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Resolved QuestionShow me another raquoAbsithe LeagalizedI read in the paper today that Absinthe has been leaglized Any truth to this When will it be avaliable

Ive had it before and everyone had a great time3 years ago

Report Abuse

Amaranth Best Answer - Chosen by AskerIts not entirely banned in America but no laws have actually changed It turns out that its thujone that is

banned (thats the component of grand wormwood that was said to cause hallucinations and such--in fact if there were bad reactions to absinthe it was usually inferior absinthes colored with chemicals that caused these side effects)

Luckily recent tests on pre-ban absinthe that somehow hasnt been drunk before now has revealed that there wasnt much thujone in absinthe 100 years ago after all

Ted Breaux a man who did a lot of that research and has developed some lovely absinthes that are available in Europe recently released an absinthe called Lucid in the US Its based on absinthe recipes from the drinks heydey and is available in some stores listed here httpwwwdrinklucidcomget_lucid_absihellip

If you dont live near one of those stores you can buy Lucid or another legal absinthe called Kubler (this one is white not green--but I like it better than Lucid and its still authentic and made with grande wormwood) online here httpwwwdrinkupnycomcategory_s86hhellip

And finally if youre really interested in the drink I recommend checking out the wormwood society (wwwwormwoodsocietyorg) for more information about absinthe

радужная эйфория вокруг абсента стала спадать пока в 1905 году именно абсент не стал причиной настоящей трагедии Фермер Джин Ланфрей питавший к абсенту особое пристрастие в один не слишком прекрасный день laquoперебралraquo этого полынного напитка и под его воздействием убил всю свою семью Европейская пресса широко освещала это уголовное дело называя абсент одной из главных причин трагедии Всё это привело к тому что в 1908 году власти Швейцарии ввели запрет на продажу абсента В последующие годы этому примеру последовали все европейские государства (нужно заметить что в Европе абсент был легализован в 1981 году а в Швейцарии и вовсе лишь в 2004-ом)

Возрождение Бутылка абсента

Местом возрождения абсента считается Великобритания точнее Шотландия там где он никогда не был запрещён но и после гонений в других странах совершенно не имел популярности до 1998 года когда чешская марка Hills основанная в 1920 году запустила зелье на британский рынок В немалой степени успеху этого предприятия способствовали знаменитости в частности Джонни Депп находясь в Великобритании на съёмках фильма laquoСонная лощинаraquo рассказывал как упивался абсентом с Хантером С Томпсоном на съёмках laquoСтраха и отвращения в Лас-Вегасеraquo Позже эту моду подхватили и за океаном с абсентом можно было увидеть многих знаменитостей от Эминема до Мэрилина Мэнсона

Вообще успех чешской марки трудно объяснить потому что вкус этого абсента был отвратительным laquoЭтот абсент пьют чтоб быстро опьянеть только мазохист добавляет в него воду чтобы затянуть его действиеraquo Хороший абсент напротив можно пить медленно и долго

Хиллз ругали все знатоки и через год при содействии главного французского эксперта по абсенту и создательницы музея абсента mdash Мари-Клод Делаэ была выпущена новая марка laquoLa Feeraquo которую можно было смаковать

Маркетинговая политика производителя учитывала комическое отношение англичан к laquoопаснейшему из ядовraquo ряд акций носил ярко выраженный laquoнесерьёзныйraquo характер несвойственный раскрутке алкоголя Это привело к созданию позитивного образа абсента mdash немного забавного и слегка зловещего mdash никогда до этого абсент не имел такой laquoрадужнойraquo репутации

В 2004 году парламент Швейцарии проголосовал за легализацию абсента запрещённого с 1907 года 24 июля 2004 года суд Амстердама признал недействующим голландский закон от 1909 года запрещающий абсент Сейчас производители абсента обязаны соблюдать ограничения введённые Европейским союзом согласно которым количество туйона в абсенте не должно превышать 10 мгкг Тем не менее эти нормы довольно часто нарушаются

[править]Абсент в искусстве и политике[править]Живопись и изобразительное искусство laquoЛюбитель абсентаraquo 1858mdash1859 Новая глиптотека Карлсберга тема картины mdash реалистический и

неприукрашенный портрет пьяницы а не аллегория порождённая воображением художника

Поддаваясь влиянию моды художники конца XIX mdash начала XX веков рисовали картины на которых изображён человек с отсутствующим взглядом пьющий абсент Зачастую эти работы трактуют негативное либо разрушительное влияние абсента на человека

В коллекции Государственного Эрмитажа в Санкт-Петербурге находится картина Пабло Пикассо laquoЛюбительница абсентаraquo датированная 1901 годом В 1911 году Пикассо начал писать картину laquoБокал абсентаraquo которую закончил в 1914 году В 1912 году он же написал картину на которой изображена бутылка абсента laquoПерноraquo и бокал

Художник-сюрреалист Гигер написал некоторые из своих работ после экспериментов со свойствами абсента Позднее в 2005 году его имя получил одна из разновидностей французского абсента Brevans сваренного как утверждается на этикетке laquoпо оригинальной формуле девятнадцатого векаraquo

AbsintheAbsinthe (pronounced ˈaeligbsɪnθ AB-sinth) is historically described as a distilled highly alcoholic (45ndash74

ABV) beverage It is an anise-flavored spirit derived from herbs including the flowers and leaves of the herb Artemisia

absinthium commonly referred to as grande wormwood together with green anise and sweet fennel Absinthe traditionally has a natural green color but can also be colorless It is commonly referred to in historical literature as la feacutee verte (the Green Fairy)

Although it is sometimes mistakenly called a liqueur absinthe is not bottled with added sugar and is therefore classified as a spirit[5] Absinthe is unusual among spirits in that it is bottled at a very high proof but is normally diluted with water when consumed

Absinthe originated in the canton of Neuchacirctel in Switzerland It achieved great popularity as an alcoholic drink in late 19th- and early 20th-century France particularly among Parisian artists and writers Owing in part to its association with bohemian culture absinthe was opposed by social conservatives and prohibitionists Charles Baudelaire Paul Verlaine Arthur Rimbaud Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Amedeo Modigliani Vincent van Gogh Oscar Wilde Aleister Crowley and Alfred Jarry were all notorious bad men of that day who were (or were thought to be) devotees of the Green Fairy[6]

Absinthe has been portrayed as a dangerously addictive psychoactive drug[7] The chemical thujone present in small quantities was blamed for its alleged harmful effects By 1915 absinthe had been banned in the

United States and in most European countries including France The Netherlands Belgium Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire Although absinthe was vilified no evidence has shown that it is any more dangerous than ordinary spirits Its psychoactive properties apart from those of alcohol have been much exaggerated[7]

A revival of absinthe began in the 1990s when countries in the European Union began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale As of February 2008 nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries most notably in France Switzerland Spain and the Czech Republic[citation needed]Contents [hide]

EtymologyThe French word absinthe can refer either to the alcoholic beverage or less commonly to the actual

wormwood plant (grande absinthe being Artemisia absinthium and petite absinthe being Artemisia pontica) The Latin name artemisia comes from Artemis the ancient Greek goddess of the hunt Absinthe is derived from the Latin absinthium which in turn is a stylization of the Greek αψίνθιον (apsiacutenthion) for wormwood The use of Artemisia absinthium in a drinking is attested in Lucretiusrsquo De Rerum Natura (I 936ndash950) where Lucretius indicates that a drink containing wormwood is given as medicine to children in a cup with honey on the brim to make it drinkable This was a metaphor for the presentation of complexity ideas in poetic forming[8]

Some claim that the word means undrinkable in Greek but it may instead be linked to the Persian root spand or aspand or the variant esfand which meant Peganum harmala also called Syrian Ruemdashalthough it is not actually a variety of rue another famously bitter herb That Artemisia absinthium was commonly burned as a protective offering may suggest that its origins lie in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root spend meaning to perform a ritual or make an offering Whether the word was a borrowing from Persian into Greek or from a common ancestor of both is unclear[9] Variant spellings of absinthe are absinth absynthe and absenta In English it is pronounced ˈaeligbsɪnθ ( listen) in French [absɛt] Absinth (without the final e) is a spelling variant used by central European distillers It is the usual name for absinthe produced in the Czech Republic and in Germany and has become associated with Bohemian style absinthes[unreliable source

HistoryThe precise origin of absinthe is unclear The medical use of wormwood dates back to ancient Egypt and is

mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus circa 1550 BC Wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood leaves were used as remedies by the ancient Greeks Moreover there is evidence of the existence of a wormwood-flavored wine absinthites oinos in ancient Greece[11]

The first clear evidence of absinthe in the modern sense of a distilled spirit containing green anise and fennel however dates to the 18th century According to popular legend absinthe began as an all-purpose patent remedy created by Dr Pierre Ordinaire a French doctor living in Couvet Switzerland around 1792 (the exact date varies by account) Ordinairersquos recipe was passed on to the Henriod sisters of Couvet who sold absinthe as a medicinal elixir By other accounts the Henriod sisters may have been making the elixir before Ordinairersquos arrival In either case a certain Major Dubied acquired the formula from the sisters and in 1797 with his son Marcellin and son-in-law Henry-Louis Pernod opened the first absinthe distillery Dubied Pegravere et Fils in Couvet In 1805 they built a second distillery in Pontarlier France under the new company name Maison Pernod Fils[12] Pernod Fils remained one of the most popular brands of absinthe up until the drink was banned in France in 1914

Rapid growth of French consumption Absinthersquos popularity grew steadily through the 1840s when absinthe was given to French troops as a

malaria treatment[13] When the troops returned home they brought their taste for absinthe with them It became so popular in bars bistros cafeacutes and cabarets that by the 1860s the hour of 5 pm was called lrsquoheure verte (the green hour) Absinthe was favored by all social classes from the wealthy bourgeoisie to poor artists and ordinary working-class people By the 1880s mass production had caused the price of absinthe to drop sharply By 1910 the French were drinking 36 million litres of absinthe per year (compared to their consumption of almost 5 billion litres of wine)

International consumptionAbsinthe has been popular outside of France including Spain New Orleans and the Czech Republic

Absinthe was never banned in Spain or Portugal and its production and consumption has never ceased During the early 20th century it gained a temporary spike in popularity corresponding with the French influenced Art Nouveau and Modernism aesthetic movements

New Orleans also has a historical connection to absinthe consumption The city has a prominent landmark called the Old Absinthe House located on Bourbon Street Originally called the Absinthe Room it was opened

in 1874 by a Catalan bartender named Cayetano Ferrer The building was frequented by many famous people including Mark Twain Oscar Wilde Franklin Roosevelt Aleister Crowley and Frank Sinatra

Absinthe has been consumed in the Czech Republic (then part of AustriandashHungary) since at least 1888 notably by Czech artists some of whom had an affinity for Paris frequenting Praguersquos famous Cafe Slavia[unreliable source][19] Its wider appeal in Bohemia itself is uncertain though it was sold in and around Prague There is evidence that at least one local liquor distillery in Bohemia was making absinthe at the turn of the 20th century

BansSpurred by the temperance movement and the winemakersrsquo associations absinthe was publicly associated

with violent crimes and social disorderA critic said that[21]ldquo Absinthe makes you crazy and criminal provokes epilepsy and tuberculosis

and has killed thousands of French people It makes a ferocious beast of man a martyr of woman and a degenerate of the infant it disorganizes and ruins the family and menaces the future of the country rdquo

Edgar Degasrsquo 1876 painting LrsquoAbsinthe which can be seen at the Museacutee drsquoOrsay epitomized the popular view of absinthe addicts as sodden and benumbed Although Eacutemile Zola mentioned absinthe only once by name he described its effects in his novel LrsquoAssommoir[22]ldquo Boche had known a joiner who had stripped himself stark naked in the rue Saint-Martin and died doing the polkamdashhe was an absinthe-drinker

A poster criticizes the ban on absinthe in Switzerland (by Albert Gantner 1910)In 1905 it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and tried to kill himself after drinking

absinthe The fact that Lanfray was an alcoholic who had consumed much more than his usual two glasses of absinthe in the morning was either overlooked or ignored the murders were blamed solely on absinthe[23] The murders were the last straw and a petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was signed by more than 82000 people The prohibition of absinthe was then written into the Swiss constitution in 1907

In 1906 Belgium and Brazil banned the sale and distribution of absinthe although they were not the first Absinthe had been banned as early as 1898 in the colony of the Congo Free State[24] The Netherlands banned absinthe in 1909 Switzerland in 1910[25] the United States in 1912 and France in 1914[25]

The prohibition of absinthe in France led to increased popularity of pastis (and of ouzo to a lesser extent) anise-flavoured spirits that do not contain wormwood The Pernod brand resumed production at the Banus distillery in Catalonia Spain where absinthe was still legal[unreliable source][26][unreliable source][27] but slow sales in the 1960s eventually caused them to shut it down[unreliable source][28] In Switzerland the ban drove absinthe underground Clandestine home distillers produced absinthe focusing on la Bleue which was easier to conceal from the authorities Many countries never banned absinthe notably Britain where it had not been as popular as in continental Europe

Modern revivalIn the 1990s an importer BBH Spirits realized that there was no UK law prohibiting the sale of absinthe

as it had never been banned there They began to import Hillrsquos Absinth (not a true Absinthe) from the Czech Republic which encouraged a modern resurgence in absinthersquos popularity Absinthe had also never been banned in other European countries where it was never popular it is in these countries where absinthe first began to reappear during the revival in the 1990s These absinthesmdashmostly Czech Spanish and Portuguese brandsmdashare generally of recent origin typically consist of Bohemian-style products and are therefore considered by absinthe connoisseurs to be of inferior quality[unreliable source][29][unreliable source][30][unreliable source][31]

La Feacutee Absinthe released in 2000[unreliable source][32] was the first brand labelled absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1914 ban initially for export from France but now one of roughly 50 French-produced absinthes available in France French absinthes now must be labelled as boissons spiritueuse aux plantes dabsinthe to be sold within that country per the most recent guidelines Absinthes produced in other countries must be relabelled to meet these same guidelines to be legally imported and sold within France

In the Netherlands restrictions on the manufacture and sale of Absinthe were successfully challenged by the Amsterdam wine seller Menno Boorsma in July 2004 making absinthe legal once again Belgium as part of an effort to simplify its laws removed its absinthe law on 1 January 2005 citing (as did the Dutch judge) European food regulations as sufficient to render the law unnecessary and in conflict with the spirit of the Single European Market In Switzerland the constitutional ban on absinthe was repealed in 2000 during an overhaul of the national constitution although the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead Later that law was repealed so from 1 March 2005 absinthe was again legal in its country of origin Absinthe is now not only sold but is once again distilled in its Val-de-Travers birthplace with Kuumlbler and La Clandestine Absinthe among the first new brands to re-emerge

Absinthe has a deep history in the Northern Catalan region of Spain encompassing Barcelona Tarragona Lleida and a section of the Pyrenees mountains While the drink was never officially banned in Spain it fell out of favor from the early 1940s to present day Since 2007 it has enjoyed a significant resurgence in the region and has at least one major export brand

Absinthe has never been illegal to import or manufacture in Australia Importation requires a permit under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulation 1956 due to a restriction on importing any product containing oil of wormwood[33] In 2000 there was an amendment by Foods Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) as part of a new consolidation of the Food Code across Australia and New Zealand This made all wormwood species prohibited herbs for food purposes under Food Standard 144 Prohibited and Restricted Plants and Fungi however it was found to be inconsistent with other parts of the pre-existing Food Code[34][35] The proposed amendment was withdrawn in 2002 during the transition between the two Codes thereby continuing to allow absinthe manufacture and importation through the existing permit-based system These events were erroneously reported by the media as Australia having reclassified it from a prohibited product to a restricted product[36] There is now an Australian-produced brand of absinthe called Moulin Rooz

In 2007 the French Lucid brand became the first genuine absinthe to receive a COLA (Certificate of Label Approval) for importation into the United States since 1912[37][38] following independent efforts by representatives from Lucid and Kuumlbler to topple the long-standing US ban[39] In December 2007 St George Absinthe Verte produced by St George Spirits of Alameda California became the first brand of American-made absinthe produced in the United States since the ban[40][41] Since that time other micro-distilleries have started making small batches of high-quality absinthe in the US

Production Anise one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Grande wormwood one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Fennel one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe

Currently most countries have no legal definition of absinthe although spirits such as Scotch whisky brandy and gin generally have such a definition Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth without regard to any legal definition or minimum standard Producers of legitimate absinthes use one of two processes to create the finished spirit either distillation or cold mixing In the few countries which have a legal definition of absinthe distillation is the sole permitted process An online description of the distillation process (in French) is available[42]

