetrating insight (lhag mthong) they reach an understanding of conceptual reflected images to the extent they exist, and discern the modes of apprehending them through the eighteen spheres of perception.In the second stage the yogis reflect on the perception of all phenomena as products of mental-processes-only (sems tsam), which

3 Prajnapdramitopadesa, Derge, pp.310-24; Peking, pp.236.4-250.1, Prajhd- pdramitdbhavanopadesa, Derge, pp.262-66; Peking, pp.250.1-251.2 In his Madhyamakdlankdravrtti (Dbu ma rgyan gyi 'grel pa) Ratnakarasanti delineates these four yogabhumis as well, after citing the Avikalpapravesadharani and the Lankavatara Sutra, Derge, vol.138, pp.234-37, see also Ruegg 1981:122f..

4 Lindtner 1977:160 has called this type of meditation ‘The Mahayana Method of Meditation* and analysed it in his paper entitled “Cittamdtra in Indian Mahayana until KamalaSlla” . We shall discuss here, for the most part, the period from KamalasTla on.

5 This follows the Prajnapdramitopadesa, Derge, pp.312-17; Peking, pp.247.3- 248.3. I would like to thank Geshe Chogkhan Thubten Tandhar for his help in reading with me the closing section of the Prajnapdramitopadesa, and John Makransky for kindly providing me with a copy of the Peking edition of this work.

FOURFOLD MEDITATIONS 43

appear due to habitual tendencies of clinging to objects. Since objects grasped as external to the mind do not exist as they are conceptualised, their grasper cannot exist in that way either. By combining calm abiding and penetrating insight, the yogis understand that the diversity of appearances of the eighteen spheres of perception are mental- processes-only, empty of object and subject, and deyoid of inherent existence.In the third stage the yogis apply non-appearance to the false marks of manifest appearances, as meditators on the formless realms pass be­yond the perception of form, by perceiving infinite space. Thereby they relinquish all false conceptual marks of the object and subject and view them as space, utterly immaculate and limitless, empty of dual­ity, sheer clarity. They realise that all phenomena are formless, unde- monstrable, and unobstructed, their one essential characteristic being the absence of characteristics. By combining calm abiding and pene­trating insight, they realise that all appearances are reflected images of emptiness and apprehend the suchness of all phenomena as they are.In the fourth stage, the yogis pass beyond the subtlest conceptualisa­tion of phenomena. Without exertion and without conditioning, they realise experientially, through a direct perception, the suchness of all phenomena. They realise the complete vanishing of the marks of phenomena and the nature of phenomena, the enlightened wisdom, which is non-dual, free of appearances and apprehension, the supra- mundane non-conceptual calm abiding and penetrating insight.

Ratnákaraáánti links this fourth stage with the yoga of the realisation of non-conceptualisation in the Avikalpapravesadharani? This is in contrast to his predecessor Kamalaslla, who—as Gómez (1983:421) points out—commented on the four levels of meditation of the Lañkávatárasütra in his Bhávanákrama and composed a commen­tary on the Avikalpapravesadharani without suggesting any relation­ship between them.7 Although the Avikalpapravesadharani serves as a scriptural authority for both the sudden and gradual paths to en­lightenment, it does offer a graded course of progress towards enlightenment.

6 Rnam par mi rtog par jug pa zhes bya ba'i gzungs, Tóh.142, P. 810, Lhasa vol.57. Unfortunately, the Sanskrit edition of this text made by Kazunobu Matsuda is not available to me at present. For a partial translation, see Gómez (1983:409-11). Though the Avikalpapravesadharani does not offer a fourfold meditation, its system obviously is related to our topic.

7 Kamalaslla does cite the Avikalpapravesadharani in his ‘First Bhávanákruma\ but does not discuss the similarities and differences among these texts, as does Ratnákarasánti; see below.

