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Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 1
X-ray Diffraction
Marco Milanesio
Università del Piemonte OrientaleE-Mail: [email protected]: http://www.mfn.unipmn.it/~marcomi
From slides and chapter (à SNLS book pag 345) by Prof. Davide Viterbo
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 2
Why X-ray diffraction?
X-rays
Crystal
Crystals diffract also electrons and neutrons
3D StructureDiffraction pattern
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 3
Xray ‘microscope’
Fourier Transform is the
“mathematical lens” allowing to “see the atoms”!
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 4
Diffraction can also beapplied on very largemoleculestructures
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 5
Shor t history of diffractionX-rays discovered by Röntgen in 1895
Sommerfeld (1904) demonstrates ∼ 0.4 Å
Laueand Ewald (1912): crystals can diffract X-rays (demonstratedexperimentally by Friedrich and Knipping)
Bragg (1913) solves the first crystalstructures (NaCl, KBr, KCl, KI)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 6
Inter ferencebetween scattered waves – The concept
∼
Incidentbean
Interference
Diffractionpattern
Periodic lattice withopening at d ~
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 7
The great intuition by Laueand Ewald
X-rays have∼∼∼∼ 0.4 Å
(Sommerfeld)
Crystals are “ lattices” with “ openings” (the scatter ing atoms) located at suitable distancesto give a diffraction pattern containinginformation on the atomic structure itself
Interatomicdistances about 1Å
(Atomic theory)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 8
Outline
Mathematical background and basic concepts
Introduction to powder diffraction
Bragg’s law and its practical applications
Structure factor and electron density
Interaction between X-rays and matter
Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 9
What is the definition of “per iodic lattice” ?
What is a Dirac δδδδ function?
What is a Four ier Transform?
What is a convolution between two functions?
Why Dirac δδδδ, Four ier transform, convolution are basic concept to understand X-ray diffraction?
Mathematical background and basic concepts
What are Miller indicesof lattice planes?
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 10
2D latticeUnit cell
T = ua+ vb
u, v integersb
a
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 11
Crystal planesand Miller indeces
(1 0)
(0 1)
(1 1)
(2 1)
Crystal planes are defined as the planes passing through the lattice
nodes. They are defined by the Miller indexes h k l
h: number of part resulting bythe intersection of family of
planes and the a vector
k: the same for b
l: the same for c (3D caseonly)
b
a
2D case
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 12
3D lattices
Unit cell
a, b, c, ,
Lattice constants, cellparameters
Crystallographicaxes
T = ua+ vb +wc
u, v, w integers
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 13
Miller indices in 3D
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 14
(x - x o)= 0 per x ≠ x o
= ∞ per x = x o
One dimension case (1D)
For instance: an infinitely sharp gaussian function
=−−−
2
2
)2
)(exp
2
1lim(σπσ
δ oo
xxxx
à 0
3D Case: vector czbyaxr ++=)()()()( oooo zzyyxxrr −⋅−⋅−=− δδδδ
0 xo
1)( =−∞
∞−
dxxx oδ
Dirac function
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 15
Dirac functions: Proper ties
=−S
o Orfrdrrrf )()()( δ
−=−−S
rrrdrrrr )()()( 2112 δδδ
)()()()( ooo rrrfrrrf −=− δδ
)()( rrrr oo −=− δδ
Why is it useful to define the Dirac δ function?