Distilled absinthe

Distilled absinthe is produced in a form similar to high quality gin The botanicals are macerated in the already distilled alcohol before being redistilled one or more times with the herbal ingredients to impart complexity and texture to the beverage

The distillation of absinthe first produces a colorless distillate that leaves the alembic at around 72 percent ABV (144 proof) The distillate can be bottled clear to produce a Blanche or la Bleue absinthe or it can be colored using artificial or natural coloring Traditional absinthes take their green color from chlorophyll which is present in some of the herbal ingredients during the secondary maceration

The natural coloring process is considered critical for absinthe ageing since the chlorophyll remains chemically active The chlorophyll plays the same role in absinthe that tannins do in wine or brown liquors

This is done by steeping petite wormwood hyssop and melissa (among other herbs) in the liquid Chlorophyll from these herbs is extracted giving the drink its famous green color This process also provides the herbal complexity that is typical of high quality absinthe This type of absinthe is known as a verte After the coloring process the resulting product is diluted with water to the desired percentage of alcohol Historically most absinthes contain between 50 and 75 percent alcohol by volume (100 to 150 proof) It is said to improve materially with storage and many pre-ban distilleries aged their absinthe in neutral barrels before bottling

Cold mixedMany modern absinthes are produced using the cold mix system This process is forbidden in countries

with formal legal designations of absinthe The beverage is manufactured by mixing flavoring essences and

artificial coloring in high-proof alcohol and is similar to a flavored vodka or absinthe schnapps Some modern FrancondashSuisse absinthes are bottled at up to 823 percent alcohol[unreliable source][44] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 899 percent Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries many of these lesser brands claim their products to be distilled (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs

IngredientsAbsinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol various herbs and water

Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie) while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain beets or potatoes[45] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood green anise and florence fennel which are often called the holy trinity[46] Many other herbs may be used as well such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood) hyssop melissa star anise angelica sweet flag dittany coriander veronica juniper and nutmeg

Alternative colouringAbsinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers This is called a rouge or rose absinthe

As of now only one historical rouge brand has been discoveredAdding to absinthes negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unscrupulous makers of

the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green verte color instead of using the traditional coloring phase of manufacture This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage And in recent times some home-makers have used store-bought food coloring to simulate the green coloration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte coloration

KitsThe interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of absinthe kits which are claimed to produce homemade

absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe despite hausgemacht translating as homemade in German) Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard[unreliable source][48] Some concoctions may even be dangerous especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs oils andor extracts One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil a dose much higher than that found in absinthe

PreparationMain article Absinthiana

Preparing absinthe the traditional way Note that no burning is usedCollection of absinthe spoons These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-

cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass

Traditionally absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water During this process components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise fennel and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr opaque or shady IPA [luʃ]) Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to blossom or bloom and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise This is often referred to as The French Method

The Bohemian Method is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire Like the French method a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol usually more absinthe and then set ablaze The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe Finally a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method A variant of The Bohemian Method is to allow the fire to burn itself out This variant called Cooking the Absinthe or Flaming Green Fairy removes much but not all of the alcohol

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Хиллз ругали все знатоки и через год при содействии главного французского эксперта по абсенту и создательницы музея абсента mdash Мари-Клод Делаэ была выпущена новая марка laquoLa Feeraquo которую можно было смаковать

Маркетинговая политика производителя учитывала комическое отношение англичан к laquoопаснейшему из ядовraquo ряд акций носил ярко выраженный laquoнесерьёзныйraquo характер несвойственный раскрутке алкоголя Это привело к созданию позитивного образа абсента mdash немного забавного и слегка зловещего mdash никогда до этого абсент не имел такой laquoрадужнойraquo репутации

В 2004 году парламент Швейцарии проголосовал за легализацию абсента запрещённого с 1907 года 24 июля 2004 года суд Амстердама признал недействующим голландский закон от 1909 года запрещающий абсент Сейчас производители абсента обязаны соблюдать ограничения введённые Европейским союзом согласно которым количество туйона в абсенте не должно превышать 10 мгкг Тем не менее эти нормы довольно часто нарушаются

[править]Абсент в искусстве и политике[править]Живопись и изобразительное искусство laquoЛюбитель абсентаraquo 1858mdash1859 Новая глиптотека Карлсберга тема картины mdash реалистический и

неприукрашенный портрет пьяницы а не аллегория порождённая воображением художника

Поддаваясь влиянию моды художники конца XIX mdash начала XX веков рисовали картины на которых изображён человек с отсутствующим взглядом пьющий абсент Зачастую эти работы трактуют негативное либо разрушительное влияние абсента на человека

В коллекции Государственного Эрмитажа в Санкт-Петербурге находится картина Пабло Пикассо laquoЛюбительница абсентаraquo датированная 1901 годом В 1911 году Пикассо начал писать картину laquoБокал абсентаraquo которую закончил в 1914 году В 1912 году он же написал картину на которой изображена бутылка абсента laquoПерноraquo и бокал

Художник-сюрреалист Гигер написал некоторые из своих работ после экспериментов со свойствами абсента Позднее в 2005 году его имя получил одна из разновидностей французского абсента Brevans сваренного как утверждается на этикетке laquoпо оригинальной формуле девятнадцатого векаraquo

AbsintheAbsinthe (pronounced ˈaeligbsɪnθ AB-sinth) is historically described as a distilled highly alcoholic (45ndash74

ABV) beverage It is an anise-flavored spirit derived from herbs including the flowers and leaves of the herb Artemisia

absinthium commonly referred to as grande wormwood together with green anise and sweet fennel Absinthe traditionally has a natural green color but can also be colorless It is commonly referred to in historical literature as la feacutee verte (the Green Fairy)

Although it is sometimes mistakenly called a liqueur absinthe is not bottled with added sugar and is therefore classified as a spirit[5] Absinthe is unusual among spirits in that it is bottled at a very high proof but is normally diluted with water when consumed

Absinthe originated in the canton of Neuchacirctel in Switzerland It achieved great popularity as an alcoholic drink in late 19th- and early 20th-century France particularly among Parisian artists and writers Owing in part to its association with bohemian culture absinthe was opposed by social conservatives and prohibitionists Charles Baudelaire Paul Verlaine Arthur Rimbaud Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Amedeo Modigliani Vincent van Gogh Oscar Wilde Aleister Crowley and Alfred Jarry were all notorious bad men of that day who were (or were thought to be) devotees of the Green Fairy[6]

Absinthe has been portrayed as a dangerously addictive psychoactive drug[7] The chemical thujone present in small quantities was blamed for its alleged harmful effects By 1915 absinthe had been banned in the

United States and in most European countries including France The Netherlands Belgium Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire Although absinthe was vilified no evidence has shown that it is any more dangerous than ordinary spirits Its psychoactive properties apart from those of alcohol have been much exaggerated[7]

A revival of absinthe began in the 1990s when countries in the European Union began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale As of February 2008 nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries most notably in France Switzerland Spain and the Czech Republic[citation needed]Contents [hide]

EtymologyThe French word absinthe can refer either to the alcoholic beverage or less commonly to the actual

wormwood plant (grande absinthe being Artemisia absinthium and petite absinthe being Artemisia pontica) The Latin name artemisia comes from Artemis the ancient Greek goddess of the hunt Absinthe is derived from the Latin absinthium which in turn is a stylization of the Greek αψίνθιον (apsiacutenthion) for wormwood The use of Artemisia absinthium in a drinking is attested in Lucretiusrsquo De Rerum Natura (I 936ndash950) where Lucretius indicates that a drink containing wormwood is given as medicine to children in a cup with honey on the brim to make it drinkable This was a metaphor for the presentation of complexity ideas in poetic forming[8]

Some claim that the word means undrinkable in Greek but it may instead be linked to the Persian root spand or aspand or the variant esfand which meant Peganum harmala also called Syrian Ruemdashalthough it is not actually a variety of rue another famously bitter herb That Artemisia absinthium was commonly burned as a protective offering may suggest that its origins lie in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root spend meaning to perform a ritual or make an offering Whether the word was a borrowing from Persian into Greek or from a common ancestor of both is unclear[9] Variant spellings of absinthe are absinth absynthe and absenta In English it is pronounced ˈaeligbsɪnθ ( listen) in French [absɛt] Absinth (without the final e) is a spelling variant used by central European distillers It is the usual name for absinthe produced in the Czech Republic and in Germany and has become associated with Bohemian style absinthes[unreliable source

HistoryThe precise origin of absinthe is unclear The medical use of wormwood dates back to ancient Egypt and is

mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus circa 1550 BC Wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood leaves were used as remedies by the ancient Greeks Moreover there is evidence of the existence of a wormwood-flavored wine absinthites oinos in ancient Greece[11]

The first clear evidence of absinthe in the modern sense of a distilled spirit containing green anise and fennel however dates to the 18th century According to popular legend absinthe began as an all-purpose patent remedy created by Dr Pierre Ordinaire a French doctor living in Couvet Switzerland around 1792 (the exact date varies by account) Ordinairersquos recipe was passed on to the Henriod sisters of Couvet who sold absinthe as a medicinal elixir By other accounts the Henriod sisters may have been making the elixir before Ordinairersquos arrival In either case a certain Major Dubied acquired the formula from the sisters and in 1797 with his son Marcellin and son-in-law Henry-Louis Pernod opened the first absinthe distillery Dubied Pegravere et Fils in Couvet In 1805 they built a second distillery in Pontarlier France under the new company name Maison Pernod Fils[12] Pernod Fils remained one of the most popular brands of absinthe up until the drink was banned in France in 1914

Rapid growth of French consumption Absinthersquos popularity grew steadily through the 1840s when absinthe was given to French troops as a

malaria treatment[13] When the troops returned home they brought their taste for absinthe with them It became so popular in bars bistros cafeacutes and cabarets that by the 1860s the hour of 5 pm was called lrsquoheure verte (the green hour) Absinthe was favored by all social classes from the wealthy bourgeoisie to poor artists and ordinary working-class people By the 1880s mass production had caused the price of absinthe to drop sharply By 1910 the French were drinking 36 million litres of absinthe per year (compared to their consumption of almost 5 billion litres of wine)

International consumptionAbsinthe has been popular outside of France including Spain New Orleans and the Czech Republic

Absinthe was never banned in Spain or Portugal and its production and consumption has never ceased During the early 20th century it gained a temporary spike in popularity corresponding with the French influenced Art Nouveau and Modernism aesthetic movements

New Orleans also has a historical connection to absinthe consumption The city has a prominent landmark called the Old Absinthe House located on Bourbon Street Originally called the Absinthe Room it was opened

in 1874 by a Catalan bartender named Cayetano Ferrer The building was frequented by many famous people including Mark Twain Oscar Wilde Franklin Roosevelt Aleister Crowley and Frank Sinatra

Absinthe has been consumed in the Czech Republic (then part of AustriandashHungary) since at least 1888 notably by Czech artists some of whom had an affinity for Paris frequenting Praguersquos famous Cafe Slavia[unreliable source][19] Its wider appeal in Bohemia itself is uncertain though it was sold in and around Prague There is evidence that at least one local liquor distillery in Bohemia was making absinthe at the turn of the 20th century

BansSpurred by the temperance movement and the winemakersrsquo associations absinthe was publicly associated

with violent crimes and social disorderA critic said that[21]ldquo Absinthe makes you crazy and criminal provokes epilepsy and tuberculosis

and has killed thousands of French people It makes a ferocious beast of man a martyr of woman and a degenerate of the infant it disorganizes and ruins the family and menaces the future of the country rdquo

Edgar Degasrsquo 1876 painting LrsquoAbsinthe which can be seen at the Museacutee drsquoOrsay epitomized the popular view of absinthe addicts as sodden and benumbed Although Eacutemile Zola mentioned absinthe only once by name he described its effects in his novel LrsquoAssommoir[22]ldquo Boche had known a joiner who had stripped himself stark naked in the rue Saint-Martin and died doing the polkamdashhe was an absinthe-drinker

A poster criticizes the ban on absinthe in Switzerland (by Albert Gantner 1910)In 1905 it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and tried to kill himself after drinking

absinthe The fact that Lanfray was an alcoholic who had consumed much more than his usual two glasses of absinthe in the morning was either overlooked or ignored the murders were blamed solely on absinthe[23] The murders were the last straw and a petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was signed by more than 82000 people The prohibition of absinthe was then written into the Swiss constitution in 1907

In 1906 Belgium and Brazil banned the sale and distribution of absinthe although they were not the first Absinthe had been banned as early as 1898 in the colony of the Congo Free State[24] The Netherlands banned absinthe in 1909 Switzerland in 1910[25] the United States in 1912 and France in 1914[25]

The prohibition of absinthe in France led to increased popularity of pastis (and of ouzo to a lesser extent) anise-flavoured spirits that do not contain wormwood The Pernod brand resumed production at the Banus distillery in Catalonia Spain where absinthe was still legal[unreliable source][26][unreliable source][27] but slow sales in the 1960s eventually caused them to shut it down[unreliable source][28] In Switzerland the ban drove absinthe underground Clandestine home distillers produced absinthe focusing on la Bleue which was easier to conceal from the authorities Many countries never banned absinthe notably Britain where it had not been as popular as in continental Europe

Modern revivalIn the 1990s an importer BBH Spirits realized that there was no UK law prohibiting the sale of absinthe

as it had never been banned there They began to import Hillrsquos Absinth (not a true Absinthe) from the Czech Republic which encouraged a modern resurgence in absinthersquos popularity Absinthe had also never been banned in other European countries where it was never popular it is in these countries where absinthe first began to reappear during the revival in the 1990s These absinthesmdashmostly Czech Spanish and Portuguese brandsmdashare generally of recent origin typically consist of Bohemian-style products and are therefore considered by absinthe connoisseurs to be of inferior quality[unreliable source][29][unreliable source][30][unreliable source][31]

La Feacutee Absinthe released in 2000[unreliable source][32] was the first brand labelled absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1914 ban initially for export from France but now one of roughly 50 French-produced absinthes available in France French absinthes now must be labelled as boissons spiritueuse aux plantes dabsinthe to be sold within that country per the most recent guidelines Absinthes produced in other countries must be relabelled to meet these same guidelines to be legally imported and sold within France

In the Netherlands restrictions on the manufacture and sale of Absinthe were successfully challenged by the Amsterdam wine seller Menno Boorsma in July 2004 making absinthe legal once again Belgium as part of an effort to simplify its laws removed its absinthe law on 1 January 2005 citing (as did the Dutch judge) European food regulations as sufficient to render the law unnecessary and in conflict with the spirit of the Single European Market In Switzerland the constitutional ban on absinthe was repealed in 2000 during an overhaul of the national constitution although the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead Later that law was repealed so from 1 March 2005 absinthe was again legal in its country of origin Absinthe is now not only sold but is once again distilled in its Val-de-Travers birthplace with Kuumlbler and La Clandestine Absinthe among the first new brands to re-emerge

Absinthe has a deep history in the Northern Catalan region of Spain encompassing Barcelona Tarragona Lleida and a section of the Pyrenees mountains While the drink was never officially banned in Spain it fell out of favor from the early 1940s to present day Since 2007 it has enjoyed a significant resurgence in the region and has at least one major export brand

Absinthe has never been illegal to import or manufacture in Australia Importation requires a permit under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulation 1956 due to a restriction on importing any product containing oil of wormwood[33] In 2000 there was an amendment by Foods Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) as part of a new consolidation of the Food Code across Australia and New Zealand This made all wormwood species prohibited herbs for food purposes under Food Standard 144 Prohibited and Restricted Plants and Fungi however it was found to be inconsistent with other parts of the pre-existing Food Code[34][35] The proposed amendment was withdrawn in 2002 during the transition between the two Codes thereby continuing to allow absinthe manufacture and importation through the existing permit-based system These events were erroneously reported by the media as Australia having reclassified it from a prohibited product to a restricted product[36] There is now an Australian-produced brand of absinthe called Moulin Rooz

In 2007 the French Lucid brand became the first genuine absinthe to receive a COLA (Certificate of Label Approval) for importation into the United States since 1912[37][38] following independent efforts by representatives from Lucid and Kuumlbler to topple the long-standing US ban[39] In December 2007 St George Absinthe Verte produced by St George Spirits of Alameda California became the first brand of American-made absinthe produced in the United States since the ban[40][41] Since that time other micro-distilleries have started making small batches of high-quality absinthe in the US

Production Anise one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Grande wormwood one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Fennel one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe

Currently most countries have no legal definition of absinthe although spirits such as Scotch whisky brandy and gin generally have such a definition Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth without regard to any legal definition or minimum standard Producers of legitimate absinthes use one of two processes to create the finished spirit either distillation or cold mixing In the few countries which have a legal definition of absinthe distillation is the sole permitted process An online description of the distillation process (in French) is available[42]