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According to this text, on their path to non-conceptuality, the Bodhisattvas relinquish marks of conceptuality in stages, by not applying their mind (yid la mi byed pa , amanasikara). First they give up all marks of conceptualisation with respect to inherent existence. But then, the marks of conceptualisation in analysing the antidotes to conceptualisation of inherent existence arise. In the second step the Bodhisattvas relinquish these marks as well, by not applying their minds to them. But then, the marks of conceptualisation in analysing suchness arise. In the third step, the Bodhisattvas relinquish marks of conceptualisation in analysing suchness. But then, the marks of conceptualisation in analysing their attainment arise. In the fourth step, the Bodhisattvas relinquish the marks of conceptualisation in analysing their attainment. Then, the Bodhisattvas engage in the sphere of non-conceptualisation, formless, un-demonstrable, unsupported, free of appearances, devoid of cognition and foun­dation. These are the steps towards non-conceptualisation portrayed by the Avikalpapravesadhárani. In his Prajñápáramitopadesa,8 Ratnákarasánti describes the fourth stage of yoga in his delineation of the four yogabhümi in terms leading towards the non-conceptual level of the Avikalpapravesadharani, and then cites the Dharani itself.9

Ratnákaraáánti then proceeds by relating the four stages of yogas he describes to the four steps of meditation in the Lañkávatára Sütra. The following is a translation of Ratnakaraáánti’s citation of the Lañkavatara Sütra (X 256f.).

Having relied on mental-processes-only (,sems tsam , cittamatra), [the yogis] would not conceptualise external objects.Having apprehended suchness,10 they would pass beyond even mental- processes-only.Having passed beyond mental-processes-only, they would pass beyond11 non-appearances.The yogi abiding in non-appearances sees the Maháyána}1

8 Derge, p.317, Peking, p.248.3f..9 The passage can be found in the Lhasa Kanjur, vol.57, p. 10. Ratnakarasanti’s

version of this scripture is somewhat different from the text found in the Kanjur.10 According to Kamalafila’s citation: “Having abided in apprehension of suchness".n Madhyamakarainapradlpa, p.559: “abide in".12 This is translated from the Tibetan text of Ratnakarasanti. A somewhat

different version is cited by Kamalasila in his ‘First B h d v a n a k ra m a Kamala£ila (1977:64f.); Tucci (1956:569); Acarya Gyaltscn Namdol (1997:46f.). The Sanskrit

FOURFOLD MEDITATIONS 4 5

The LahkavaldrasCitra served as one of the main scriptural authorities for the Chan-school that is characterised by its sudden path to enlightenment, but this passage obviously offers a gradual path. While the stages of meditation presented in these verses can be interpreted in more than one way, Ratnakarasanti follows here Kamalaslla. In his ‘First Bhavanakrama' ,13 Kamalaslla cites this passage as a basis for the graded process of meditation on wisdom (prajhabhavanakrama, shes rab bsgom pa'i rim pa). As has been pointed out by several scholars,14 here Kamalaslla adheres to the words of his teacher Santaraksita who, in the conclusion to his Madhyamakalankara, says:

Having relied on mental-processes-only {cittamatra), one would understand that there are no external entities.Having relied on this method fMadhyamaka], one would understand that even that [Cittamatra] is completely devoid of own essence. Therefore those who ride the chariot of the two methods [Madhyama­ka and Cittamatra], while holding the reins of reasoning, attain the true meaning as it is, the state of the Mahayanist.15

In his commentary Madhyamakdlahkaravrtti, Santarak?ita provides a scriptural authority for his position by citing the same verses from the Lahkavatarasutra that were quoted above (Ichig5, 1989, p. 156), and Kamalaslla reproduces them in his own commentary Madhya- makalahkarapanjika (ibid.). But, while the Madhyamakalankara is mainly concerned with theory, Kamalaslla’s Bhavanakramas are devoted to meditative practices. Still, this presentation of meditation in structured steps would seem to fall within the theory of practice rather than within the practice itself.

Kajiyama (1978) has suggested that KamalaSlla’s presentation of the four steps of meditation in the Bhavanakrama follows the doxographical exposition of tenets and corresponds to the positions respectively of (1) the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika, of (2-3) the

text is found in Tucci (1956:520) and Namdol (1997:215f.). This passage is cited in Rucgg (1981:90); Mimaki (1982:236-^0); Eckel (1987:60^.12); Lindtner (1997: 160) etc., who point out problems in the text of the siitra itself. In the chapter entitled Bsgom pa'i rim pa (* bhavanakrama) in his Madhyamakaratnapradipay Bhavya also cites these verses (Toh.3854, Derge vol.97, p.559).

13 According to their order in the Tcnjur.14 Sec IchigO (1989:220-23), Kajiyama (1978:132); Rucgg (1981:90); Eckel

(1987:17); Lindtner (1997:192); etc.15 Vss.92f.; for the Tibetan text, see IchigQ (1989:220-22).