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 16
∞
−∞=
−=n
nxxxL )()( δxn = na
n integera constant
L(x) ≠ 0 for x = nan: -∞ à ∞
For instance: one dimension lattice of
periodicity “a”
Lattice function L – One dimensional case (1D)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 17
Lattice function L – Three dimensional case (3D)
a, b, c base vectors of the lattice
∞
∞−
−=u v w
wvurrrL )()( ,,δ
cwbvaur wvu ++=,, u, v, w integers
Vector identifying the non-zero points of the lattice function : L(r) ≠ 0
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 18
Four ier Transform – The definition
Given a function (r), its Fourier transform is:
⋅=S
rdrrirrF )*2exp()()*( πρ
r* is a vector in the space where the Fourier transform is defined
The Fourier transform is an operationrelating the space defined by the r
vector to another space defined by a second vector named r*
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 19
Four ier transform (FT)
It can bedemonstrated that the inverse transformexists and is defined as:
⋅−=*
*)*2exp()*()(S
rdrrirFr πρ
In short form:
[ ])()*( rTrF ρ= FT from r space to r* space
[ ])*()( 1 rFTr −=ρ FT-1 from r* space to r space
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 20
⋅=S
rdrrirrF )*2exp()()*( πρ
Four ier transform - continued
In general F(r* ) is a complex function
)*()*()*( riBrArF +=
⋅=S
rdrrrrA )*2cos()()*( πρ
⋅=S
rdrrrrB )*2sin()()*( πρ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 21
Four ier transform of a gaussian function
Gaussianfunction
−==
2
2
2exp
2
1)0,()(
σπσρρ x
Nx
∞
∞−
= dxxixxxF )*2exp()(* )( ρ
[ ] 222 *2exp*)()( xxFxT σπρ −==The FT of a gaussian is again a gaussian but with a
width depending on the inverse of
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 22
Four ier transform of a Gaussian – The example
(x) T[ (x)]= 1 is sharper = 1 is wider
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 23
Four ier transform of a Dirac function
(x)
(x) is infinitelysharp
T[ (x)]F(x* )=T[ (x)] isinfinitely wide
(x) = (x)
∞
∞−
== 1)*2exp()(* )( dxxixxxF πδ
* )2exp(* )( iaxxF π=(x) = (x-a) 0
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 24
Four ier transform of a finite 1D lattice
−=
−=p
pn
naxx )()( δρ
With N = 2p + 1 nodes
*)sin(
* )sin(* )2exp(* )(
-n ax
axNinaxxF
p
p=
==
A function with main max/min of height equal to ± N, located at ax* = h (h integer) and width equal to 2/N
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 25
…….T[finite lattice] graphically
−=
−=p
pn
nxxxL )()( δ
T[1D Lattice with Nà ] à Lattice in x*
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 26
Four ier transform–1D infinite lattice
N à ∞
∞
−∞=
−==n
naxxLx )()()( δρ
* )sin(
* )sin(lim*)(
ax
axNxF
N ππ
∞→=
( )∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
−=
−=hh
haxaa
hx
axF *
1*
1*)( δδ
is a normalization factora
1
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 27
Four ier transform–3D finite lattice
−= −= −=
−=1
1
2
2
3
3
)()( ,,
p
pu
p
pv
p
pw
wvurrr δρ N1 = 2p1 + 1 N2 = 2p2 + 1 N3 = 2p3 + 1
)*sin(
)*sin(
)*sin(
)*sin(
)*sin(
)*sin(* )( 321
rc
rcN
rb
rbN
ra
raNrF
⋅⋅⋅
⋅⋅⋅
⋅⋅=
ππ
ππ
ππ
are the base vectors of the direct lattice:cba ,,
h, k, l integer
With max/min: ,* krb =⋅ lrc =⋅ *,* hra =⋅
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 28
Four ier transform–3D finite lattice (ct.d)
The base vectors of the direct lattice are: cba ,,
A new lattice (Reciprocal) can beassociated with base vectors: *,*,* cba
1*0*0*
0*1*0*
0*0*1*
=⋅=⋅=⋅=⋅=⋅=⋅=⋅=⋅=⋅
ccbcac
cbbbab
cabaaa Reciprocity and orthogonality
conditions
Then the max of F(r* ) are defined by the vector:
**** clbkahr H ++= ),,( lkhHT
=
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 29
Four ier Transform –3D infinite lattice
∼
(N1, N2, N3) à ∞
( ) ∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
−=u v w
wvurrr ,,)( δρ
∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
−=
h k l
lkhrrV
rF ,,**1
)*( δ
( ) ∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
∞
−∞=
−=h k l
HrrV
**1 δ
It is again a 3D infinite lattice, defined at the nodes of the Reciprocal Lattice
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 30
Reciprocal space• Definition:
The reciprocal lattice is a periodic set of points constructed in such a way that the direction of a vector from the origin to a lattice point coincides with the direction of the normal to a real space plane and the length of the vector is equal to the reciprocal of the interplanar distance in the real space.
• Why we use it? It’s a mathematical concept (product of two vectors) that together with the Laueequations allow to easily calculate the reflection positions in real space.
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 31
Convolution (C) – Symbol *
∼
Operation involving two generic functions(r) and g(r), defined as:
)(*)()(*)()( rrgrgruC ρρ ==
)]([)]([)](*)([ rgTrTrgrT ×= ρρ
Convolution theorem
)]([*)]([)]()([ rgTrTrgrT ρρ =×
and viceversa
−==S
rdrugrrgruC )()()(*)()( ρρ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 32
Convolution – What’s happening?