Distilled absinthe

Distilled absinthe is produced in a form similar to high quality gin The botanicals are macerated in the already distilled alcohol before being redistilled one or more times with the herbal ingredients to impart complexity and texture to the beverage

The distillation of absinthe first produces a colorless distillate that leaves the alembic at around 72 percent ABV (144 proof) The distillate can be bottled clear to produce a Blanche or la Bleue absinthe or it can be colored using artificial or natural coloring Traditional absinthes take their green color from chlorophyll which is present in some of the herbal ingredients during the secondary maceration

The natural coloring process is considered critical for absinthe ageing since the chlorophyll remains chemically active The chlorophyll plays the same role in absinthe that tannins do in wine or brown liquors

This is done by steeping petite wormwood hyssop and melissa (among other herbs) in the liquid Chlorophyll from these herbs is extracted giving the drink its famous green color This process also provides the herbal complexity that is typical of high quality absinthe This type of absinthe is known as a verte After the coloring process the resulting product is diluted with water to the desired percentage of alcohol Historically most absinthes contain between 50 and 75 percent alcohol by volume (100 to 150 proof) It is said to improve materially with storage and many pre-ban distilleries aged their absinthe in neutral barrels before bottling

Cold mixedMany modern absinthes are produced using the cold mix system This process is forbidden in countries

with formal legal designations of absinthe The beverage is manufactured by mixing flavoring essences and

artificial coloring in high-proof alcohol and is similar to a flavored vodka or absinthe schnapps Some modern FrancondashSuisse absinthes are bottled at up to 823 percent alcohol[unreliable source][44] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 899 percent Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries many of these lesser brands claim their products to be distilled (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs

IngredientsAbsinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol various herbs and water

Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie) while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain beets or potatoes[45] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood green anise and florence fennel which are often called the holy trinity[46] Many other herbs may be used as well such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood) hyssop melissa star anise angelica sweet flag dittany coriander veronica juniper and nutmeg

Alternative colouringAbsinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers This is called a rouge or rose absinthe

As of now only one historical rouge brand has been discoveredAdding to absinthes negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unscrupulous makers of

the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green verte color instead of using the traditional coloring phase of manufacture This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage And in recent times some home-makers have used store-bought food coloring to simulate the green coloration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte coloration

KitsThe interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of absinthe kits which are claimed to produce homemade

absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe despite hausgemacht translating as homemade in German) Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard[unreliable source][48] Some concoctions may even be dangerous especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs oils andor extracts One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil a dose much higher than that found in absinthe

PreparationMain article Absinthiana

Preparing absinthe the traditional way Note that no burning is usedCollection of absinthe spoons These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-

cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass

Traditionally absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water During this process components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise fennel and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr opaque or shady IPA [luʃ]) Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to blossom or bloom and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise This is often referred to as The French Method

The Bohemian Method is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire Like the French method a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol usually more absinthe and then set ablaze The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe Finally a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method A variant of The Bohemian Method is to allow the fire to burn itself out This variant called Cooking the Absinthe or Flaming Green Fairy removes much but not all of the alcohol

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

United States and in most European countries including France The Netherlands Belgium Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire Although absinthe was vilified no evidence has shown that it is any more dangerous than ordinary spirits Its psychoactive properties apart from those of alcohol have been much exaggerated[7]

A revival of absinthe began in the 1990s when countries in the European Union began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale As of February 2008 nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries most notably in France Switzerland Spain and the Czech Republic[citation needed]Contents [hide]

EtymologyThe French word absinthe can refer either to the alcoholic beverage or less commonly to the actual

wormwood plant (grande absinthe being Artemisia absinthium and petite absinthe being Artemisia pontica) The Latin name artemisia comes from Artemis the ancient Greek goddess of the hunt Absinthe is derived from the Latin absinthium which in turn is a stylization of the Greek αψίνθιον (apsiacutenthion) for wormwood The use of Artemisia absinthium in a drinking is attested in Lucretiusrsquo De Rerum Natura (I 936ndash950) where Lucretius indicates that a drink containing wormwood is given as medicine to children in a cup with honey on the brim to make it drinkable This was a metaphor for the presentation of complexity ideas in poetic forming[8]

Some claim that the word means undrinkable in Greek but it may instead be linked to the Persian root spand or aspand or the variant esfand which meant Peganum harmala also called Syrian Ruemdashalthough it is not actually a variety of rue another famously bitter herb That Artemisia absinthium was commonly burned as a protective offering may suggest that its origins lie in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root spend meaning to perform a ritual or make an offering Whether the word was a borrowing from Persian into Greek or from a common ancestor of both is unclear[9] Variant spellings of absinthe are absinth absynthe and absenta In English it is pronounced ˈaeligbsɪnθ ( listen) in French [absɛt] Absinth (without the final e) is a spelling variant used by central European distillers It is the usual name for absinthe produced in the Czech Republic and in Germany and has become associated with Bohemian style absinthes[unreliable source

HistoryThe precise origin of absinthe is unclear The medical use of wormwood dates back to ancient Egypt and is

mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus circa 1550 BC Wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood leaves were used as remedies by the ancient Greeks Moreover there is evidence of the existence of a wormwood-flavored wine absinthites oinos in ancient Greece[11]

The first clear evidence of absinthe in the modern sense of a distilled spirit containing green anise and fennel however dates to the 18th century According to popular legend absinthe began as an all-purpose patent remedy created by Dr Pierre Ordinaire a French doctor living in Couvet Switzerland around 1792 (the exact date varies by account) Ordinairersquos recipe was passed on to the Henriod sisters of Couvet who sold absinthe as a medicinal elixir By other accounts the Henriod sisters may have been making the elixir before Ordinairersquos arrival In either case a certain Major Dubied acquired the formula from the sisters and in 1797 with his son Marcellin and son-in-law Henry-Louis Pernod opened the first absinthe distillery Dubied Pegravere et Fils in Couvet In 1805 they built a second distillery in Pontarlier France under the new company name Maison Pernod Fils[12] Pernod Fils remained one of the most popular brands of absinthe up until the drink was banned in France in 1914

Rapid growth of French consumption Absinthersquos popularity grew steadily through the 1840s when absinthe was given to French troops as a

malaria treatment[13] When the troops returned home they brought their taste for absinthe with them It became so popular in bars bistros cafeacutes and cabarets that by the 1860s the hour of 5 pm was called lrsquoheure verte (the green hour) Absinthe was favored by all social classes from the wealthy bourgeoisie to poor artists and ordinary working-class people By the 1880s mass production had caused the price of absinthe to drop sharply By 1910 the French were drinking 36 million litres of absinthe per year (compared to their consumption of almost 5 billion litres of wine)

International consumptionAbsinthe has been popular outside of France including Spain New Orleans and the Czech Republic

Absinthe was never banned in Spain or Portugal and its production and consumption has never ceased During the early 20th century it gained a temporary spike in popularity corresponding with the French influenced Art Nouveau and Modernism aesthetic movements

New Orleans also has a historical connection to absinthe consumption The city has a prominent landmark called the Old Absinthe House located on Bourbon Street Originally called the Absinthe Room it was opened

in 1874 by a Catalan bartender named Cayetano Ferrer The building was frequented by many famous people including Mark Twain Oscar Wilde Franklin Roosevelt Aleister Crowley and Frank Sinatra

Absinthe has been consumed in the Czech Republic (then part of AustriandashHungary) since at least 1888 notably by Czech artists some of whom had an affinity for Paris frequenting Praguersquos famous Cafe Slavia[unreliable source][19] Its wider appeal in Bohemia itself is uncertain though it was sold in and around Prague There is evidence that at least one local liquor distillery in Bohemia was making absinthe at the turn of the 20th century

BansSpurred by the temperance movement and the winemakersrsquo associations absinthe was publicly associated

with violent crimes and social disorderA critic said that[21]ldquo Absinthe makes you crazy and criminal provokes epilepsy and tuberculosis

and has killed thousands of French people It makes a ferocious beast of man a martyr of woman and a degenerate of the infant it disorganizes and ruins the family and menaces the future of the country rdquo

Edgar Degasrsquo 1876 painting LrsquoAbsinthe which can be seen at the Museacutee drsquoOrsay epitomized the popular view of absinthe addicts as sodden and benumbed Although Eacutemile Zola mentioned absinthe only once by name he described its effects in his novel LrsquoAssommoir[22]ldquo Boche had known a joiner who had stripped himself stark naked in the rue Saint-Martin and died doing the polkamdashhe was an absinthe-drinker

A poster criticizes the ban on absinthe in Switzerland (by Albert Gantner 1910)In 1905 it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and tried to kill himself after drinking

absinthe The fact that Lanfray was an alcoholic who had consumed much more than his usual two glasses of absinthe in the morning was either overlooked or ignored the murders were blamed solely on absinthe[23] The murders were the last straw and a petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was signed by more than 82000 people The prohibition of absinthe was then written into the Swiss constitution in 1907

In 1906 Belgium and Brazil banned the sale and distribution of absinthe although they were not the first Absinthe had been banned as early as 1898 in the colony of the Congo Free State[24] The Netherlands banned absinthe in 1909 Switzerland in 1910[25] the United States in 1912 and France in 1914[25]

The prohibition of absinthe in France led to increased popularity of pastis (and of ouzo to a lesser extent) anise-flavoured spirits that do not contain wormwood The Pernod brand resumed production at the Banus distillery in Catalonia Spain where absinthe was still legal[unreliable source][26][unreliable source][27] but slow sales in the 1960s eventually caused them to shut it down[unreliable source][28] In Switzerland the ban drove absinthe underground Clandestine home distillers produced absinthe focusing on la Bleue which was easier to conceal from the authorities Many countries never banned absinthe notably Britain where it had not been as popular as in continental Europe

Modern revivalIn the 1990s an importer BBH Spirits realized that there was no UK law prohibiting the sale of absinthe

as it had never been banned there They began to import Hillrsquos Absinth (not a true Absinthe) from the Czech Republic which encouraged a modern resurgence in absinthersquos popularity Absinthe had also never been banned in other European countries where it was never popular it is in these countries where absinthe first began to reappear during the revival in the 1990s These absinthesmdashmostly Czech Spanish and Portuguese brandsmdashare generally of recent origin typically consist of Bohemian-style products and are therefore considered by absinthe connoisseurs to be of inferior quality[unreliable source][29][unreliable source][30][unreliable source][31]

La Feacutee Absinthe released in 2000[unreliable source][32] was the first brand labelled absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1914 ban initially for export from France but now one of roughly 50 French-produced absinthes available in France French absinthes now must be labelled as boissons spiritueuse aux plantes dabsinthe to be sold within that country per the most recent guidelines Absinthes produced in other countries must be relabelled to meet these same guidelines to be legally imported and sold within France

In the Netherlands restrictions on the manufacture and sale of Absinthe were successfully challenged by the Amsterdam wine seller Menno Boorsma in July 2004 making absinthe legal once again Belgium as part of an effort to simplify its laws removed its absinthe law on 1 January 2005 citing (as did the Dutch judge) European food regulations as sufficient to render the law unnecessary and in conflict with the spirit of the Single European Market In Switzerland the constitutional ban on absinthe was repealed in 2000 during an overhaul of the national constitution although the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead Later that law was repealed so from 1 March 2005 absinthe was again legal in its country of origin Absinthe is now not only sold but is once again distilled in its Val-de-Travers birthplace with Kuumlbler and La Clandestine Absinthe among the first new brands to re-emerge

Absinthe has a deep history in the Northern Catalan region of Spain encompassing Barcelona Tarragona Lleida and a section of the Pyrenees mountains While the drink was never officially banned in Spain it fell out of favor from the early 1940s to present day Since 2007 it has enjoyed a significant resurgence in the region and has at least one major export brand

Absinthe has never been illegal to import or manufacture in Australia Importation requires a permit under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulation 1956 due to a restriction on importing any product containing oil of wormwood[33] In 2000 there was an amendment by Foods Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) as part of a new consolidation of the Food Code across Australia and New Zealand This made all wormwood species prohibited herbs for food purposes under Food Standard 144 Prohibited and Restricted Plants and Fungi however it was found to be inconsistent with other parts of the pre-existing Food Code[34][35] The proposed amendment was withdrawn in 2002 during the transition between the two Codes thereby continuing to allow absinthe manufacture and importation through the existing permit-based system These events were erroneously reported by the media as Australia having reclassified it from a prohibited product to a restricted product[36] There is now an Australian-produced brand of absinthe called Moulin Rooz

In 2007 the French Lucid brand became the first genuine absinthe to receive a COLA (Certificate of Label Approval) for importation into the United States since 1912[37][38] following independent efforts by representatives from Lucid and Kuumlbler to topple the long-standing US ban[39] In December 2007 St George Absinthe Verte produced by St George Spirits of Alameda California became the first brand of American-made absinthe produced in the United States since the ban[40][41] Since that time other micro-distilleries have started making small batches of high-quality absinthe in the US

Production Anise one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Grande wormwood one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Fennel one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe

Currently most countries have no legal definition of absinthe although spirits such as Scotch whisky brandy and gin generally have such a definition Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth without regard to any legal definition or minimum standard Producers of legitimate absinthes use one of two processes to create the finished spirit either distillation or cold mixing In the few countries which have a legal definition of absinthe distillation is the sole permitted process An online description of the distillation process (in French) is available[42]

Distilled absinthe

Distilled absinthe is produced in a form similar to high quality gin The botanicals are macerated in the already distilled alcohol before being redistilled one or more times with the herbal ingredients to impart complexity and texture to the beverage

The distillation of absinthe first produces a colorless distillate that leaves the alembic at around 72 percent ABV (144 proof) The distillate can be bottled clear to produce a Blanche or la Bleue absinthe or it can be colored using artificial or natural coloring Traditional absinthes take their green color from chlorophyll which is present in some of the herbal ingredients during the secondary maceration

The natural coloring process is considered critical for absinthe ageing since the chlorophyll remains chemically active The chlorophyll plays the same role in absinthe that tannins do in wine or brown liquors

This is done by steeping petite wormwood hyssop and melissa (among other herbs) in the liquid Chlorophyll from these herbs is extracted giving the drink its famous green color This process also provides the herbal complexity that is typical of high quality absinthe This type of absinthe is known as a verte After the coloring process the resulting product is diluted with water to the desired percentage of alcohol Historically most absinthes contain between 50 and 75 percent alcohol by volume (100 to 150 proof) It is said to improve materially with storage and many pre-ban distilleries aged their absinthe in neutral barrels before bottling

Cold mixedMany modern absinthes are produced using the cold mix system This process is forbidden in countries

with formal legal designations of absinthe The beverage is manufactured by mixing flavoring essences and

artificial coloring in high-proof alcohol and is similar to a flavored vodka or absinthe schnapps Some modern FrancondashSuisse absinthes are bottled at up to 823 percent alcohol[unreliable source][44] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 899 percent Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries many of these lesser brands claim their products to be distilled (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs

IngredientsAbsinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol various herbs and water

Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie) while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain beets or potatoes[45] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood green anise and florence fennel which are often called the holy trinity[46] Many other herbs may be used as well such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood) hyssop melissa star anise angelica sweet flag dittany coriander veronica juniper and nutmeg

Alternative colouringAbsinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers This is called a rouge or rose absinthe

As of now only one historical rouge brand has been discoveredAdding to absinthes negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unscrupulous makers of

the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green verte color instead of using the traditional coloring phase of manufacture This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage And in recent times some home-makers have used store-bought food coloring to simulate the green coloration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte coloration

KitsThe interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of absinthe kits which are claimed to produce homemade

absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe despite hausgemacht translating as homemade in German) Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard[unreliable source][48] Some concoctions may even be dangerous especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs oils andor extracts One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil a dose much higher than that found in absinthe

PreparationMain article Absinthiana

Preparing absinthe the traditional way Note that no burning is usedCollection of absinthe spoons These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-

cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass

Traditionally absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water During this process components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise fennel and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr opaque or shady IPA [luʃ]) Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to blossom or bloom and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise This is often referred to as The French Method

The Bohemian Method is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire Like the French method a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol usually more absinthe and then set ablaze The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe Finally a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method A variant of The Bohemian Method is to allow the fire to burn itself out This variant called Cooking the Absinthe or Flaming Green Fairy removes much but not all of the alcohol

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

in 1874 by a Catalan bartender named Cayetano Ferrer The building was frequented by many famous people including Mark Twain Oscar Wilde Franklin Roosevelt Aleister Crowley and Frank Sinatra