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two schools of ‘Mind Only\ the Satyâkâravâda and Alïkâkâravada, and of (4) the M adhyam aka .,6 The interesting question is whether the fourfold meditation was modelled on this doxographical structure, or whether it is possible that the tradition of the fourfold meditation formed the paradigm for the system of the four tenets. KamaJasIla’s explanation of the verses from the Lankâvatârasütra may be sum­marised as follows.17

In the first stage, the yogis investigate material phenomena (chos

gzugs ca n , rüpino dharm âh), that others conceptualise as external objects, and analyse them into their components, until they do not see them. Thereby they realise that all external objects are results of mental-process-only (<cittamâtra). Since they no longer apprehend the distinguishing features that allow their apprehension, they relinquish the conceptualisation of material phenomena.

Then the yogis analyse immaterial phenomena. Since these are mental-process-only, there are no objects, and since subjects need objects with which to relate, there could be no subjects. Hence, the yogis pass beyond the notion of subject as well and abide in the non­dual knowledge of the absence of dual appearances.

In the third stage, the yogis pass beyond even the knowledge of the absence of dual appearance. They relinquish their attachment even to the knowledge of non-duality, and abide in the knowledge of the non-appearance of the knowledge of non-duality alone.

In the fourth stage, the yogis abide in the realisation that all phenomena are devoid of own essence and thereby enter non- conceptual concentration (nirvikalpasam âdhi). Since they do not see by means of the ordinary eye, they see the sublime suchness, and since they do not cling to things, they see them through the wisdom eye. Since they look through the wisdom of meditative equipoise, they do not apprehend (mi dm igs p a , anupalam bha) any phenomena, and this is the supreme non-apprehension. Since they do not apprehend any essence, they neither conceptualise any thing nor any non-thing.

16 Sec also Jackson (1987:348—51 ).17 The Sanskrit text may be found in Tucci (1956:520-24), and Namdol

( 1997:216f.). For the Tibetan text see, Kamalasila (1977:65-76); Tucci, (1956:569- 74); and Namdol, (1997:45-55). For English translations, see Beyer (1974:108f.), and Kajiyama (1978:138f.). Fora French translation see, Broeck (1977:29-34).

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Both Kamalaslla and Ratnákarasánti interpret the four stages of meditation they present on the basis of the passage from the Lañkávatárasütra. Both explain the first stage of the yoga as non­conceptualisation of external objects and the second as realisation of mental-processes-only. Their interpretation of the third stage is similar, yet while Kamalaáila emphasises non-duality—the yogis abide in a non-dual knowledge of the absence of dual appearances, Ratnákarasánti underscores non-appearance of the false marks of phenomena. With regard to the fourth stage, Kamalaáila stresses that even the knowledge of non-duality is untrue; hence the yogis abide in the knowledge of the non-appearance of the knowledge of duality. Then they enter non-conceptual concentration where they see without seeing that all phenomena are devoid of own essence and attain the realisation of suchness. Ratnákarasánti emphasises here a direct perception that is beyond the marks of both phenomena (idharma, chos) and of the nature of phenomena (dharmatá, chos nyid). This is the terminology that appears in the Guhyasamája- tantra. Immediately after citing the verses from the Lañkávatára­sütra (X 256-58), Ratnákarasánti declares:

The Guhyasamájatantra teaches this very thing in one verse: “When you examine your own mind, [you realise] that all phenomena abide in the mind. These phenomena abide as the sky-vajra. There are no phenomena and nature of phenomena” (Dcrge, p321, Peking, p.249.4).18