∼
dxxugx )()( −ρIs the grey part
g(u-x) inverse of g(x) with respect to u
ρ(x)g(x)
ρ(r) & g(r)
)(*)()( xgxxC ρ=
The sum of all greyareas for different u is
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 33
Convolution involving sharp functions
If g(x) is “sharp” :ρ(x)*g(x) is very similarto ρ(x)
ρ(x)
g(x)
What is the result if g(x) isan infinitely sharp δfunction at x=0? ρ(x)remains unchanghed!
ρ(x)*δ(x)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 34
If δ is centered in x=aρ(r)*δ(r) = ρ(r) BUT ρ(r) IS NOW CENTERED in a, i.e. relocation of (x) in x = a
ρ(x) δ(x) ρ(x)*δ(x)
Convolution with a Dirac – 3D case
)()(*)( oo rrrrr −=− ρδρTranslation of (r) by a vector ro
Convolution with a Dirac g(r )= (r -r o) – 1D case
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 35
Convolution with a 1D infinite L(x)
∼
( ) )()(*)( rnarfrfrLn
ρ=−= ∞
−∞=
à Function defined in the interval 0 ≤ r ≤ a)(rf
The result is the (r) function, representing the periodic
repetition of f(r)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 36
ρ(x) L (x) ρ(x)*L(x)
…… (r)*L(r) graphically
……theoperation repeats (r) at each nodeof the 1D lattice
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 37
Convolution of a function with a 2D lattice
∼
……it’s a repetition of “ toluene” (x,y) at eachnodeof the 2D lattice, i.e. a 2D crystal
The same happens (only more complicated for a graphical
representation) with a 3D lattice
L(x,y) ρ(x,y)*L(x,y)ρ(x,y)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 38
Convolution with a 3D lattice
∼
( ) )()(*)(,,
,, rrrfrfrLwvu
wvu ρ=−= ∞
∞−
à 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, 0 ≤ z ≤ c ),,()( zyxfrf =
The (r) function is obtained,
which is a 3D periodic repetition of f(r)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 39
Outline
Mathematical background and basic concepts
Interaction between X-rays and matter
Introduction to powder diffraction
Bragg’s law and its practical applications
Structure factor and electron density
Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal
You are here
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 40
Interaction between X-rays and matter
∼
Scattering
Elastic (Thompson) =0, =
Inelastic (Compton) ≠0
Absorption
Without photoemission
With photoemission
Kinematic theory of X-ray diffraction
Dynamical theoryNeglected: Interferencebetween scattered and direct beam,
multiple diffraction, absorption and crystal defectivity
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 41
X ray features
∼
X ray Electromagnetic radiation
High energy, refraction index ≈ 1 (always<1) in allmedia, v = c = 3 108 m s-1
(Å)
E(keV)
UVX ray 1000.1
∼150 ∼ 0.1
It’s very complicated to makea “ lens” capable of focusing X-rays, similar to thoseavailable for UV-Vis radiationsand for electrons (magnets à TEM)
0.3-2.4 Å
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 42
X ray scatter ing without energy loss (coherent) ààààThompson Scatter ing with =0
∼
Scattered intensity
2
2cos1eII
2
42
4
iTh
θ+⋅=
cm
Ii = Incident beam intensitye = particlechargem = particlemass2 = scattering angler = detection distance
Becauseof the 1/m2 factor only electrons scatter !
Polarization factorfor non-polarized
X-rays
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 43
)2(sin)2cos(2
' 2 θψτ ⋅=oP Partially polarized light (Synchrotron)detector azimutal angle
The polar ization of synchrotron radiation
2
)2cos(1 θ+=oPNon-polarized light (X-ray conventional tube)
)1()1(
)1()1('
τταττατ
−++−−+=
depends on monochromator crystal:
= cos2 M with M
Bragg angle of the monochromator
⊥
⊥
+−=
II
II
||
||τ
polarization degreewith = 0 for a conventional X ray source (X ray tube), ≠ 0 for synchrotron light
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 44
X-ray scatter ing with energy loss(incoherent) àààà Compton Scatter ing
∼
Elastic collision between a photon and anelectron which isdisplaced
= 0.024 (1-cos2 )
Thomson >> Compton becauseThomson ∝ (n. e-)2
whileCompton ∝ (n. e-)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 45
When more than one par ticle interact with X-raysinter ferenceand diffraction occur
Incidentbeam;
Interference
Diffractionpattern
d
Periodic lattice withopening at d ~
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 46
Inter ferencebetween scattered waves – Some math
( ) rrrSS o ⋅=⋅−= *22 πλπδ
Scattered amplitudeby O à Ao
Scattered amplitudeby O’ àScattered amplitudeby a freeelectron à ATh
)*2exp(' rriAo ⋅π
fj=Aj/ATh scattering factor à n. of electrons in point j
λϑsin2
|*| =rλ
oSSr
−=*
S, So versorsPhasedifference depending on the optic path difference (o.p.d.)