Absinthe has been consumed in the Czech Republic (then part of AustriandashHungary) since at least 1888 notably by Czech artists some of whom had an affinity for Paris frequenting Praguersquos famous Cafe Slavia[unreliable source][19] Its wider appeal in Bohemia itself is uncertain though it was sold in and around Prague There is evidence that at least one local liquor distillery in Bohemia was making absinthe at the turn of the 20th century

BansSpurred by the temperance movement and the winemakersrsquo associations absinthe was publicly associated

with violent crimes and social disorderA critic said that[21]ldquo Absinthe makes you crazy and criminal provokes epilepsy and tuberculosis

and has killed thousands of French people It makes a ferocious beast of man a martyr of woman and a degenerate of the infant it disorganizes and ruins the family and menaces the future of the country rdquo

Edgar Degasrsquo 1876 painting LrsquoAbsinthe which can be seen at the Museacutee drsquoOrsay epitomized the popular view of absinthe addicts as sodden and benumbed Although Eacutemile Zola mentioned absinthe only once by name he described its effects in his novel LrsquoAssommoir[22]ldquo Boche had known a joiner who had stripped himself stark naked in the rue Saint-Martin and died doing the polkamdashhe was an absinthe-drinker

A poster criticizes the ban on absinthe in Switzerland (by Albert Gantner 1910)In 1905 it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and tried to kill himself after drinking

absinthe The fact that Lanfray was an alcoholic who had consumed much more than his usual two glasses of absinthe in the morning was either overlooked or ignored the murders were blamed solely on absinthe[23] The murders were the last straw and a petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was signed by more than 82000 people The prohibition of absinthe was then written into the Swiss constitution in 1907

In 1906 Belgium and Brazil banned the sale and distribution of absinthe although they were not the first Absinthe had been banned as early as 1898 in the colony of the Congo Free State[24] The Netherlands banned absinthe in 1909 Switzerland in 1910[25] the United States in 1912 and France in 1914[25]

The prohibition of absinthe in France led to increased popularity of pastis (and of ouzo to a lesser extent) anise-flavoured spirits that do not contain wormwood The Pernod brand resumed production at the Banus distillery in Catalonia Spain where absinthe was still legal[unreliable source][26][unreliable source][27] but slow sales in the 1960s eventually caused them to shut it down[unreliable source][28] In Switzerland the ban drove absinthe underground Clandestine home distillers produced absinthe focusing on la Bleue which was easier to conceal from the authorities Many countries never banned absinthe notably Britain where it had not been as popular as in continental Europe

Modern revivalIn the 1990s an importer BBH Spirits realized that there was no UK law prohibiting the sale of absinthe

as it had never been banned there They began to import Hillrsquos Absinth (not a true Absinthe) from the Czech Republic which encouraged a modern resurgence in absinthersquos popularity Absinthe had also never been banned in other European countries where it was never popular it is in these countries where absinthe first began to reappear during the revival in the 1990s These absinthesmdashmostly Czech Spanish and Portuguese brandsmdashare generally of recent origin typically consist of Bohemian-style products and are therefore considered by absinthe connoisseurs to be of inferior quality[unreliable source][29][unreliable source][30][unreliable source][31]

La Feacutee Absinthe released in 2000[unreliable source][32] was the first brand labelled absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1914 ban initially for export from France but now one of roughly 50 French-produced absinthes available in France French absinthes now must be labelled as boissons spiritueuse aux plantes dabsinthe to be sold within that country per the most recent guidelines Absinthes produced in other countries must be relabelled to meet these same guidelines to be legally imported and sold within France

In the Netherlands restrictions on the manufacture and sale of Absinthe were successfully challenged by the Amsterdam wine seller Menno Boorsma in July 2004 making absinthe legal once again Belgium as part of an effort to simplify its laws removed its absinthe law on 1 January 2005 citing (as did the Dutch judge) European food regulations as sufficient to render the law unnecessary and in conflict with the spirit of the Single European Market In Switzerland the constitutional ban on absinthe was repealed in 2000 during an overhaul of the national constitution although the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead Later that law was repealed so from 1 March 2005 absinthe was again legal in its country of origin Absinthe is now not only sold but is once again distilled in its Val-de-Travers birthplace with Kuumlbler and La Clandestine Absinthe among the first new brands to re-emerge

Absinthe has a deep history in the Northern Catalan region of Spain encompassing Barcelona Tarragona Lleida and a section of the Pyrenees mountains While the drink was never officially banned in Spain it fell out of favor from the early 1940s to present day Since 2007 it has enjoyed a significant resurgence in the region and has at least one major export brand

Absinthe has never been illegal to import or manufacture in Australia Importation requires a permit under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulation 1956 due to a restriction on importing any product containing oil of wormwood[33] In 2000 there was an amendment by Foods Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) as part of a new consolidation of the Food Code across Australia and New Zealand This made all wormwood species prohibited herbs for food purposes under Food Standard 144 Prohibited and Restricted Plants and Fungi however it was found to be inconsistent with other parts of the pre-existing Food Code[34][35] The proposed amendment was withdrawn in 2002 during the transition between the two Codes thereby continuing to allow absinthe manufacture and importation through the existing permit-based system These events were erroneously reported by the media as Australia having reclassified it from a prohibited product to a restricted product[36] There is now an Australian-produced brand of absinthe called Moulin Rooz

In 2007 the French Lucid brand became the first genuine absinthe to receive a COLA (Certificate of Label Approval) for importation into the United States since 1912[37][38] following independent efforts by representatives from Lucid and Kuumlbler to topple the long-standing US ban[39] In December 2007 St George Absinthe Verte produced by St George Spirits of Alameda California became the first brand of American-made absinthe produced in the United States since the ban[40][41] Since that time other micro-distilleries have started making small batches of high-quality absinthe in the US

Production Anise one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Grande wormwood one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Fennel one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe

Currently most countries have no legal definition of absinthe although spirits such as Scotch whisky brandy and gin generally have such a definition Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth without regard to any legal definition or minimum standard Producers of legitimate absinthes use one of two processes to create the finished spirit either distillation or cold mixing In the few countries which have a legal definition of absinthe distillation is the sole permitted process An online description of the distillation process (in French) is available[42]

Distilled absinthe

Distilled absinthe is produced in a form similar to high quality gin The botanicals are macerated in the already distilled alcohol before being redistilled one or more times with the herbal ingredients to impart complexity and texture to the beverage

The distillation of absinthe first produces a colorless distillate that leaves the alembic at around 72 percent ABV (144 proof) The distillate can be bottled clear to produce a Blanche or la Bleue absinthe or it can be colored using artificial or natural coloring Traditional absinthes take their green color from chlorophyll which is present in some of the herbal ingredients during the secondary maceration

The natural coloring process is considered critical for absinthe ageing since the chlorophyll remains chemically active The chlorophyll plays the same role in absinthe that tannins do in wine or brown liquors

This is done by steeping petite wormwood hyssop and melissa (among other herbs) in the liquid Chlorophyll from these herbs is extracted giving the drink its famous green color This process also provides the herbal complexity that is typical of high quality absinthe This type of absinthe is known as a verte After the coloring process the resulting product is diluted with water to the desired percentage of alcohol Historically most absinthes contain between 50 and 75 percent alcohol by volume (100 to 150 proof) It is said to improve materially with storage and many pre-ban distilleries aged their absinthe in neutral barrels before bottling

Cold mixedMany modern absinthes are produced using the cold mix system This process is forbidden in countries

with formal legal designations of absinthe The beverage is manufactured by mixing flavoring essences and

artificial coloring in high-proof alcohol and is similar to a flavored vodka or absinthe schnapps Some modern FrancondashSuisse absinthes are bottled at up to 823 percent alcohol[unreliable source][44] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 899 percent Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries many of these lesser brands claim their products to be distilled (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs

IngredientsAbsinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol various herbs and water

Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie) while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain beets or potatoes[45] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood green anise and florence fennel which are often called the holy trinity[46] Many other herbs may be used as well such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood) hyssop melissa star anise angelica sweet flag dittany coriander veronica juniper and nutmeg

Alternative colouringAbsinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers This is called a rouge or rose absinthe

As of now only one historical rouge brand has been discoveredAdding to absinthes negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unscrupulous makers of

the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green verte color instead of using the traditional coloring phase of manufacture This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage And in recent times some home-makers have used store-bought food coloring to simulate the green coloration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte coloration

KitsThe interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of absinthe kits which are claimed to produce homemade

absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe despite hausgemacht translating as homemade in German) Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard[unreliable source][48] Some concoctions may even be dangerous especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs oils andor extracts One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil a dose much higher than that found in absinthe

PreparationMain article Absinthiana

Preparing absinthe the traditional way Note that no burning is usedCollection of absinthe spoons These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-

cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass

Traditionally absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water During this process components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise fennel and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr opaque or shady IPA [luʃ]) Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to blossom or bloom and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise This is often referred to as The French Method

The Bohemian Method is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire Like the French method a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol usually more absinthe and then set ablaze The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe Finally a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method A variant of The Bohemian Method is to allow the fire to burn itself out This variant called Cooking the Absinthe or Flaming Green Fairy removes much but not all of the alcohol

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Absinthe has a deep history in the Northern Catalan region of Spain encompassing Barcelona Tarragona Lleida and a section of the Pyrenees mountains While the drink was never officially banned in Spain it fell out of favor from the early 1940s to present day Since 2007 it has enjoyed a significant resurgence in the region and has at least one major export brand

Absinthe has never been illegal to import or manufacture in Australia Importation requires a permit under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulation 1956 due to a restriction on importing any product containing oil of wormwood[33] In 2000 there was an amendment by Foods Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) as part of a new consolidation of the Food Code across Australia and New Zealand This made all wormwood species prohibited herbs for food purposes under Food Standard 144 Prohibited and Restricted Plants and Fungi however it was found to be inconsistent with other parts of the pre-existing Food Code[34][35] The proposed amendment was withdrawn in 2002 during the transition between the two Codes thereby continuing to allow absinthe manufacture and importation through the existing permit-based system These events were erroneously reported by the media as Australia having reclassified it from a prohibited product to a restricted product[36] There is now an Australian-produced brand of absinthe called Moulin Rooz

In 2007 the French Lucid brand became the first genuine absinthe to receive a COLA (Certificate of Label Approval) for importation into the United States since 1912[37][38] following independent efforts by representatives from Lucid and Kuumlbler to topple the long-standing US ban[39] In December 2007 St George Absinthe Verte produced by St George Spirits of Alameda California became the first brand of American-made absinthe produced in the United States since the ban[40][41] Since that time other micro-distilleries have started making small batches of high-quality absinthe in the US

Production Anise one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Grande wormwood one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe Fennel one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe

Currently most countries have no legal definition of absinthe although spirits such as Scotch whisky brandy and gin generally have such a definition Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth without regard to any legal definition or minimum standard Producers of legitimate absinthes use one of two processes to create the finished spirit either distillation or cold mixing In the few countries which have a legal definition of absinthe distillation is the sole permitted process An online description of the distillation process (in French) is available[42]

Distilled absinthe

Distilled absinthe is produced in a form similar to high quality gin The botanicals are macerated in the already distilled alcohol before being redistilled one or more times with the herbal ingredients to impart complexity and texture to the beverage

The distillation of absinthe first produces a colorless distillate that leaves the alembic at around 72 percent ABV (144 proof) The distillate can be bottled clear to produce a Blanche or la Bleue absinthe or it can be colored using artificial or natural coloring Traditional absinthes take their green color from chlorophyll which is present in some of the herbal ingredients during the secondary maceration

The natural coloring process is considered critical for absinthe ageing since the chlorophyll remains chemically active The chlorophyll plays the same role in absinthe that tannins do in wine or brown liquors

This is done by steeping petite wormwood hyssop and melissa (among other herbs) in the liquid Chlorophyll from these herbs is extracted giving the drink its famous green color This process also provides the herbal complexity that is typical of high quality absinthe This type of absinthe is known as a verte After the coloring process the resulting product is diluted with water to the desired percentage of alcohol Historically most absinthes contain between 50 and 75 percent alcohol by volume (100 to 150 proof) It is said to improve materially with storage and many pre-ban distilleries aged their absinthe in neutral barrels before bottling

Cold mixedMany modern absinthes are produced using the cold mix system This process is forbidden in countries

with formal legal designations of absinthe The beverage is manufactured by mixing flavoring essences and

artificial coloring in high-proof alcohol and is similar to a flavored vodka or absinthe schnapps Some modern FrancondashSuisse absinthes are bottled at up to 823 percent alcohol[unreliable source][44] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 899 percent Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries many of these lesser brands claim their products to be distilled (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs

IngredientsAbsinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol various herbs and water

Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie) while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain beets or potatoes[45] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood green anise and florence fennel which are often called the holy trinity[46] Many other herbs may be used as well such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood) hyssop melissa star anise angelica sweet flag dittany coriander veronica juniper and nutmeg

Alternative colouringAbsinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers This is called a rouge or rose absinthe

As of now only one historical rouge brand has been discoveredAdding to absinthes negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unscrupulous makers of

the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green verte color instead of using the traditional coloring phase of manufacture This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage And in recent times some home-makers have used store-bought food coloring to simulate the green coloration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte coloration

KitsThe interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of absinthe kits which are claimed to produce homemade

absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe despite hausgemacht translating as homemade in German) Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard[unreliable source][48] Some concoctions may even be dangerous especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs oils andor extracts One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil a dose much higher than that found in absinthe

PreparationMain article Absinthiana

Preparing absinthe the traditional way Note that no burning is usedCollection of absinthe spoons These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-

cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass

Traditionally absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water During this process components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise fennel and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr opaque or shady IPA [luʃ]) Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to blossom or bloom and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise This is often referred to as The French Method

The Bohemian Method is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire Like the French method a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol usually more absinthe and then set ablaze The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe Finally a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method A variant of The Bohemian Method is to allow the fire to burn itself out This variant called Cooking the Absinthe or Flaming Green Fairy removes much but not all of the alcohol

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

artificial coloring in high-proof alcohol and is similar to a flavored vodka or absinthe schnapps Some modern FrancondashSuisse absinthes are bottled at up to 823 percent alcohol[unreliable source][44] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 899 percent Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries many of these lesser brands claim their products to be distilled (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs

IngredientsAbsinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol various herbs and water

Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie) while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain beets or potatoes[45] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood green anise and florence fennel which are often called the holy trinity[46] Many other herbs may be used as well such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood) hyssop melissa star anise angelica sweet flag dittany coriander veronica juniper and nutmeg

Alternative colouringAbsinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers This is called a rouge or rose absinthe

As of now only one historical rouge brand has been discoveredAdding to absinthes negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unscrupulous makers of

the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green verte color instead of using the traditional coloring phase of manufacture This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage And in recent times some home-makers have used store-bought food coloring to simulate the green coloration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte coloration

KitsThe interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of absinthe kits which are claimed to produce homemade

absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe despite hausgemacht translating as homemade in German) Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard[unreliable source][48] Some concoctions may even be dangerous especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs oils andor extracts One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil a dose much higher than that found in absinthe

PreparationMain article Absinthiana

Preparing absinthe the traditional way Note that no burning is usedCollection of absinthe spoons These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube over which ice-

cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe Note the slot on the handle that allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass

Traditionally absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water During this process components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise fennel and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr opaque or shady IPA [luʃ]) Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to blossom or bloom and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise This is often referred to as The French Method

The Bohemian Method is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire Like the French method a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol usually more absinthe and then set ablaze The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe Finally a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method A variant of The Bohemian Method is to allow the fire to burn itself out This variant called Cooking the Absinthe or Flaming Green Fairy removes much but not all of the alcohol

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Slow drip absinthe fountainOriginally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a carafe and sugar separately and the

drinker would prepare it to their preference[unreliable source][50] With increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots came into use It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once and with a hands-free drip patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe These had a dose line bulge or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in One dose of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml) and most glasses used this as the standard with some drinkers using as much as 1frac12 ounces (45 ml)

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States[51] and continues to be a popular ingredient today One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingwayrsquos Death in the Afternoon cocktail a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes His directions are as follows Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness Drink three to five of these slowly[52]

StylesThe Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861ndash1928)Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling while

those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking According to popular treatises from the 19th century absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire demi-fine fine and Suissemdashwhich does not denote origin) in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed according to its production method And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter an absinthe simply classified as distilled makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker

Blanche or la Bleue Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction and is uncoloured (clear) The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general

Verte (green in French) absinthe begins as a blanche The blanche is altered by the colouring step by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called verte though it lacks the herbal characteristics