18 Ratnakarasanti cites a version of this verse that is somewhere in between the version of the Dunhuang manuscript and the version found in the Kanjur, but closer to that of the Dunhuang. Ratnakarasanti has: rang gi sems ni brtags pas na / chos kun setns la rab tu gnas / chos 'di nam mkha'i rdo rjer gnas / chos dang chos nyid med pa'o / (Derge, vol. 138, pp.321f.). The second line here explicitly states that all phenomena abide in the mind, while in the third line it is phenomena that abide in the sky-vajra. The Lhasa Kanjur has: rang sems rnams ni dmigs pa la / chos rnams ¡hams cad rab tu gnas / nam mkha'i rdo rje'i gnas sems 'di/ chos med chos nyid med pa'o / (vol.82, p.898). Here it is the mind that abides in the sky-vajra. The Dunhuang manuscript has: rang gi sems ni brtag pa la / chos rnams thams cad rab tu gnas / nam mkha'i rdo rje la gnas chos / chos dang chos nyid med pa'o / The First and fourth lines are similar to those of Ratnakarasanti, the second line to the Kanjur, and in the third line it is again phenomena that abide in the sky-vajra. In the Sanskrit as well the phenomena abide in the sky-vajra: svaciltam cittanidhyaptau sarve / sarva/ dharmdh pra list hah Ipratisthitdh/ / khavajrastha hy anu dharma na dharma na ca dharmatd (Bagchi, 1965, p.88; Fremantle, 1971, p .108; Matsunaga, 1978, p.83).

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RatnakaraSanti then relates the sutric meditation on wisdom to the tantric meditation of the Guhyasamajalantra, emphasising their identity:

1. In both [the Lcmkavatarasutra and the Guhyasamajatantra] the first stage of the yoga is not explicit. Because as long as [the yogis] do not grasp that all phenomena are these [as they appear], so long they would not be able to grasp their emptiness. Hence, understanding that all phenomena are these [as they appear] is the first stage of the yoga.2. Developing resolute faith that they [all phenomena] are mental- processes-only, empty of the grasped and the grasper. This is the second [stage of the yoga] that is accompanied by appearances.3. Since in that very [stage, the yogis] develop resolute faith in the non-appearance of the marks of phenomena, viewing [all phenomena] as clarity is the third [stage of the yoga].4. Since in that very [stage] all the marks of phenomena and of the nature of phenomena do not appear at all, this insight is the fourth [stage of the yoga] (Derge, p.322, Peking, p.249.4).

Ratnakarasanti goes on to interpret the verses from the Lankavatara- sutra in terms of both this fourfold yoga of the Guhyasamajatantra and of the four stages of the yoga that he outlined above. He begins with the second stage.

2. Here, the meaning of ‘mental-process-only* is to know apprehen­sion as mental-processes-only. This is the meaning of ‘the second stage of the yoga*.1. The meaning of ‘[the yogis] would not conceptualise* refers to external objects that are conceptualised in the first stage of the yoga, and the meaning of ‘they would pass beyond’ refers to the other.3. The meaning of ‘apprehension of suchness’ is the wisdom by which one apprehends suchness. This is the meaning of ‘the third stage of the yoga’.4. The meaning of ‘passing beyond mental-processes-only’ is to train in the example of a precedent. It is not accomplishing something without a precedent. The meaning of ‘passing beyond non-appear­ances’ is accomplishing without a precedent. Further, the meaning of ‘non-appearances’ is the non-appearances of the marks o f phenomena. This is the meaning of ‘apprehending suchness’. If you ask: “How does one pass beyond that?’’—one abides in non-appearances. That is to say, one is endowed with the insight that the marks of [both] phenomena and the nature of phenomena do not appear at all. This is the meaning of ‘abiding in the fourth stage of yoga’ (Derge, p.322, Peking, p.249.4f.).

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Ratnákarasánti embeds in this interpretation vocabulary that appears in the stanza from the Guhyasamajatantra: “There are no phenomena and no nature of phenomena.“ Finally, he interprets that verse from the Guhyasamajatantra in terms of the fourfold meditation:

Further, ‘examining the mind’ is the second stage of the yoga. ‘Abide’ means that all phenomena are appearance of your own mind. This is understood as: your own mind is appearing, while not existing. ‘Sky- vajra' is the two non-appearances [of phenomena and of the nature of phenomena]. ‘Abiding there’ is abiding in non-appearances of phe­nomena and the nature of phenomena, successively. The non-appear­ance of the inherent nature of phenomena here is the third stage. The non-appearances of the inherent nature of the nature of phenomena is the fourth stage (Derge, p.323, Peking, p.250.1).

In his commentary on the Guhyasamajatantra, the Kusumdñjali (Tóh.1851), Ratnákarasánti again interprets the verse from the Guhyasamaja in terms of the four yogabhdmi.,9 The following is a very tentative translation of a few sentences from this commentary on the verse in question.