2 : = : o.p.d.
kr =*
Transferredmomentum
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 47
I f thereare N scatter ing points:
∼
Resulting amplitude (with respect to that of the electron located at the origin)
( ) ( )j
n
jjj
n
j Th
j rrifrriA
ArF ⋅=⋅=
==
*2exp*2exp)*(11
Continuous scatterer: described by an electron density continuous function (r), governing the scattered amplitude
)*2exp()( rrirdr ⋅πρ
The volume element dr in r contains (r)dr electrons and
scatters with amplitude:
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 48
The total scattered amplitude is the integral over all the scatter ing volume v in which the
continuous function (r ) is defined, i.e.:
∼
( ) [ ])(*2exp)()*( rTrdrrirrF j
v
ρπρ =⋅=
( ) [ ])*(**2exp)*()( 1
*
rFTrdrrirFr j
v
−=⋅−= πρ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 49
Let us consider different scatter ing functions (r)
∼
Electron in one atom.....
Assuming spherical symmetry:
drrr
rrrrfe
∞
=0
e*2
*)2sin()(U*)(
ππ
|)|( rr =
)(4)(U 2e rrr eρπ=
Radial electron density function
2
)()( rre ψρ =
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 50
….poly-electronic “ fixed” atom.....
∼
Assuming spherical symmetry:
=
∞
==Z
jea j
fdrrr
rrrrf
10
a *2
*)2sin()(U*)(
ππ
)(4)(U 2a rrr aρπ=
Z=n. of electron (atomic number)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 51
….Atom with isotropic thermal motion.....
∼
−=
2
2
exp*)(* )(λ
θsenBrfrf a
oa
T
28 uB π= à Temperature factor, ADP, DebyeWaller factor
u2 à mean squaredisplacement
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 52
Atomic scatter ing factor vs. scatter ing angle
∼
“ fixed” atom
Atom withthermal motion
Growing scattering angle [2 , (sen )/λ…]
Decay with 2depending on the fact
that atoms are notlocated in a
mathematical point àFT not constant
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 53
….Atom or molecules in a unit cell
∼
N atom located at Njrj ,1, =
Each atom has its electron density )( jj rr −ρNeglecting bonding
electron density(Independent Atom
Approximation- IAM)
)()(1
j
N
jM rrr
=
−= ρρ
)*2exp()*()*(1
rrirfrFN
jjM ⋅=
=
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 54
Outline
Mathematical background and basic concepts
Interaction between X-rays and matter
Introduction to powder diffraction
Bragg’s law and its practical applications
Structure factor and electron density
Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystalYou are here
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 55
…. Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal….
∼
Unit cell repeated at the nodes of an infinite lattice
)()()( rLrr M ∗=∞ ρρ
∞
∞−
∞ −=lkh
HM rrV
rFrF,,
)**(1
)*()*( δ
**** clbkahrH ++=
Scattered amplitude
???)]([)]([)*( =×=∞ rLTrTrF Mρ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 56
THEN:
∼
∞
∞−
∞ −=lkh
HM rrHFrF,,
)**()()*( δ
which is not zero only at the nodes of the reciprocal lattice where the continuous
function is sampled
)*(rF∞
)*(rFM
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 57
Laueequations
∼
**** clbkahrH ++=
λ
λ
λ
lSSc
kSSb
hSSa
o
o
o
=−⋅
=−⋅
=−⋅
)(
)(
)(Discretevaluesof S tohavediffracted beam!
By multiply rH* = (S-So)/ by a, b, c the Laueconditions to havenon-zero diffraction are obtained
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 58
DiffractOgramanimation
!"# $%%
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 59
∼
.