Absenta (absinthe in Spanish) is a regional variation and differs slightly from its French cousin Absentas are sweeter due to their use of Alicante anise and contain a characteristic citrus flavour

Hausgemacht (German for home-made often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists It is often called clandestine absinthe It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand nor should it be confused with absinthe kits Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned when small producers went underground most notably in Switzerland

Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide Although the ban has been lifted many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this[55] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels

Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe anise-free absinthe or just absinth (without the e)) is best described as a wormwood bitters It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic[56] from which it gets its designations as Bohemian or Czech although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style It contains little or none of the anise fennel and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic traditional counterpart it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire[57] This type of absinth and the associated fire ritual are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light the chlorophyll breaks down changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe Due to this fragility naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant wine bottles[citation needed] Absinthe should be stored in a cool room temperature dry place away from light and heat It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle creating a scum in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms

EffectsAbsinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic In the

1970s a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC the active chemical in cannabis[58] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinationsSuch accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users many of whom were bohemian artists or writers

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh In one of the best known accounts of absinthe drinking Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a barToday it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsThujone the active chemical in absinthe is a GABA antagonist and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinationsIt has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century to give it a more vivid colour

However the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind openingThe most commonly reported experience is a clear-headed feeling of inebriationmdasha form of lucid drunkenness Chemist historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants while others act as sedatives creating an overall lucid effect of awakening[64] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[65] and antiparasitic properties

ControversyIt was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with

overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of absinthism One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures while the animal exposed to alcohol did not Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone contained in wormwood for these effects

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being highmdashup to 260 mgkg of absinthe[68] More recently published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods Most proper absinthes both vintage and modern are within the current EU limits

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight[73] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening[73] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion[74] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils which can contain as much as 50 thujone[75]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[76] concluded that high doses (028 mgkg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance It slowed down reaction time and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision Low doses (0028 mgkg)did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone For the average 65 kg man the high dose in the study would be 182 mg of thujone The EU

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

limit of 10 mgL of thujone in absinthe means that about 18 liters of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning

RegulationsCurrently most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac)

Manufacturers can label a product absinthe or absinth whether or not it matches the traditional definition Due to many countries never banning absinthe not every country has regulations specifically governing it

AustraliaBitters can contain a maximum 35 mgkg thujone while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum

10 mgkg[77] of thujone In Australia import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[78] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8) unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations[79] refers to oil of wormwood being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia and preparations containing oil of wormwood The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[80] may grant permission to import absinthe The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws

CanadaPlease help improve this article by adding reliable references Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed (May 2008)

In Canada liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments As with any spirit importation by individuals for personal use is allowed provided that conditions for the individuals duration outside the country are satisfied (Importation is a federal matter and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency)

British Columbia no established limits on thujone contentAlberta Nova Scotia Ontario 10 mgkgManitoba 6ndash8 mgQuebec 5 mgkgNew Brunswick no established limits on thujone contentNewfoundland and Labrador no absinthe sold

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces although in Saskatchewan an individual is permitted to import one case (usually 12 bottles x 750 ml or 8 x 1L) of any liquor Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007 this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada[81]

BrazilAbsinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000 but the beverage must obey the liquor laws established by the

Brazilian government The Absinthe sold in Brazil must not contain more than 538 of alcoholEuropean UnionThe European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mgkg in alcoholic beverages with more than

25 ABV and 35 mgkg in alcohol labelled as bitters[82] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it

FranceIn addition to EU standards products explicitly called absinthe cannot be sold in France although they

can be produced for export Absinthe is now commonly labelled as spiritueux agrave base de plantes drsquoabsinthe (wormwood-based spirits) France also regulates fenchone a chemical in the herb fennel to 5 mgl[83] This makes many brands of Swiss absinthe illegal without reformulation

Republic of GeorgiaIt is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia which has several absinthe production

facilitiesGermany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923 In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production The original ban was lifted in 1981 but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited On 27 September 1991 Germany adopted the European Unions standards of 1988 which effectively re-legalized absinthe[84] Unlike Switzerland and France there are no further restrictions

New ZealandAlthough the substance is not banned at national level some local authorities have banned it The latest is

Mataura in Southland The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning[85] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 899 vol alc

SwedenThe sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden However the only store that

may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 35 alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years[86]

SwitzerlandIn Switzerland the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005 the ban was lifted on

1 March 2005 To be legally made or sold in Switzerland absinthe must be distilled[87] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured[88]

United StatesWith the revision of thujone levels by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) it is now

legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the United States According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free[89] Thujone free is defined as containing less than 10ppm thujone[90] There is no corresponding US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) regulation Regarding importation of absinthe US Customs and Border Protection allows importation of absinthe products subject to the following restrictions

The product must be thujone-free as described aboveThe name absinthe can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label andThe packaging cannot project images of hallucinogenic psychotropic or mind-altering effects

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations can be seized[91][92] Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States Customs and Border Protection if it appears to be for human consumption

A faux-absinthe liquor called Absente made with southern wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) instead of grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is sold legally in the United States This was the first US approval referring to absinthe on the front label the front label says Absinthe Refined but the TTB classified the product as liqueur In 2007 TTB relaxed the absinthe ban and has now approved over 50 brands for sale[citation needed] These brands must pass TTB testing which is conducted using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry[95] The TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the FDArsquos test measures less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mgkg) thujone[96]

VanuatuThe Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915 passed in the New Hebrides has never been repealed and is included

in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation and contains the following all-encompassing restriction The manufacture importation circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited[97]

Cultural influenceLrsquoAbsinthe by Edgar DegasMain article Cultural references to absintheThe legacy of absinthe as a mysterious addictive and mind-altering drink continues to this day Absinthe

has been seen or featured in fine art films video music and literature The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking even though traditionally neither is true In addition it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work These included Vincent van Gogh Eacutedouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani Arthur Rimbaud Guy de Maupassant Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Verlaine Later artists

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

and writers drew from this cultural well including Pablo Picasso August Strindberg Oscar Wilde and Ernest Hemingway Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker Emile Cohl an early pioneer in the art of animation presented the effects of the drink in 1919 with the short film Hashers delirium

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature movies and television shows Such depictions vary in their authenticity often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison The artist Marilyn Manson produces and drinks his own brand of verte absinthe MansintheMugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L)

Synonyms (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Artemisiae French Armoise Ceinture de Saint-Jean German Beifuszlig Japanese 蓬 おうしゅう蓬 餅草Yomogi Ōshū-yomogi Oshu-yomogi Maguwato Mochigusa (Artemisia princeps) Ukrainian Чорнобиль Полин звичайний Chornobyl Polyn zvychajnyj

Synonyms for Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (View the names of this plant in 57 languages)pharmaceutical Herba Absinthii English Old Woman French Armoise amegravere Geneacutepi Aluine German Wermut Wurmkraut Ukrainian Полин гіркий Polyn hirkyj Mugwort Leaves front and back side flowers Used plant partLeaves best cut immediately before flowering Plant familyAsteraceae (sunflower family also known as aster family) subfamily Asteroidae Sensory qualityAromatic and bitter See also zedoary on the topic of bitter spices Main constituentsThe essential oil (003 to 03) contains a wealth of different terpenes and terpene derivatives eg 18

cineol camphor linalool thujone 4-terpineole borneol α-cardinol and further mono- and sesquiterpenes Quantitative and qualitative composition varies strongly with soil climate fertilizing and harvest time

Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica wwwrzuni-karlsruhede

Thujone one of the oilrsquos main constituents is a monoterpenoid ketone also appearing in sage thuja and according to some sources in a close relative of mugwort southernwood It is commonly hold responsible for the toxicity of wormwood-flavoured alcoholics particularly absinthe the ldquodrug of the agerdquo in France a hundred years ago (Fin de siegravecle) Absinthe was a potent liqueur flavoured with anise fennel plenty of wormwood and other plants it was drunk together with water and sugar The high alcohol content (often exceeding 60) and the thujone (typically 50ndash100thinspppm) both contributed to its psycho-active properties Since chronic consume resulted in severe nerve damage absinthe was banned in nearly all European countries with the exception of Portugal and Spain Liqueurs based solely on anise (Pernod Pastis) could establish themselves as alternatives for absinthe

Within the European Union the ban was revoked in 1998 and absinthe has become legal again although the thujone content is now restricted to max 35thinspppm It is an open question whether the liquor will regain its former popularity

As wormwood taste intensively bitter it is almost impossible to incorporate quantities sufficient for thujone poisoning by accident Even if the thujone is separated from the bitter absinthin by distillation the resulting product is still too bitter to drink without sugar Wormwood-flavoured wine (vermouth) contains only traces of thujone

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

OriginTemperate Europe and Asia EtymologyEnglish ldquomugwortrdquo contains an element mu- meaning ldquofly bugrdquo cf Greek myia [μυία] Russian mukha

[муха] and German Muumlcke ldquomosquitordquo The Proto-Indo-European stem MU- is obviously onomatopoetic in origin Folk-etymologically the first element in mugwort is often assumed to refer to the herbrsquos use in beer-brewing (ldquomug of beerrdquo see also gale for notes on brewing)

Mugwort plant Mugwort (flower cluster)The second element in ldquomugwortrdquo is an old term for ldquoplantrdquo (Old English wyrt ldquoplantrdquo ldquorootrdquo) found in

many other Germanic languages German Wurzel ldquorootrdquo (Old High German wurz also had the broader meaning ldquoplantrdquo) Swedish oumlrt and Gothic wauacuterts Less closely related are Greek rhadamnos [ῥάδαμνος] ldquobranchrdquo Latin radix ldquorootrdquo and Old Irish fren ldquorootrdquo which all derive from a Proto-Indo-European root WRED For further etymological connections see horseradish

Swedish maloumlrt ldquomoth plantrdquo for the closely related wormwood is a similar formation allegedly mugwortrsquos or wormwoodrsquos smell drives away moths from clothes

The Modern German name Beifuszlig goes back to Middle High German bībōʒ and Old High German pīpōʒ it is usually derived from an Old High German verb bōʒen ldquobeatrdquo but the connection is unclear according to one theory some kind of squeezing the leaves for food preparation is indicated according to another the name refers to some apotropaeic quality of the plant (it ldquobeats or drives awayrdquo evil powers)

Already in Middle High German the plant name bībōʒ got modified towards Fuszlig ldquofootrdquo by folk etymology as can be inferred from the parallel form bīvuoʒ This probably relates to an ancient belief reported by Plinius that mugwort leaves applied to the feet can make people run longer and faster

The various Germanic names of the related plant wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are not well understood English wormwood appears to allude to the vermifuge properties of that plant but this is just folk-etymology The name can be traced back via Old English vermod to a Common Germanic root wermodaz which also lies behind German Wermut (Old High German wermuota) Cf also the name of a wormwood-flavoured wine vermouth French armoise amegravere ldquobitter mugwortrdquo refers to the increased bitterness of wormwood compared to mugwort

The botanic species name of wormwood absinthium is indeed the classical Latin name for that plant and derives from Greek apsinthion [ἀψίνθιον] (in the New Testament apsinthos [ἄψινθος]) the word still lives in some Romance tongues Italian assenzio Spanish ajenjo Galician axenxo and Portuguese absinto It has also spread to some unrelated languages like Basque axinse and Hebrew absint [האבסינט]

Wormwood flowers Sterile wormwood shoot The etymology of Greek apsinthion is not clearly explained a theory derives it from a- (negation) +

psinthos [ψίνθος] an obscure adjective meaning ldquoenjoyablerdquo cf also Sanskrit ashiva [अशिव] ldquounpleasant perniciousrdquo The meaning of the compound ldquounpleasantrdquo would seem fit for a bitter herb but may well be the product of folk etymology A better guess is that the name actually stems from some Middle Eastern language In Middle Persian the name aspand is recorded for a bitter plant (perhaps Syrian rue Peganum harmala) modern Farsi has afsentin [افسنطین] ldquowormwoodrdquo and espand [اسپند] ldquoSyrian ruerdquo This plant is not related to the herb commonly called rue

Most Slavonic tongues have similar names for mugwort and its relatives Polish piołun Belarusian palyn [палын] Slovak palina Czech pelyňek Slovenian and Croatian pelin and also Bulgarian pelin [пелин] (see below for Russian and Ukrainian cognates) Related names are also found in other geographically close languages eg Albanian Romanian and Turkish pelin and Lithuanian pelynas These names are derived from a Common Slavonic root PAL ldquoburn bright clearrdquo which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European PEL ldquograyrdquo cf English pale (of Romance origin) and the native Germanic fallow and examples from classical languages Latin pallidus and Sanskrit pandu [पाड] ldquopalerdquo The semantic connection is not clear It has been suggested to relate the name either to the light gray foliage of wormwood or to its ldquoburningrdquo bitter taste See below for another possible explanation of these names

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Explanation of the pelin-type names if further complicated by the fact that although phonetically very similar these names have in part deviating denotation Some of them refer primarily to wormwood (or the related Pontic or Roman wormwood Artemisia pontica) and others to mugwort yet most have a broader meaning extending to several members of the genus Artemisia Even within a language usage may differ regionally depending on what species is most abundant locally To denote a single species unambiguously qualifying adjectives are commonly used eg in Russian Mugwort polyn obyknovennaya [полынь обыкновенная] ldquocommon polynrdquo tarragon polyn estragonnaya [полынь эстрагонная] ldquotarragon-polynrdquo southernwood polyn lechebnaya [полынь лечебная] ldquohealing polynrdquo and wormwood polyn gorkaya [полынь горькая] ldquobitter polynrdquo

Mugwort with flowers Note the black stalks In some Slavonic languages (of the Western and Eastern branches) mugwort has another unrelated name

which is said to mean ldquoblack stalkrdquo or ldquodark grassrdquo eg Czech černobyacutel Ukrainian chornobyl [чорнобиль] and Russian chernobyl [чернобыль] the latter however is less commonly used than polyn discussed above See nigella for an explanation of the ldquoblackrdquo part In both Russian and in Ukrainian the same names apply to a city in Northern Ukraine which became famous due to a disastrous accident in a nuclear power plant in 1986 This has often been linked to a verse of the biblical Revelation about the Third Trumpet when the angel cast a star into the waters making them bitter and deadly kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] ldquoand the name of the star is called wormwoodrdquo Taking the bitter waters as a metaphor for radioactive pollution and identifying wormwood with mugwort one might then interpret the reactor accident as ldquopredicted by the Biblerdquo

Actually wormwood and mugwort though closely related are not identical Rather correctly Russian and Ukrainian Bible translations render the Greek plant name apsinthos not as chernobyl or chornobyl but as polyn (Russian imya sej zvezde polyn [имя сей звезде полынь] Ukrainian a jmennya sori tij polyn [а ймення зорі тій полин]) Confused by the inherent ambiguity of that word some Western journalist have tried to make a case that the herb mentioned in the Bible is indeed the same that is called chernobyl which actually may be true (for a Russian or Ukrainian Bible translation) because polyn and chernobyl have indeed overlapping denotation This is however a good example of a question that cannot reasonably be answered using a translated text fortunately the Greek original uses an unambiguous term apsinthos that applies only to wormwood (and maybe other pale-leaved highly bitter relatives like Pontic wormwood) but never to mugwort Yet chernobyl means ldquomugwortrdquo nothing else

Yet there is another connection between mugwort and ldquoburningrdquo which might account for the Slavonic names derived from the root PAL The Shamanistic moxa practice (also spelt moksha) which originated in Central Asia but is today also part of East Asian medicine In that ritual a Shaman combusts dried herbs for healing purposes In Chinese medicine the method is often employed as following A thin slice of ginger is placed on a suitable acupuncture point a small portion of the dried herb is layered on top and slowly combusted Both the heat and the constituents of the herb are supposed to contribute to the healing power The Japanese term yomogi [蓬 よもぎ] represents mugwort and related Artemisia species it can also be written 艾 but the latter kanji more often means the moxa method proper (Japanese mogusa [艾 もぐさ]) Specific names for particular artemisias are usually formed with the former kanji logograph eg niga-yomogi [苦蓬 にがよもぎ] ldquobitter yomogirdquo (wormwood) or oo-yomogi [大蓬 おおよもぎ] ldquolarge yomogirdquo (A montana) Mugwort also has the more specific name ōshū-yomogi [おうしゅうよもぎ] ldquoEuropean yomogirdquo

AbstractAbsinthe a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) was banned at the beginning of

the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects After nearly century-long prohibition absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along with their impact on the current situation The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies Based on the current available evidence thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism Today a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