The meaning [of this verse] is as follows: When the Bodhisattvas see a dream, they settle their equipoised mind in that dream and investigate it [as follows]. Because in this dream there is no object whatsoever to be grasped, nothing graspable, there is no grasper either. Well now,

this mental-process-only of dualistic appearance with regard to non­duality is but a deception ... Because they indeed are like dream, all phenomena are mental-processes-only ... All those appearances of phenomena of forms, feelings and so on, are your own mind alone endowed with aspects of forms, feelings and so on. Still there is no object to be grasped by the mind that is external to the mind ... Following that [the Bodhisattvas contemplate], since there is no grasped, there is not grasper either. That being so, there is no duality. Therefore, [the Bodhisattvas] thoroughly relinquish the deceptive causes for dualistic appearances of all phenomena, which are one taste, empty of duality ... and engage in perfect mental application. Because they proceed with this mental application, their minds rest in meditative equipoise on that which is spontaneously accomplished, unconditioned ... empty of duality and free of mental proliferation. That was explained to be the supra-mundane pristine wisdom of emptiness, free of mental proliferation, non-conceptual, the ultimate thought for enlightenment... As for [the line] ‘there are no phenomena

19 See Namai (1991 & 1997).

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and no nature of phenomena’, there is no appearance in the manner of phenomena, because when the cause for all phenomena vanishes, there is appearance as emptiness alone. There is no appearance in the manner of the nature of phenomena either ... The emptiness of phenomena is the nature of phenomena (Derge, pp.82.7-84.3).

Thus, the verse from the Guhyasamajatantra, which in itself contains no explicit fourfold structure, is explained by Ratnakarasanti in his commentary on the Tantra in terms of our fourfold meditation.20

In his Hevajrasadhana entitled “Relinquishing Deception” (Bhramahara, 'Khrul pa spong ba , Toh.1245), Ratnakarasanti pro­vides practical instructions for the meditation on emptiness that precedes the generation of the mandala. Here the fourfold meditation is actually applied in a tantric practice. Note that a few of the clauses here appear as well in the passage from the Kusumahjali cited above.

Then having made all phenomena into the object of [their] mind, [the practitioners] should investigate [them in the following way). This is just mind, which appears deceptively in various forms, as in a dream. There is nothing to be grasped by the mind, which is external to the mind. Since there are no grasped entities, the mind as well is not a grasping entity [does not grasp]. Hence all phenomena have mind as their essence. Their emptiness of grasped and grasper is the Highest Truth. Having determined this unequivocally, [the practitioners] should relinquish the deceptively superimposed and deceptively marked aspects of all phenomena, and then they should see just their nature alone, which is characterised by non-dual awareness, limitless like an immaculate crystal and the pure autumn sky at midday. This is taught to be the ultimate thought for enlightenment, the supra- mundane pristine wisdom of emptiness, devoid of mental proliferation and free of conceptualisation (Derge, pp.378.7-379.3, and Isaacson, in preparation).21

Fourfold meditations like those that appear in Ratnakarasanti’s works are common in Yogacara writings, and are considered to be typical for expositions of this school. Among these are Vasu- bandhu’s Trimsika (vss.28f.) and Trisvabhavanirdesa (vss.36f.), and

20 By way of comparison note that the Pradlpoddyotana (Sgron gsal) commentary on the Guhyasamajatantra does not interpret this verse as an explicit fourfold process (TGh.1785, Derge, vol.30, pp.308f.).

21 I would like to thank Harunaga Isaacson for his very thorough and illuminat­ing discussion of this passage, and for providing me a copy of his annotated edition of the Sanskrit text.

the Madhyantavibhaga (vs.6). Davidson (1985:295-97), Jackson (1987:348-51 and notes there) and Lindtner (1997) have pointed to still other parallels. A few examples will be sufficient here. The sixth chapter of the Mahaydnasutralankara22 describes the following path toward the realisation of things as they are. After understanding that there is nothing but the mind, the wise realise that the mind does not exist either. And after understanding that there is no duality, the wise abide in the dharma-sphere.23 A similar fourfold meditation is found in the fourteenth chapter of the same work (vss.23-28).24

Another consonant fourfold meditation is found in another work among the treatises known by Tibetans as “Five Works of Maitreya” . The Dharmadharmatavibhaga outlines the four aspects of engage­ment in the perfect practice:25

1. dnxig pa'i sbyor ba, upalambhaprayoga,2. mi dtnigs pa yi sbyor ba, anupalambhaprayoga,3. dmigs pa med dtnigs sbyor ba, upalambhanupalambhaprayoga,

4. mi dmigs dmigs pa'i sbyor ba, nopalambhopalambhaprayoga 26

It is possible to interpret these puzzling phrases in more that one w ay27 but the traditional interpretation is found in Vasubandhu’s commentary 28 the Dharmadharmatavibhagavrtli:

1. Through apprehending mere cognition.2. Through non-apprehending objects.3. Through non-apprehending mere cognition when there are no

objects, since when there are no objects to be cognised, cognition is not possible.