)()()( rrrcr Φ×= ∞ρρShape function )(rΦ
=1 in the crystal
=0 out of the crystal
)(*)()]([*)]([)( *** rDrFrTrTrFcr ∞∞ =Φ= ρ
Ω
⋅= rdrrirD )2exp()( *π
∞
∞−
−=lkh
cr HM rrDHFV
rF,,
*** )()(1
)(
….Finite crystal of gener ic volume
∞
∞−
∞ −=lkh
HM rrHFrF,,
)**()()*( δ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 60
*
*3
*
*2
*
*1* )()()(
)(z
zAsen
y
yAsen
x
xAsenrD
ππ
ππ
ππ ⋅⋅=
A1
A3
A2
Maxima with amplitude (A1-1)•(A2
-1) •(A3 -1)
The reciprocal lattice nodes becomedomains of dimension Aj
-1 (j=1,2,3) in the threedirections (x, y, z)
….Finite crystal of volume : a pr ism with A1 cells along a, A2
cells along b and A3 cells along c.
!!! Note that also the experimental setup concurs to the shape/sizeof the observed signal!!!
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 61
The function like (senNx)/x have the samebehaviour of T[finite lattice]
−=
−=p
pn
nxxxL )()( δ
T[lattice in x going to infinite] à lattice in x*
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 62
If an ORDERED DOMAIN is considered with a number of unitcell > 1000 the peak becomes a Dirac δδδδ function
à in the “ real world” : the peak width is then defined by the instrumental setup.
Proteine case: cell edges a,b,c ∼ 10 nm:To have a single crystal like diffraction pattern ordered domainsof at least 1÷10 µm are required
Metals and simple inorganic oxides, cell edges a,b,c, ∼ 0.5 nm: crystals of about 50 ÷ 100 nm might give a good diffractionpattern (Powder data) and particles of about 5÷10 nm show widebut still measurable peaks (à by the FWHM analysis the crystalsizemight beestimated, but also stress, strain etc)
A coupleor real “ extreme” casesof T[lattice]
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 63
∼
Diffraction pattern of 1D and 2D crystals.
1D
2D
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 64
Quasi-1D chains of alkali metal atoms (K or Cs)
K-InAs(110): supercell 2x6 withrespect to the original In-As cell
4 nm x 4 nm
Local order by STM
Imagesby prof. Mariani20 nm x 20 nm
long-rangeorder
Diffraction pattern of a “ column” of K atoms on a 2D InAs sur face: a real example
InAs Disordered K Ordered K
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 65
∼
Diffraction pattern of a 3D finite crystal
Peak position à unit cellPeak intensity à atom positionsPeak width à size/shapeof the crystalN.B.: Peak position, I, width à experimental setup
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 66
Outline
Mathematical background and basic concepts
Interaction between X-rays and matter
Introduction to powder diffraction
Bragg’s law and its practical applications
Structure factor and electron density
Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal
You are here
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 67
∼
Structure factor and electron density
∞
∞−
−==lkh
HMcr rrDHFV
rFrF,,
**** )()(1
)()(
Structure factor)(HFM
vector (matrix 1 x 3); iftransposed becomes)(H ),,( lkhH
T
=
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 68
∼
Reciprocity of (hkl) and (xyz)
In the sameway
vector (matrix 1 x 3); if transposed becomes
)( jX),,( jjjj zyxX
T
=
components of vector rH* (reciprocal space):
rH* = ha* + kb* + lc*
components of vector rj (direct space): r j = xja + yjb + zjc
vector (matrix 1 x 3); if transposed becomes)(H ),,( lkhH
T
=
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 69
Using the defined vectors to represent F(H)
jjjj
T
jH lzkyhxXHrr ++=⋅=⋅*
=
⋅=N
jj
T
j XHifHF1
)2exp()( HH iBA +=
)2cos(1
=
⋅=N
jj
T
jHXHfA
)2(sin1
=
⋅=N
jj
T
j XHfB π
)*2exp()*()*(1
Hj
N
jHjHM rrirfrF ⋅=
=
π)*2exp()*()*(1
rrirfrFN
jjM ⋅=
=
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 70
…..GRAPHICALLY
H
H
A
Btg
H=ϕ
)exp(||HHH
iFF Φ=
( )[ ] [ ]==
=++==N
jjj
N
jjjjjhkl iflzkyhxifHFF
11
exp2exp)( απ
2
122
||
+=
HBAF HHAH
BH
DIFFRACTED AMPLITUDE STRUCTURE?