IntroductionAbsinthe ndash a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) (Figure (Figure1)1) and other herbs ndash was one of the most popular alcoholic beverages of late 19th century Europe The

emerald green drink was consumed by people from all walks of life including the bohemian upper class artists poets and intellectuals While the lower classes celebrated lheure verte (the green hour) in numerous bars and cafeacutes painters and poets created famous paintings and poems dedicated to the green fairy Absinthe was popular in fin-de-siegravecle Paris and la vie bohegraveme of Prague The most remarkable celebrity known as an absinthe drinker is the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh (1853ndash1890 Figure Figure2)2) whose illness is still a matter of debate among neurologists and psychiatrists [1-7] Other famous painters of the time such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Gaugin and illustrious poets like Oscar Wilde Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe were all fond of absinthe

Figure 1Wormwood Artemisia absinthium L drawing of plant flowers seeds and fruits (drawing by W Muumlller

1885 reproduced from Thomeacute [106]) Wormwood is the characteristic aromatic component of absinthe

Figure 2Vincent van Gogh Still Life with absinthe (Paris 1887) The picture shows one of the countless cafeacutes in

Paris in which absinthe was served Next to the glass filled with absinthe a water bottle is illustrated which was necessary for drinking ritual На рабочем столе))

Because absinthe consumption reached excessive and alarming proportions at the turn of the 19th century many European governments as well as the US administration successively banned the icon of la vie bohegraveme by several prohibition acts Absinthe was used as an easy target of the temperance movement with the aim of later prohibiting alcohol in general But absinthe remained a singularity as the only kind of alcoholic beverage with a long-term ban In some European countries (eg UK Spain Czech Republic) however the green fairy survived but consumption was comparatively low The European Council enacted in 1988 the directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to flavorings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production that re-allowed wormwood as ingredient of alcoholic beverages However maximum limits of the wormwood ingredient thujone (Figure (Figure3)3) which was speculated to be the most probable cause for absinthism were issued [8]

Figure 3Structure of α- und β-thujone the principal components of wormwood oil (Artemisia absinthium L)

Because of this change of policy absinthe has seen a recent resurgence In contrast to the social legal and medical problems of the late 19th century today the image of the green fairy has markedly changed but still remains titillating Todays so called new absinthe is offered as a newly fashionable exclusive drink for yuppie parties with claimed properties ranging from spiritual elucidation to aphrodisiac stimulation ndash with corresponding pricing In parallel a fan club within the internet community has emerged Absinthe can be purchased via the internet from various countries worldwide making it possible to receive it in countries where it is not legally available Moreover numerous recipes for the self-production of absinthe are available on the internet To date it is unclear if the re-licensing of absinthe will cause similar or even new and different forensic medical and social problems as it did in the late 1800s

This article provides information on the history of absinthe and a prime constituent thujone Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail along

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

with their impact on the current situation It is the intention of the authors to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic of multi-faceted interest and to discuss this issue objectively

Other SectionsThe rise and fall of wormwood spiritsDocumented medical use of wormwood can be dated back to the Ebers Papyrus an Egyptian medical

document dating from about 1552 BC and the oldest preserved medical document [9] This papyrus is believed to be a copy of the even more ancient books of Thoth (3500 BC) The name wormwood is derived from its anthelmintic properties which were recognized by the ancient Egyptians

Wormwood in the context of its bitter taste is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (Jeremiah 915 1315) In the biblical context the plant represented a curse calamity (Lamentations 315) or injustice (Amos 57) In Revelations 811 the Greek equivalent ho apsinthos is used as a name for a star that fell into the waters and turned them bitter The Greek word apsinthion ndash undrinkable ndash is most probably the ancestor of the word absinthe The Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC) recommended wine-soaked wormwood leaves to alleviate labor pains Hippocrates (~460-377 BC) used wormwood extracts for the treatment of menstrual pain and rheumatism [10]

Pliny the Elder (23ndash79) the Roman scholar and scientist also mentioned extracts of wormwood in his opus Historia Naturalis [11] In the Middle Ages wormwood was used as a purge and vermifuge and it developed towards a general remedy for all diseases and was a herb of Mars for its medical powers [10] Wormwoods bitter taste inspired women in those days to apply it to their nipples to encourage the weaning of their babies In fact Shakespeare has Juliets nurse expound upon this in Romeo and Juliet

The image of just a bitter medicine changed to a popular drink among the masses in the 16th century The so-called Purl of Tudor England was a drink composed of hot ale and wormwood Dried leaves of wormwood were infused in proof-spirits distilled and sweetened with sugar as prescribed in Smiths Complete Body of Distilling in 1731 [12] The French physician Pierre Ordinaire is supposedly the originator of the classic absinthe recipe Being acquainted with the ancient use of wormwood he began to develop a recipe for an alcoholic drink which probably contained wormwood anise hyssop dittany sweet flag melissa and varying amounts of coriander veronica chamomile parsley and (allegedly) spinach Dr Ordinaire who had fled the French revolution settled down in Val-de-Travers in western Switzerland which has remained an important centre of absinthe production In the small town of Couvet the elixir (68vol) soon attained the nickname feacutee verte

After Dr Ordinaires death his recipe came into the possession of Henri-Louis Pernod who began the commercial production of absinthe in 1797 In 1805 Pernod moved to Pontarlier France to serve the French market the distillery had one still with a daily capacity of 16 litres The widespread use of alcoholic drinks containing wormwood extract might have also resulted from the use of wormwood as a preventive measure for helminthiasis and fevers during the French conquest of Algeria (1830ndash1847) The soldiers returning to France discovered absinthe as a tasty substitute for their wormwood medicine [13]

Due to a rising interest in anise-based spirits as well as increased promotion and advertising the production of Pernods absinthe was increased up to a 125000 liter scale in 1896 This was aided by the drastically reduced production of red wine in these years due to major damages caused by the vine pest The emerald spirit was however known to be enjoyed excessively on both sides of the Atlantic [14]

The annual per capita consumption of absinthe in France increased fifteen-fold between 1875 and 1913 According to an article in The Times (1915) French consumption of pure alcohol in 1876 was 15500 hectoliters it was 10 times that amount in 1908 and in 1913 it had reached the figure of 239492 hectoliters representing 60 liters per inhabitant [15] Parallel to this mass consumption and its consequences anti-alcohol movements winegrowers and clergy called for the banning of absinthe Many murders and other acts of violence were attributed to the influence of absinthe

Furthermore the medical community had developed a strong scientific and medical case against absinthe attributing an increase in insanity and other serious medical problems to an overindulgence in the drink [13] It was widely believed that the problem with alcohol was not the quantity consumed but the quality The absinthe prohibition crusade in France was a paradoxical campaign in which the wine-producers suppliers of the vast majority of alcoholic drinks consumed backed the temperance movement [16] The attention being given to absinthes supposed unique qualities can be seen as an attempt to reduce alcoholism without specifically touching alcohol However it also may have diverted efforts away from the genuine dangers of heavy alcohol consumption [16]

At first concerns about absinthe were ignored especially by the French government due to lucrative revenues resulting from the enormous scale of absinthe sales By the end of the 19th century temperance forces had succeeded in getting the attention of almost all of France through educational programs and public awareness

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

campaigns In 1908 a bill was passed that ironically increased the amount of alcohol in absinthe the argument being that the requirement for higher alcoholic strength would eliminate those producers who used artificial essences with lower standards of purity [13] Only rising concerns about a weakening of military power in the light of absinthe abuse especially in the army pressured the French government to ban absinthe in 1915 The US Department of Agriculture had already issued the Food Inspection Decision 147 which banned absinthe in the US on 25th July 1912 Belgium Switzerland and Italy had also passed laws prohibiting absinthe in 1905 1908 and 1913 respectively finally Germany outlawed the green fairy on 27th April 1923 [17]

Prestwich concluded that the prohibition of absinthe did little to improve the health of the French people as deprived of their traditional absinthe consumers merely switched to similar drinks In addition by stressing the problem of essences and impure alcohol temperance campaigners distracted both medical research and the public from the real cause of alcoholism namely the excessive consumption of any type of alcoholic drink [18]

For further information about the social history of absinthe which goes beyond the scope of this review the book of Adams is recommended [16] Further information is available in the works of Arnold [1920] Baker [10] Conrad [21] Lanier [13] Marrus [22] and Prestwich [18] Information about absinthes paraphernalia and the drinking ritual is available in an article of Hood [23]

Other SectionsDefinition of pre-ban absintheThe drink to which we refer as pre-ban absinthe was the icon of the belle eacutepoque When dealing with

good quality absinthes recipe books distinguished between absinthe Suisse with an alcohol content of approximately 68ndash72 vol absinthe demi-fine with 50ndash68 vol and absinthe ordinaire with a content of 45ndash50 vol Absinthe suisse was considered the highest quality and consisted of pure herbal distillate while in the other types the distillate was diluted with ethyl alcohol According to these widely ranging contents these absinthes must have contained different concentrations of thujone

A definition of absinthe was provided in Swiss law at the time of the prohibition of absinthe According to this definition every spirit drink without regard to its method of production that contains aromatic compounds of wormwood herb in combination with other aromatic compounds derived from plants such as anise and fennel is defined as absinthe [24] Thujone was regarded as being the determining factor amongst the aromatic compounds in terms of detecting wormwood spirits [25]

In the first step of traditional recipes for distilled absinthe wormwood and other dried herbs (eg anise fennel) are macerated The macerate of the wormwood herb is of greenish-brown color smells aromatic like all Artemisia species and reminds one of the composite herbs like camomile The taste is lightly stinging strongly bitter and camphoric The following distillation of the macerate results in a distillate that is reduced from the bitter compounds which are relatively non-volatile The distillation is conducted in a still with a very flat helmet slowly heated in a water or steam bath to avoid boilover that would negatively influence the product quality [2627] The distillation process is usually stopped at an alcoholic strength of 60vol [2728] The characteristic lightly volatile fine aromatic components of the wormwood aroma appear in the first fraction between 80 and 60 volume while the middle fractions posses a cinnamon or clove-like aroma [29] Distillation of absinthe should never be carried on to the end as the taste of the product would be too strong and less fine [26] Therefore only the main fractions (heart) are used for the production of high-quality absinthe The heads and tailings are collected separately and added to subsequent macerations or used to make absinthe ordinaire after renewed rectification [28]

As emphasized by Arnold [20] the distillation of absinthe may have been a type of steam distillation as significant amounts of water were added to the alcoholic macerate prior to distillation Due to the influence of steam distillation higher thujone may have been distilled over [20]

In the second step wormwood (usually Artemisia pontica) and other herbs are added to the colorless distillate This is done to accomplish the characteristic green colouring by chlorophyll and to achieve a mild bitter taste as well as to extract other aromatic compounds Because of the easy denaturation of chlorophyll through light and warmth the characteristic color of a traditionally produced absinthe is pale greenish-yellow Afterwards the beverage is diluted with water until drinking strength is reached

Typical historic recipes are given in the books of Duplais [30] Fritsch [27] Bedel [31] and de Brevans [28] The composition of herbs used along with the wormwood differs from recipe to recipe To improve the taste or add coloring anise star anise lemon balm hyssop juniper nutmeg veronica angelica root melissa coriander camomile or parsley were added Each country produced its own types of absinthe For example in the Czech Republic peppermint was added but neither anise nor fennel In Switzerland melissa hyssop or angelica root were added to the Swiss alpine wormwood which was a valued ingredient due to its strong aroma [32] while in France coriander was added

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Because the essential oils from the diverse herbs can be kept in solution only in high alcohol concentrations the addition of water causes a precipitation visible as an opaque clouding of absinthe This phenomenon is called the Louche effect The characteristic bitterness is caused by sesquiterpene-lactone absinthin which can still be organoleptically detected in a concentration as low as 1 g in about 70 liters Due to different historical aspects of absinthe a sub-division into the historic pre-ban absinthe and the currently available modern absinthe will be used in this article

Other SectionsPre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulterationBesides the above-mentioned herbal ingredients different manufacturers of absinthe sometimes used

strange or even toxic additives such as methanol sweet flag (Acorus calamus L) tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L) nutmeg (Myristica fragrans HOUT) antimony aniline green copper sulfate and cupric acetate indigo

The Lancet reported that in the days of pre-ban absinthe antimony (antimonyl tartrate) was added with the well-meant intent to decrease absinthes toxicity However it was questionable even in 1873 if quantities of tartar emetic would not rather adulterate the spirit as it would cause nausea sickness and toxic effects of its own [33] From todays view it is more likely that antimony salts were added to make absinthe turn milky when adding water simulating the Louche effect Increasing consumption which arose competition among the manufacturers flooded the market with such imitations of absinthe Absinthe can so easily be adulterated that Emerson wondered if the genuine article was still in existence [34]

In addition instead of traditional production by distillation absinthe could be made using herbal essences According to Tibbles the color of properly made absinthe is entirely due to chlorophyll derived from the green leaves of wormwood hyssop spinach parsley nettles and veronica however in the years preceding 1912 the spirit was most frequently colored by artificial agents [35] Convenience products like absinthe extracts which had only to be dissolved in alcohol and colored with food dye [27] were also commercially available at that time As food adulteration the light green color of chlorophyll was sometimes enhanced with inorganic salts like copper sulphate or copper acetate [36] Inferior and falsified products were typically made by mixing industrial alcohol with flavorings and artificial food dyes in the worst case with antimony trichloride and copper salts

Another general problem at that time was that heads and tailings which were separated from the product fractions during distillation by legal manufacturers were purchased by illegal manufacturers and used as a main component for adulterated absinthe products The alcohol employed for absinthe was described to have been frequently very impure [37] Emerson also wondered if total abolishment had occurred if the beverage had remained in its purity [34] Given these facts it is easily comprehensible that the prohibition of such a mixture could successfully eradicate a whole syndrome overnight

Other SectionsModern absintheMost absinthe brands available today contain mainly the same herbal ingredients and extracts as pre-ban

absinthe Absinthe produced within the European Union is limited in its thujone content to 35 mgl (maximum limit for bitter spirits) [8]

Top grade absinthe products are still manufactured according to traditional recipes without the addition of dye or other additives Some products are made of herbal distillates and are differentiated by a mild flavor Because such products are colorless they are sold as Blanche or La Bleue Types with a lower alcoholic strength and added sugar are sold as absinthe-liqueurs Independent of traditional recipes many products sold nowadays are made with readily bought finished extracts of wormwood or other plants which are blended with ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin For the coloring artificial dye is used especially mixtures of tartrazin (E102 FDampC Yellow No 5) and patent blue V (E131) or brilliant blue FCF (E133) Inferior products contain no herbal extracts and are made solely by the blending of artificial flavors coloring and ethyl alcohol [17]

In cases like this sometimes even the macerated herbs are not distilled but only filtrated diluted to drinking strength and bottled These products have a strong pronounced taste of wormwood and a very strong bitter taste Further falsification is possible with the addition of extracts of other thujone-containing plants (eg Thuja occidentalis L Salvia officinalis L)

Other SectionsNineteenth century studies about absinthismClincial effects of absinthismWhen discussing the clinical effects of thujone and absinthe it should be kept in mind that the majority of

the data available was derived from clinical observations made in the late 1800s and are therefore lacking reliability and clinical significance

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

With the increasing mass consumption of absinthe more and more of the chronic ndash and most probably high-dose ndash absinthe consumers developed seizures speech impairment sleep disorder mental prostration auditory and visual hallucinations and finally death This collection of symptoms gave birth to the term absinthism it is unclear however if this syndrome ever really existed at all Absinthism in these days was supposedly further characterized by brain damage gastrointestinal problems risk of psychiatric disease and even suicide [38] Even an increased incidence of oesophageal cancer in absinthe drinkers was noticed [39] In contrast other authors recommended moderate doses of absinthe as a valuable remedy against depressions [40]

Both the serious and the populist medical literature of the day demonized absinthe in many cases laying the groundwork for the anti-absinthe temperance movement The definition of absinthism as a particular syndrome separate from alcoholism is intimately connected with the French physician Valentin Magnan A biography of Magnan is available in a recent review article [41] In Magnans work about absinthism between 1864 and 1874 he described visual and auditory hallucinations accompanied by alterations in consciousness after consumption of absinthe [4243] Other authors described acute symptoms of absinthe such as hallucination restlessness confusion delirium and seizures [44] (Table 1) Symptomatic differences between the drinker of absinthe and the ordinary alcoholic were presented at the First International Eugenics Congress in absinthism the hallucination insanity was described to be more active with sudden attacks of delirium more terrifying sometimes provoking most dangerous reactions of extreme violence [45] In addition complete statistics of the central service for the admission of insane persons for the town of Paris were given In the years 1867ndash1912 a number of 16532 patients were treated for alcoholic intoxication 703 of all patients were diagnosed as chronic alcoholics but only 10 of all patients were found to have symptoms of absinthism Due to the high consumption of absinthe in Paris of that time one questions if very severe forms of chronic alcoholism were misleadingly described as absinthism Table 1