4. Through non-apprehending duality, non-duality is apprehended.29

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22 Tib.: Theg pa chen po mdo sde'i rgyan, see L6vi (1911) and Bagchi (1970).23 This is vs.8, but see vss.6f. as well. For an English translation, see Snellgrove

(1987:107), for a French translation, L6vi (1991:52f.).24 As Katsura (1976) and Wayman (1977:333) have pointed out.25 Tib.: yang dag pa'i sbyor ba la jug p a , Skt.: samyakprayogapravesa.26 For English translation, see Davidson (1985:290), for the Sanskrit,Tibetan and

German translation see, Mathes, 1996, pp.l02f., 64 & 110, and ibid., p .139, respectively.

27 From a grammatical point of view it is possible to understand these compounds cither as dvandvas, as karmadharayas, or as tatpurusas. I think that here, too, we need to understand the words of the Dharmadharmatavibhaga, without necessarily reading into them the interpretation of the commentator.

u For a modem commentary see Lhodo Zangpo (1982:22f.).

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W.e have seen that Ratnakarasanti employs four stages of meditation not only in his explanation of meditations according to the system of the Perfection of Wisdom, but also in the system of the Guhya- samajatantra. Another author who makes use of fourfold meditation in a tantric context is Lee sgom pa who, around the early thirteenth century wrote the Man ngag rin chen spungs pa devoted to the entire Buddhist path (S0rensen 1999, Bentor 2000). In the description of the tantric path included there, Lee sgom pa portrays the practices for taming the engagement of one’s awareness (rig pa brtul zhugs kyi spyod pa) that are performed for enhancing the experience of those who have attained a slight stability in their formal meditation. One of these practices, which is carried out with proliferation of mental constructs (prapanca), consists of actually acting out the mandala. Yogis and yoginis occupy the seats of the Buddhas in the mandala, meditate there, and make four kinds of offerings. What is the purpose of this practice?

Tantric practices may be expressed as transformations of the practitioner’s place (gnas), body (lus)> enjoyments (longs spyod) and deeds (mdzad pa). These are called the four complete purities (yongs su dag pa bzhi, yet another fourfold presentation that begins with outer and inner). The complete purity of place refers to the trans­formation of the practitioners’ environment into the mandala of their yi dam\ the complete purity of body to the transformation of the practitioners themselves into their yi dam ; the complete purity of deeds, to the transformation of the practitioners’ ordinary actions into the enlightened activity of the yi dam\ the complete purity of enjoyment to the transformation of the practitioner’s ordinary emo­tions and cognitions into pure enjoyment free of any affliction.

When enlightened beings make and receive offerings, both the giver and recipient are said to experience perfect enjoyment untaint­ed by any trace of such affliction as attachment, miserliness, or jealousy. Therefore, offerings and meditation on the practice of offering form an essential component of the tantric practice. For the transformation of their enjoyment, the yogis and yoginis make the four offerings outer, inner, secret, and suchness. The outer offerings are said to transform ordinary enjoyments into sublime ones, by generating a special immaculate bliss as object of the five senses.

29 For the Sanskrit, Tibetan and German see Mathcs, 1996, pp.!02f., 84, 139, respectively.

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The inner offerings of the five fleshes and five tantric nectars, which are no different from the five male and female Buddhas of the mandala, serve for overcoming ordinary conceptions of attractive­ness and repulsiveness. The secret offerings are the bodhicitta of the Father-Mother enlightened beings in embrace that descends along the central channel of the subtle body. When it reaches the four cakras, the four joys are experienced whereby ordinary desire is transformed into great bliss. The offerings of suchness are accom­plished when the mind that experiences this sublime bliss sees emptiness directly. By making these four offerings, the practitioners engage in the transformation of their enjoyment through a prolifera­tion of mental constructs.