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 71
Four ier SYNTHESIS
⋅−=*
*)*2exp()*()(S
rdrrirFr πρ
)*(rF Measured only at the nodes of reciprocal lattice
)2exp(1
)(,,∞
∞−
⋅−=lkh
T
HXHiF
Vrρ Fourier series
( )[ ]∞
∞−
++−==lkh
lzkyhxiFV
zyxr,,
hkl 2exp1
),,()( ρρReal f.,
Friedel law( )[ +++= ∞
=
∞
=
∞
=
⋅
0 0 0hkl 2cos
2)(
h k l
lzkyhxAV
r πρ( )]lzkyhxB +++ ⋅ π2sinhkl
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 72
The phase problem
|Fhkl|∝Ihkl1/2 can bederived
from measured Intensities
The hkl -i.e. the phase- islost (phase problem)
( )[ ]∞
=
∞
=
∞
=
−++=0 0 0
hkl 2cos2
)(h k l
hkllzkyhxFV
r ϕπρ
Becuaseof Friedel law and
and becausesin is an odd function, the “sin” termsdisappear and becomes a real function
hklhkl FF = hklhkl ϕϕ −=
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 73
The phase problem – in practice
The structurecan not be immediatelyobtained after measuring the intensities Ihkl
à Lesson by M. Nardini
Difffraction pattern
Reciprocal space
3D structure
Direct space
The phaseis lost
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 74
Outline
Mathematical background and basic concepts
Interaction between X-rays and matter
Introduction to powder diffraction
Bragg’s law and its practical applications
Structure factor and electron density
Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal
You are here
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 75
dH
Optic pathdifference=
Bragg law and its practical applications
Crystal planeswith indices hkl
Incidentbeam
“Reflected”beam
Reflected X-rays are “ in phase” if:
??=+ BCAB ??sin2 =ϑHd λ
Hdr
1sin2|*| ==
λϑ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 76
Reflection sphereand limiting sphere
λϑϑ sin2
sin1
* ==== IOd
rOPH
H
Sphereof radius 1/λ.Origin O of R.L. where
incident beam hits sphere
If a P point of the R. L. is on the reflection sphere then a “ reflection” along AP arises
If OP > 2/λ, P CAN NEVER be on the reflection sphere: then the limiting sphere has a radius = 2/λ
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 77
Resolution
minmax d
1sin =
λϑ dmin: resolution
dmin: “smallest thing”that can be “seen” at a
certain
large à largehklà small dmin à high resolution
hx+ky+lx
Sensible to errors on x,y,z and to the fine
details of (r)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 78
Resolution - ExampleFor Cu(K ): = 1.54 Å
λϑ =sin2 Hd 1sin max =ϑ
5.0sin max =ϑ Å54.15.02min =
⋅= λ
d
Atomic resolution??sin2min =
⋅=
MAX
dϑ
λÅ77.0
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 79
Resolution – real cases
Protein Resolution of 2-5Å is typical, <1.0Å the limit
Softer X-rays, employed : 0.8-1.6Å
Harder X-rays, employed : 0.4-0.9Å
(Hard) Materials Resolution of 0.9-1.0Å isthe standard, <0.8Å the
limit
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 80
From the operational point of view:
( )[ ]∞
=
∞
=
∞
=
−++=0 0 0
hkl 2cos2
)(h k l
hkllzkyhxFV
r ϕπρ
To havea good representation of (r) a largenumber of |Fhkl|should bemeasured and their phasesdetermined in some way
To measure the largestpossiblenumber of
reflections (Ihkl)
To movea single crystal in a mono-
chromatic X-ray beam
Powder in a mono-chromatic X-ray beam
Crystal in a polychromatic X-ray beam (Laue method)
M. Nardini(September 17th)
P. Scardi, September 13th
squaremodulus
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 81
Detector to measure the diffracted beam (Ihkl) BM01 at SNBL@ESRF
Ihkl=K |Fhkl|2 K contains many factors:
L, P, 3, Io, e Vcr
( )[ ]∞
=
∞
=
∞
=
−++=0 0 0
hkl 2cos2
)(h k l
hkllzkyhxFV
r ϕπρ
0D-detector
2D detector (Imageplateor CCD)
(pseudo-) 1D detector
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 82
Techniques also involving diffraction:
Surfacediffraction
A. RuoccoSeptember 19th
Small Angle X-ray Scattering
P. RielloSeptember 13th
Photoelectrondiffraction
G. PaolucciSeptember 13th
Diffraction in earth Science
S. Quartieri September 19th
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 83
When issynchrotron useful?à Nardini & QuartieriConventional source à Synchrotron
PolycrystallinesampleLow resolution à high resolution
Pattern in 10 ÷ 1000 minute à 10 ÷ 1000 µs, TR-WAXS
Single crystal: crystal 100 m à 5 mWell diffracting crystal à Semi-ordered crystals, solvates