Main acute and chronic effects of absinthe reported in the 19th centuryAcute effects Chronic absinthismvertigo maniaseizures softening of the brainnervous debility general paralysishallucinatory delirium psychosis

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Table 2Comparative table between symptoms of absinthism and alcoholism according to animal experiments of

Amory (1868) [38]Absinthism (Injection of pure wormwood extract (08ndash45 g) into the stomach of different animals) Alcoholism (Injection of alcohol (08ndash5 g) into the stomach of different animals)

Animal perfectly well for fifteen minutes at the least after the ingestion with the exception of a few muscular twichings and a slight uneasiness In a very few minutes symptoms of inebriation resulting in torpor

Musuclar agitation commencing in the anterior portion of the body Paralysis commencing in posterior extremities and then extending to the anterior

No paralysisParalysis of both posterior and anterior extremities in successionEpileptiform convulsions and rigidity resulting in a rapid death No convulsions Stupor coma resolution

and a gradual deathNo apparent lesion except perhaps a slight cerebral congestion showing the cause of death to be

intoxication of the poison Lesions of the brain and of the alimentary canal gastritis and enteritis might have supervened had the animals lived long enough for their development

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

These experiments and deductions of Magnan et al were criticized as early as 1869 when The Lancet commented upon the inadequacy of the evidence produced in order to prove that absinthism was different in its nature from chronic alcoholism The sleeplessness the tremor the hallucinations the paralysis and even the seizures were described to be well-known symptoms of simple alcoholic excess The effect of inhalation of concentrated wormwood fumes was seen as not transferable to the effect of very small continuous oral doses [47] In Great Britain the hostility against Magnans experiments led so far that the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals prosecuted three English doctors for assisting Magnan in 1874 in demonstrating that intravenous injection of wormwood extracts into a dog induced epilepsy The prosecution failed as Magnan had discreetly returned to France [48]

Further investigations were undertaken to determine the origin of the fits in wormwood epilepsy by Boyce [49] For this purpose numerous lesions were made both in the brain and spinal cord of cats and wormwood administered immediately or after a lapse of days or weeks It was found that wormwood acting upon the bulbo-spinal centers (including the cerebellum) alone could produce a series of clonic fits differing from the cortical in the slower rhythm of the contractions In experiments of Ott upon rabbits those results were disputed as no spinal but only cortical convulsions were determined which raises the question if the crude techniques of the 19th century were suitable at all to determine the physiological origin of epilepsy [50]

In the noteworthy work of Ossipow the problem of different wormwood extracts to achieve epilepsy in animals was discussed for the first time [51] The failure of some researchers to replicate the experiments of Magnan was explained by misunderstandings between absinthe essence dabsinthe and extrait dabsinthe Ossipow stressed that only the essence dabsinthe (alcohol-free wormwood oil) and not the ready-to-drink alcoholic beverage (in France called extrait dabsinthe) is usable to trigger seizures in animals

Further studies were conducted by Cunningham [52] and Lesieur [53] The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from all these animal experiments is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures in animals

Degeneration and absinthismA further strong argument of the anti-absinthe phalanx was grounded on the Lamarckian theories of the

inheritance of diseases (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744ndash1829) According to these theories any traits acquired by absinthe drinkers would be passed on to their children The idea of degeneration was also used by Magnan to explain mental illnesses [54] It is interesting to note that this hereditary feature was also ascribed to alcoholism The editorial section of JAMA published the theory that a larger proportion of the children of alcoholics were more idiotic epileptic neurotic alcoholic degenerate and deformed than the children of healthy parentage and total abstinence was postulated [55]

The condition of absinthism was introduced into late 19th century medicine together with the first emerging descriptions of alcoholism [37] Intriguingly this fact could hold the key for the solution of the debate about whether absinthism was a clinical pattern of its own and how it should be distinguished from chronic alcoholism As mentioned previously due to the low solubility of etheric oils absinthe usually contains high concentrations of ethanol which means that there was no ingestion of thujone without ingestion of remarkably high quantities of ethanol

Recently in an editorial Strang et al raised the question of absinthe whats your poison [56] To us however the question is really what happened to the symptoms of absinthism after its prohibition Did this mysterious syndrome disappear abruptly or did these symptoms simply continue to exist among chronic alcohol abusers under the name of alcoholism which seems to be more tolerated by society Finally as with so many facets of the green fairy this issue remains controversial and perhaps will never be solved

Other SectionsModern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujoneIn the 20th century as a consequence of the description of the bicyclic monoterpene thujone as the main

component of wormwood oil the main focus of scientific studies was changed from the research of wormwood extract to isolated thujone It must be stressed however that besides the β-thujone chemotype of the wormwood plant further chemotypes were described which contain cis-chrysanthenylacetat cis-chrysanthenol cis-expoxyocimene sabinylacetate or bornylacetate as principal component [57-63] In the west alpine area above 1000 m the cis-epoxyocimen type is predominat while the β-thujone type rather exists in the lower zones [60] In wormwood oil from the Tuscany [64] or the Pyrenees [58] neither α- nor β-thujone could be detected These significant differences in composition of wormwood may also be attributable for the previously described failure of some researchers to replicate the animal experiments of Magnan

The acute and chronic toxicology of thujone were reviewed in the WHO Food Additives Series 16 [65] and more recently by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission [66] The principal data are

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

summarized in Table 3 The toxicological evaluations led to the establishment of maximum limits for thujone (35 mgl in bitters) by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO [67] which were adopted by many countries including the European Union [8] and Switzerland [68] but not the USA where manufacture and importation of absinthe is still prohibited [6970] It was noted however that in the USA consumption and possession remained legal so that travelers returning to the USA with a bottle or customers buying it from Europe on the internet are not guilty of any crime though they could have their bottle confiscated [71]

Table 3Summary of data about toxicology of thujoneToxicity data Referenceoral LD50 in rats 192 mgkg bw[66]oral LD50 in rats 500 mgkg bw[107]iv LD50 in rabbits 0031 mgkg bw [107]NOEL for convulsions in rats 125 mgkg bw (males) [108]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw (females) 10 mgkg bw (males) [66]NOEL for convulsions in rats 5 mgkg bw [66]TDI (based on NOEL with safety factor of 500) 10 μgkg bwd[66]Metabolism 2-4- and 7-hydroxylation [7576]Mechanism of toxicity GABA Type A modulation (α-thujone neurotoxicity convulsant effects)

[727476]Mechanism of toxicity Porphyrogenicity (determined in cultures of chick embryo liver cells) [46]Behavioral effects 5-HT3 receptor modulation but no conclusive evidence for psychotropic actions of

thujone [77]

FromSubst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2006 1 14 Published online 2006 May 10 doi 1011861747-597X-1-14Copyright copy 2006 Padosch et al licensee BioMed Central LtdUntil today only little valid data are available concerning the effect of α-β-thujone especially in regard to

the influence on the central nervous system after absinthe consumption In comparison to β-thujone α-thujone is believed to be 23 fold more toxic [72] A recent study of Dettling et al showed that the administration of alcohol containing a high concentration of thujone (100 mgl) had a negative effect on attention performance [73] When the subjects were under the influence of alcohol or were administered both alcohol and low thujone concentrations (10 mgl) these effects were not observed Similarly it was found that only high concentrations of thujone could temporarily counteract the anxiolytic effect of alcohol

The interaction of α-thujone with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) dependent chloride channels can explain its convulsant effects [7274-76] It was determined that α-thujone acts like many naturally occurring and synthetic convulsive agents (eg picrotoxin) by blocking GABA mediated inhibition The effect on the brain is excitatory (analeptic) Anxiogenic and possibly alerting effects of GABA antagonists were also noted However Olsen commented that in absinthe one is balancing the effect of thujone with the intoxicating disinhibitory and depressant effects of ethanol [74]

Deiml et al were not addressing the toxicity but instead were researching the 5-HT3 receptor as a potential site of psychotropic actions of α-thujone In homomeric receptors α-thujone enhanced the inherent channel-blocking potency of the natural ligand 5-HT In heteromeric receptors α-thujone recruited an additional channel-blocking component of the agonist The authors could therefore prove a reduction of the 5-HT3 receptor activity but it stayed open if this inhibitory action on serotonergic responses contributes to behavioral effects of thujone [77]

Interestingly the activation of human bitter taste receptors by α-thujone was recently proven by Behrens et al and it was found that the receptor is sufficiently sensitive to serve as protection against the ingestion of toxic amounts of this substance [78] However it is questionable if these findings can be transferred to the ingestion of thujone in alcoholic beverages Possible receptor interactions between thujone and ethanol as well as differences between sober and inebriated persons must be taken into account

The sometimes observed porphyrinogenic effect of thujone and other terpenoids is explained with the pathway of metabolization by the hepatic cytochrome P-450 system [467679] Under the presumption of relatively high thujone concentrations of 260 mgl Bonkovsky et al speculated that if there is an appreciable hepatic first-pass extraction and if the rate of hepatic metabolism is not unusually rapid the concentrations in the livers of absinthe drinkers could have been in the 20ndash200 μM range Such concentrations would be sufficient to

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

produce porphyric crises in patients with underlying defects in hepatic heme synthesis An additional effect of ethanol perhaps acting synergistically was also anticipated since ethanol and other short-chain alcohols found in alcoholic beverages are porphyrogenic [46]

Intoxication due to wormwood or thujone rarely occurs either due to a misconceived belief in folk remedies or simple ignorance [80] In 1862 Smith described a case of ingestion of about 14 ml of oil of wormwood by a male adult The patient was insensible convulsed the jaw clenched and foaming at the mouth tendency to vomit was also present [81] To our knowledge there is only one recent clinical case report by Weisbord et al from the US dealing with obvious acute thujone intoxication [82] A 31-year-old male had ingested herbal oil which he had assumed to be the spirit absinthe and had purchased over the internet from a website that sold essential oils for aromatherapy Several hours later the patient became listless suffered tonic-clonic seizures and finally developed rhabdomyolysis and then acute renal failure It is tempting to speculate that these symptoms were caused by thujone however other ingredients of the herbal oil cannot be excluded as the culprit

Very few data published only in non peer-reviewed literature exist about the pharmacology of thujone Max pointed out that the typical 2ndash4 mg of thujone which were consumed per drink were far below the level at which acute pharmacological effects are observed [83] This is confirmed by Hinkelbein who states that by the consumption of absinthe up to a blood alcohol concentration of 25 gl approximately 35 mg of thujone are ingested (0005 mgkg bodyweight) [84] In this order of magnitude it is highly improbable that central effects can be caused by thujone

A pilot drinking study by Kroumlner et al resulted in high blood alcohol concentration but as expected no thujone was detected [85] The probands examined did not show any central effect caused by the terpenoids besides the effect of the alcohol Therefore the adverse potency of absinthe can be neglected if the EU limit is obeyed

The German federal institute for risk assessment holds the view that even if the legal limit of 35 mgl is significantly exceeded the consumer does not ingest health-threatening amounts of thujone Because of the high alcoholic strength it is advised against a continuous and excessive consumption [86]

Other SectionsToxicological rehabilitation of absintheUntil recently the thujone content of pre-ban absinthe was largely unknown and was calculated in 1992 by

Arnold [20] to be as high as 260 mgl (a value very often cited in the newer literature eg Refs [101646568788]) The value of 260 mgl was determined on the basis that 100 l of absinthe employed 25 kg of dried Artemisia absinthium (15 oil of which 67 is thujone corresponding to 251 mgl of thujone in the final product) and 1 kg of dried Artemisia pontica for coloration (034 oil of which 25 is thujone corresponding to 9 mgl of thujone in the final product) [20] Max independently calculated a similar concentration [83] These calculations assumed that the total amount of thujone would be recovered in the final product The following three points were given by Arnold to support his calculation of relatively high concentrations First by adding water to the first decoction before heating a type of steam-distillation was achieved wherein the amount of any constituent distilled over depends on both its vapor pressure and molecular weight In this way the effect of a low vapor pressure for a particular compound may be counteracted to some extent by its high molecular weight relative to that of water Second the distillation head of the industrial apparatus was simple and little attempt was made to restrict carry-over by aerosol entrainment And third the purpose of the secondary extraction at moderate temperature was twofold to achieve a green coloration and to add additional flavor [20]

However it cannot be totally disregarded that during distillation a discrimination of thujone occurs Historic recipe books prescribed the removal of the heads and tailings [26-28] Duplais for example indicates that after maceration in 16 l of alcohol (85vol) and addition of 15 l of water only 15 l of product are withdrawn 1 l of alcohol is discarded in the process [30] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Turner described first experiments conducted by T Breaux on a French distillery built in 1834 After distillation in a historic still built for absinthe the thujone originally present in the macerate was not recovered in the distillate [71] The thujone content of absinthe can then only be caused by the second coloration step which would lead to a concentration of 9 mgl according to Arnolds calculation

Baker reports another calculation that resulted in thujone concentrations of 60ndash90 mgl [10] Wilson [89] estimated in 1936 that absinthe made from essences contained 18 to 45 mgl and absinthe made with wormwood contained 2 to 34 mgl of thujone

Hutton pointed out that the thujone content of pre-ban absinthes could have been overestimated because of the insufficient analytical methods that were available at the time [88] Historically applied methods for the

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

determination of levels of thujone in absinthe were based upon iodometric titration [90] or color reactions [91] these sometimes provided only detection limits as high as 20 mgl and were therefore unfit for the detection of small quantities At the beginning of the 19th century the most modern methods were based upon the reaction of thujone with sodium nitroprusside sodium hydroxide and acetic acid and provided a limit of detection of 5 mgl [92] However this color reaction was highly unspecific and therefore other essential oils aldehydes and ketones led to a similar reaction to thujone Even by improved sample preparation it was not possible to avoid these interferences A positive reaction in the case of thujone analysis could not automatically be interpreted in such a way as to prove that the spirit in question was made with wormwood However a negative result was regarded as proof of the absence of wormwood oil [93]

The sensitive and selective determination of thujone in spirits was only possible by using modern chromatographic methods The first gas chromatographic method with a flame ionization detector for the determination of thujone in alcoholic beverages was developed by Meacuterat et al in 1976 [94] In a recent study of our working group [95] absinthes produced according to historic recipes did only contain relatively low concentrations of thujone (mean 13 plusmn 16 mgl range 0ndash43 mgl) which is 50ndash100 times below the NOEL (No observed effects level) of thujone for convulsions determined in animal experiments A vintage absinthe from Tarragona (1930) showed a relatively low thujone concentration of 13 mgl Swiss Val-de-Travers absinthes from traditional small distilleries contained 94 and 17 mgl of thujone Krumm et al verified our results by their production of absinthes after authentic French recipes All manufactured products had thujone concentrations below 15 mgl [96] Hutton found 6 mgl of thujone in a Pernod absinthe from 1900 [88] In a non peer-reviewed magazine article Ashcraft reports tests on pre-ban absinthes conducted by T Breaux who found thujone amounts around 5 mgl [97] Schaefer et al found such low thujone concentrations (lt001 mgl) in a legal French absinthe dating from 1904 that the authors even proposed the toxicological rehabilitation of absinthe [98] In a current study of the neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe by Luauteacute et al it was concluded that recent toxicological studies do not prove any more than in Magnans time that the beverage itself was epileptogenic [99] The toxicity of pre-ban absinthes as that of modern ones was found to be essentially due to their alcohol content

The theory of a gross overestimation of the thujone content was therefore verified by six independent studies [8895-99] The discrepancy between the experimental findings of pre-ban absinthes (low thujone concentrations) and the calculations of Arnold and Max (high thujone concentrations) [2083] could not be resolved so far Further research is needed to study the behavior of thujone during distillation Considerable differences to the composition of the distillate may result between batchwise distillation of diluted alcohol and fractional distillation of an undiluted macerate

Currently no experimental evidence does suggest that historic absinthes had such high thujone contents to cause toxic effects On the contrary the analyzed historic products appear to have complied with todays maximum limits derived to exclude toxic or other unwanted effects The feared return of absinthism proclaimed eg by Hein et al [100] Holstege et al [44] or Muumlller [101] is therefore exaggerated The effects of the recent types of absinthe are predominantly caused by the naturally high alcoholic strength (gt50vol) although it is possible to reach effective thujone blood levels if illegally produced and distributed absinthe is ingested

Other SectionsPresent impact of absinthe due to change of policy in the European UnionThe policy change in the European Union was primarily based on the fact that absinthe was never

prohibited in some European countries including United Kingdom and Spain Under regard of the toxicological studies given above the prohibition in other European countries was seen as a trade barrier so that a harmonization of the European law was enacted [8] Even if a renewal of absinthism can be ruled out the recent re-emergence of absinthe led to some new problems