Another practice for taming the engagement of one’s awareness is performed completely without proliferation of mental constructs. Lee sgom pa describes it in the following words.

Thoroughly comprehending the outer, inner, secret, and suchness, they tame their ordinary conceptual thoughts by means of their awareness. They fuse all the external and internal phenomena into the assemblage of enlightened beings of the mandala as mere conventional illusion. They then realise that all these enlightened beings are emanations of their own minds. In the highest truth, the mind as such is not apprehending, therefore they penetrate the equanimity of emptiness. Hence this is called the practice of engaging in the taming of aware­ness (p. 122).

Here the four kinds of offerings have been endowed with a new level of meaning. The meditation on the generation process (bskyed rim) is interpreted here in four steps that correspond to the outer, inner, secret, and suchness offerings. In the outer step all phenomena are transformed into the mandala and the enlightened beings dwelling in it. In the inner step, the practitioners understand that this mandala is but a product of their own mental processes. In the secret step, they realise that the mind as such (sems nyid) does not apprehend (or does not objectify, mi dmigs pa)\ and in the step of suchness they penetrate the equanimity of emptiness. These steps are obviously the fourfold meditation we encountered above.

In his description of the four stages of yoga, Ratnakarasanti uses the example of meditation on infinite space for the sake of passing beyond the perception of form. Did Ratnakarasanti perhaps have in

54 YAEL b e n t o r

mind the meditative absorptions of the four formless realms30 as a further model for his four stages of yoga? The meditation on the four formless realms is another example for a fourfold meditation with a pattern of outer, inner, secret, and suchness. The important feature of this meditation, for our purposes, is that it is shared by non- M ahayana and even non-Buddhist systems, and may have served as a kind of prototype for most of the fourfold systems of meditation we have encountered above. The meditative absorptions of the four formless realms consist of meditative absorption on infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness, and neither perception nor non- perception. Buddhist literature attributes these last two meditations to the two meditation teachers of the Buddha with whom he studied before attaining enlightenment (Nakamura 1979, Bronkhorst 1986). Hence these are considered to be pre-Buddhist forms of meditation adapted by Buddhism or early Buddhist teachings that were eventu­ally superseded and then attributed to non-Buddhist teachers. Certain terms used in these meditations on the four formless realms are preserved in later systems of fourfold meditation. Among these terms are ‘applying’ and ‘not applying the mind’ (m anasikara, y id la byed

pa and am anasikara , y id la mi byed pa) to ‘diversity’ 0nanalva , sna

tshogs)? ' and ‘passing beyond’ a certain meditative state (atbJkram,

'da' ba or bzla ba).n This consistency in terminology may indicate conscious continuity and change in these meditative practices.

A fondness for numerical categorisation is a constant within most Buddhist systems of thought. Even some of those who wish to do away with categories nevertheless resort at times to various catego­ries, as does the “Heart Sutra” in teaching emptiness. In continuing a long Indian tradition, and out of their tendency towards compre­hensiveness, various Buddhist systems try to find links between distinct numerical categories. The most celebrated system among them is of course tan tra , which constantly seeks correlations, as the meaning of its name ‘weaving thread’ suggests. Though it may be impossible to make rules for how they function, there are certain numerical categories that structure much of Buddhist thought. One

30 This meditation is included in several numerically structured meditative systems, such as the eight liberations {yimok$a, m am lhar), on which see Hurvitz (1979), Bronkhorst (1986:76-89), etc.

31 Prajnaparamitopadesa 247.2.4.32 ‘First Bhdvanakrama\U 16.

FOURFOLD MEDITATIONS 55

important example is the three bodies of the Buddha33 that find cosmological parallels in the three realms of desire, forms, and the formless; mental parallels in the three types of consciousness accord­ing to the Yogacara—the consciousnesses of the six senses, the klistamanas and the alayavijnana\ and according to the Great Perfec­tion they find parallels to their modes of being in the three modes of the mind—emptiness, clarity and non-obstruction. The fivefold system that underlies much of tantric thought is well known. Here are correlations among the five aggregates, the five physical ele­ments, the five afflicting emotions, and the five male and female Buddhas of the mandala together with the five wisdoms and so on. The fourfold classification of meditations is another such fundamen­tal configuration that finds constant expression in Buddhist thought.

33 See, for example, Mkhas pa ldc’u (1987:10-20).

56 YAELBENTOR

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