DAFS: impossible à possibleGuinier: “Wehavea fantastic theory about SAXS, but X-ray
1000 times more brilliant are needed”Information on thin films à Surfacediffraction
(GIWAXS)
“ Normal diffraction” àààà resonant diffraction, Lauemethod (Time Resolved-Singlecrystal diffraction)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 84
Outline
Mathematical background and basic concepts
Interaction between X-rays and matter
Introduction to powder diffraction
Bragg’s law and its practical applications
Structure factor and electron density
Diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal
You are here
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 85
Introduction to powder diffraction
Crystallinepowder
Sample formed by a very largenumber of random-oriented ‘crystals’ (crystallites)
Very large (à infinite) number of randomly orientedreciprocal lattices with a common origin.
T[crystallinepowder]
Then all the reciprocal lattice points within the limiting sphere are always in diffraction condition
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 86
The consequence:
Each reciprocal lattice vector assumes all possibleorientationswith a common origin
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 87
Then:The locus of each set H of R.L. nodes defines a sphere of radius |rH* |, intersecting the reflection sphere on an circle
Reflections are on an axial (with respect to the incident X-raybeam) conewith opening equal to 4
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 88
“ The old times” : collecting data on a film
Pattern features:
dH line position (Å-1) (2 à sin / )
IH : line intensity(X-rays converted intoelectrons, photons…and finally scaledà ArbitraryUnit)
∝2
0
10
20Debye-Scherrer camera and sample in a rotating
cylindrical capillary
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 89
…..Modern version of Debye-Sherrer geometry at the synchrotron (ID31 at ESRF)
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 90
Bragg-Brentano geometry- parafocusing
Flat sample, powder pressedon the sampleholder
(à preferred orientation?)
Position sensitive detectorsallow to record at the sametime reflection intensitiesfor a certain angular range
Geometry rarely used at the synchrotron where X-raysare already collimated and
brilliant
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 91
DIFFRACTION PATTERN ANALYSISPhase recognition (Qualitative analysis)
Each crystal phaseshows a typical diffraction pattern, characterized by dH e IH foreach H=(h k l) reflection
ICDD databases(PDF2,3,4) allow
comparing dH, IH EXP
with dH, IH ICPD torecognize the phase(s)
Profile fitting methods (Rietveld and more) à Quantitative analysis
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 92
Structural refinement
ab initio structuresolution(if you solve the phase
problem)
“Rietveld” refinement forstructural analysis
min2
→−=i
Ci
Oii yywSPurple
curve
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 93
Phase transition analysis
When a phaseundergoes a phase transition its
diffraction pattern changes
Enviromental chambers are used to condition the sampleenvironment:
Temperature, pressure, atmosphere, irradiation,
laser in situ during XRPD
(a)
4 6 8 10 12
(b)
(040)(202)
(301)(102)
(002) (053)(352)(133)
(303)(501)
(200)(011)
Cou
nts
(a.u
.)
T(K)
2θ(°)
973
573
1÷100000 micro sec to get a XRPD pattern
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 94
Size, stress and strain of crystallites …..
“Perfect” crystal Infinite and no defects
“Real” crystal Finite and defectiveFull width at half
maximum (FWHM) (2 ) is related also to
the averagecrystal size(D). For instance:
)2(cos9.0
θθλ∆⋅
=D
Broad diffraction peaks
From the variation of cellparameters of a stressedmaterial the deformation
tensor can bederived
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 95
…… preferred orientation/strain
Non-randomly oriented crystals à Non-uniform intensity along the diffraction cone à
pole figureà preferred orientation
Aluminium with preferredorientation
Synthetic olivine without deformation
Marco Milanesio X-ray Diffraction 96
Thank you for the attention
Enjoy the diffraction
techniques and synchrotron!!!