In a recent study it was noted that thujone concentrations of more than 10 mgl were found in 22 of commercial samples [102] Some of todays commercial samples appear to have higher thujone concentrations than pre-ban absinthes This may be due to the questionable tendency of some absinthe manufacturers and suppliers to advertise the thujone content and supposed psychoactive or aphrodisiac properties of their products on their websites The ancient theories of Magnan et al are used as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the sphere of a legal drug-of-abuse

Baker alluded some of the anecdotal reports on the power of absinthe which are detailed in a number of internet forums to a mere placebo effect especially since the brand in question contained virtually no wormwood at all [10] A placebo effect is also a possible interpretation for the vaunted aphrodisiac powers of absinthe that were advertised in a 1971 Playboy feature on absinthe by Zolotow [103] We found no scientific evidence supporting the conclusion from the article that absinthe is one of the best and safest aphrodisiacs ever

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

invented by the mind of man However the aphrodisiac effects are nowadays even promised on some absinthe bottle labels

In addition slogans such as contains the maximum allowed thujone concentration of 35 mgl should be critically judged by the appropriate authorities Some so-called absinthe essences (with high thujone contents of 750 mgl) are even sold on the internet as a possible means for customers to regulate the thujone content themselves so that it is no problem anymore to step behind the 35-mg border Absinthe is also often misleadingly advertised as having a cannabis-like effect This is based on a hypothesis ndash again ndash from Magnan that absinthe acts in the same way as hashish [43] The hypothesis was renewed in 1975 by relatively far-fetched findings stating that because of structural similarities between thujone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) both substances might activate the same receptor in the central nervous system [104] this could not be proven in later experiments by Meschler and Howlett [87] The THC-absinthe connection may serve as an archetype of how conjectural scientific evidence can enter our modern culture A search on Google for absinthe and THC produces approximately 36400 hits mostly of shopping sites which advertise absinthe for psychoactive effects In one case the declaration cannabis-like effect was even found on a bottle label

In closing it should not remain unmentioned that some high-quality distilleries have re-created absinthes according to pre-ban recipes [97] Hopefully after the recent de-restriction of absinthe in Switzerland absinthes country of origin further high-grade products may show up on the market Switzerland also proposed to introduce protected geographic denominations of origin and protected geographic indications on the labeling of absinthe as well as the ban of artificial food dyes

Other SectionsConclusionFrom this critical review of the literature it is concluded that chronic abuse of absinthe did not cause any

distinct syndrome The so-called absinthism cannot exactly be distinguished from chronic alcoholism The literature gives proof that the thujone concentrations of pre-ban absinthes were not able to cause such toxic effects (eg seizures) that were found in animal experiments with pure wormwood extracts However much of the literature is focused on thujone as the potentially toxic component of absinthe The possibility remains that other constitutents found within wormwood or other ingredients of absinthe may cause potential health problems The paucity of good scientific studies about absinthe especially in the realm of chronic human consumption and long term effects of thujone-containing beverages must again be pointed out

Based on the current available evidence commercially manufactured absinthe appears to not cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism The exceptionally high alcoholic strength of absinthe (gt50vol) alone may lead to major health and social problems but is not unique to this spirit However misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthes former reputation A health risk to consumers is also the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet

On absinthe Marie Corelli once said Let me be mad mad with the madness of absinthe the wildest most luxurious madness in the world [105] After having been banned from most European countries for almost a century the emerald green mysterious drink has returned to the market resuming all the myths and legends of former years After the green fairy had inspired the artistic and literary set of the belle eacutepoque and at the same time supposedly poisoned numerous people the impact that absinthe will exert on modern society remains unclear

Competing interestsThe author(s) declare that they have no competing interestsAuthors contributionsSAP and LUK were responsible for the original concept and design of the article and drafted the sections

The rise and fall of wormwood spirits and Nineteenth century studies about absinthism DWL contributed the sections Definition of pre-ban absinthe Pre-ban absinthe ndash a target for food adulteration Modern absinthe Modern studies about pharmacology and toxicology of thujone Toxicological Rehabilitation of Absinthe Present Impact and revised the final draft All authors read and approved the final manuscript

Other SectionsReferencesHemphill RE The illness of Vincent Van Gogh Proc R Soc Med 1961541083ndash1088 [PMC free article]

[PubMed]Blumer D The illness of Vincent van Gogh Am J Psychiatry 2002159519ndash526 doi

101176appiajp1594519 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh and the thujone connection JAMA 19882603042ndash3044 doi 101001jama260203042 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lee TC Van Goghs vision Digitalis intoxication JAMA 1981245727ndash9 doi 101001jama2457727 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Arnold WN Loftus LS Xanthopsia and van Goghs yellow palette Eye 19915503ndash510 [PubMed]Loftus LS Arnold WN Vincent van Goghs illness acute intermittent porphyria BMJ 19913031589ndash91

[PMC free article] [PubMed]Arnold WN The Illness of Vincent van Gogh J Hist Neurosci 20041322ndash43 doi

10108009647040490885475 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Council Directive (EEC) No 88388 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to

flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to source materials for their production Off J Europ Comm 1988L18461ndash66

The Papyrus Ebers The greatest Egyptian medical document translated by B Ebell Copenhagen Levin amp Munksgaard 1937

Baker P The book of absinthe a cultural history New York USA Grove Press 2001 Bostock J and Riley HT editor The natural history London UK Taylor and Francis 1855 Pliny the

Elder Book XXVII Chap 28 Absinthium or wormwoodSmith G A compleat body of distilling explaining the mysteries of that science in a most easy and

familiar manner London Henry Lintot 1731 pp 136ndash138Lanier D Absinthe-the cocaine of the nineteenth century a history of the hallucinogenic drug and its effect

on artists and writers in Europe and the United States Jefferson North Carolina USA McFarland 1995 Paris JA Pharmacologia 4th American Edition New York W E Dean 1831 p 79The conquest of absinthe - French national curse suppressed The Times Issue 40819 1915Apr 037Adams J Hideous Absinthe A history of the devil in a bottle Madison USA The University of Wisconsin

Press 2004 Lachenmeier DW Frank W Athanasakis C Padosch SA Madea B Rothschild MA Kroumlner LU Absinthe

a spirit drink - its history and future from a toxicological-analytical and food regulatory point of view Deut Lebensm-Rundsch 2004100117ndash129

Prestwich PE Temperance in France the curious case of absinth Hist Reflect 19796301ndash319 [PubMed]Arnold WN Absinthe Sci Am 1989260112ndash117 [PubMed]Arnold WN Vincent van Gogh chemicals crises and creativity Boston Birkhaumluser 1992 Conrad B Absinthe History in a bottle San Francisco CA Chronicle Books 1988 Marrus MR Social drinking in the belle epoque J Soc Hist 19747115ndash141Hood WP Absinthe and its artifacts Magazine Antiques 2005167134ndash143Bundesversammlung Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm

191048677ndash678Schweizer Bundesrat Vollziehungsgesetz zum Bundesgesetz betreffend das Absinthverbot Schweiz

Wochschr Chem Pharm 191048678ndash679Brannt WT A practical treatise on the raw materials and the distillation and rectification of alcohol and

the preparation of alcoholic liquors liqueurs cordials and bitters Philadelphia USA Henry Capey Bairs amp Co 1885

Fritsch J Nouveau traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs dapreacutes les proceacutedeacutes les plus reacutecents Paris France G Masson 1891

de Brevans J La fabrication des liqueurs Paris France J-B Baillieacutere et fils 1908 Stroumlhmer G Rohstoffe und Halbfabrikate zur Herstellung von Likoumlren In Kolb E editor Spirituosen-

Technologie Hamburg Germany Behrs Verlag 2002 pp 161ndash343Duplais P Traiteacute de la fabrication des liqueurs et de la distillation des alcools Paris France Gauthier-

Villars 1882 Bedel A Traiteacute complet de la fabrication des liqueurs Paris France Garnier Fregraveres 1899 Goettler H Lexikon der Spirituosen- und alkoholfreien Getraumlnke-Industrie 4th Berlin Germany Carl

Knoppke Gruumlner Verlag 1958 Lancet Medical Annotations Absinthism Lancet 187310122 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)63210-6

[Cross Ref]Emerson ER Beverages Past and Present - A historical sketch of their production together with a study of

the customs connected with their use Volume II New York and London G P Putnams Sons 1908 pp 176ndash177Tibbles W Foods - their origin composition and manufacture London Balliegravere Tindall and Cox 1912

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Vogt DD Montagne M Absinthe behind the emerald mask Int J Addict 1982171015ndash1029 [PubMed]Walker EE The effects of absinthe Med Rec 1906Oct 13568ndash572Amory R Experiments and observations on absinth and absinthism Boston Med Surg J 1868 pp 68-71ndash

83-85Lamy L Eacutetude de statistique clinique de 134 cas de cancer de lœsophage et du cardia Archives des

maladies de lappareil digestif et des malnutrition 19104451ndash456Corning JL The efficacy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) in certain conditions of the cerebrospinal

axis Med Rec 1890Jan 2588ndash89Dowbiggin I Back to the future Valentin Magnan French psychiatry and the classification of mental

diseases 1885-1925 Soc Hist Med 19969383ndash408 doi 101093shm93383 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Accidents deacutetermineacutes par labus de la liqueur dabsinthe Lunion meacutedicale 186492amp94227-

232ndash257-262Magnan V On the comparative action of alcohol and absinthe Lancet 1874104410ndash412 doi

101016S0140-6736(02)42231-3 [Cross Ref]Holstege CP Baylor MR Rusyniak DE Absinthe return of the Green Fairy Semin Neurol 20022289ndash

93 doi 101055s-2002-33051 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Magnan V Fillassier A Problems in Eugenics Papers communicated to the First International Eugenics

Conference held at the University of London July 24th to 30th 1912 AdelphiWC The Eugenics Education Society 1912 Alcoholism and Degeneracy Statistics of the Central Service for the Admission of Insane Persons for the town of Paris and for the Department of the Seine from 1867-1912

Bonkovsky HL Cable EE Cable JW Donohue SE White EC Greene YJ Lambrecht RW Srivastava KK Arnold WN Porphyrogenic properties of the terpenes camphor pinene and thujone (with a note on historic implications for absinthe and the illness of Vincent van Gogh) Biochem Pharmacol 1992432359ndash2368 doi 1010160006-2952(92)90314-9 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Lancet Absinthe and alcohol Lancet 186993334Baker KD Vivisection debate in nineteenth century Great Britain a muted echo in colonial and early post-

colonial Australia Aust Vet J 199876683ndash689 [PubMed]Boyce R A Contribution to the study of descending degenarations in the brain and spinal cord and of the

seat of origin and paths of conduction of the fits in absinthe epilepsy Phil Transact Royal Soc 1895 pp 321ndash382

Ott I The seat of absinthic epilepsy J Nerv Ment Dis 189219696ndash698Ossipow WP Uumlber die Dosierung der Absinthessenz (essence dabsinthe cultiveacutee) beim Hervorrufen von

Anfaumlllen experimenteller Epilepsie bei Hunden Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 191485516ndash525Cunningham RH The restoration of coordinated volitional movement after nerve crossing Am J

Physiol 18981239ndash254Lesieur C Nouvelles Recherches sur la toxiciteacute expeacuterimentale des essences usuelles Archives de meacutedecine

expeacuterimentale et danatomie pathologique 190718803ndash817Magnan The degenerate American Journal of insanity 189552193ndash198JAMA The indiscriminate use of alcohol JAMA 1900351632ndash1633Strang J Arnold WN Peters T Absinthe whats your poison Br Med J 19993191590ndash1592 [PMC free

article] [PubMed]Carnat AP Madesclaire M Chavignon O Lamaison JL cis-Chrysanthenol a main component in essential

oil of Artemisia absinthium L growing in Auvergne (Massif Central) France J Essent Oil Res 19924487ndash490Arintildeo A Arberas I Renobales G Arriaga S Dominguez JB Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

the Spanish Pyrenees J Essent Oil Res 199911182ndash184Mucciarelli M Caramiello R Maffei M Essential Oils from some Artemisia species growing

spontaneously in North-West Italy Flavour Fragr J 19951025ndash32Chialva F Liddle PAP Doglia G Chemotaxonomy of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L) I

Composition of the essential oil of several chemotypes Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1983176363ndash366Vostrowsky O Brosche T Ihm H Zintl R Knobloch K Uumlber die Komponenten des aumltherischen Oumlls aus

Artemisia absinthium L Z Naturforsch 198136c369ndash377Pino JA Rosado A Fuentes V Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L from

Cuba J Essent Oil Res 1997987ndash89Sacco T Chialva F Chemical characteristics of the oil from Artemisia absinthium collected in Patagony

(Argentina) Planta Med 19885493 [PubMed]

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Nin S Arfaioli P Bosetto M Quantitative determination of some essential oil components of selected Artemisia absinthium plants J Essent Oil Res 19957271ndash277

WHO Thujone Toxicological Evaluation of certain food additives WHO food additives series 16 1981 Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food

on Thujone httpeuropaeuintcommfoodfsscscfindex_enhtml 2003 Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAOWHO Report of the 13th session of the codex committee on

food additives Alinorm 7912-A 1979 EDI Verordnung des EDI uumlber Fremd- und Inhaltsstoffe in Lebensmitteln SR 200281702123FDA Code of Federal Regulations - 21CFR172510 wwwgpoaccessgovcfr 2005 USCustoms and Border Protection Prohibited and Restricted Items

wwwcbpgovxpcgovtravelvacationkbygprohibited_restrictedxml 2006 Turner J Green Gold The return of absinthe The New Yorker 2006March 1338ndash44Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Ikeda T Narahashi T Casida JE α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe) γ-

aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000973826ndash3831 doi 101073pnas070042397 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Dettling A Grass H Schuff A Skopp G Strohbeck-Kuehner P Haffner HT Absinthe attention performance and mood under the influence of thujone J Stud Alcohol 200465573ndash581 [PubMed]

Olsen RW Absinthe and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000974417ndash4418 doi 101073pnas9794417 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Sirisoma NS Houmlld KM Casida JE α- and β-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives) synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites J Agric Food Chem 2001491915ndash1921 doi 101021jf001445+ [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Houmlld KM Sirisoma NS Casida JE Detoxification of α- and β-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe) site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo Chem Res Toxicol 200114589ndash595 doi 101021tx000242c [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Deiml T Haseneder R Zieglgaumlnsberger W Rammes G Eisensamer B Rupprecht R Hapfelmeier G α-thujone reduces 5-HT3 receptor activity by an effect on the agonist-reduced desensitization Neuropharmacology 200446192ndash201 doi 101016jneuropharm200309022 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Behrens M Brockhoff A Kuhn C Bufe B Winnig M Meyerhof W The human taste receptor hTAS2R14 responds to a variety of different bitter compounds Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004319479ndash485 doi 101016jbbrc200405019 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

He X de Montellano PRO Radical rebound mechanism in cytochrome P-450-catalyzed hydroxylation of the multifaceted radical clocks alpha- and beta-thujone J Biol Chem 200427939479ndash39484 doi 101074jbcM406838200 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

De Smet PA Health risks of herbal remedies an update Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004761ndash17 doi 101016jclpt200403005 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Smith W A case of poisoning by oil of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Lancet 186280619 doi 101016S0140-6736(02)61123-7 [Cross Ref]

Weisbord SD Soule JB Kimmel PL Poison on line - acute renal failure caused by oil of wormwood purchased through the Internet N Engl J Med 1997337825ndash827 doi 101056NEJM199709183371205 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Max B This and that cheap drinks and expensive drugs TiPS 19901156ndash60 [PubMed]Hinkelbein J Absinth - the renaissance of the green fairy Aktuel Ernaehr Med 200429138ndash141 doi

101055s-2003-814977 [Cross Ref]Kroumlner LU Lachenmeier DW Kaumlferstein H Rothschild M Madea B Padosch SA Investigations on the

medico-legal relevance of spirits containing thujone with special regard to toxicological-analytical aspects Blutalkohol 200542263ndash271

BfR Fashionable beverage absinth BfR advises consumers to exercise caution with this product Berlin Germany Federal Institute for Risk Assessment Press release 152003 2003

Meschler JP Howlett AC Thujone exhibits low affinity for cannabinoid receptors but fails to evoke cannabimimetic responses Pharmacol Biochem Behav 199962473ndash480 doi 101016S0091-3057(98)00195-6 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]

Hutton I Myth reality and absinthe Curr Drug Discov 2002962ndash64Wilson JB Determination of thujone in absinthe-type liqueurs J AOAC 193619120ndash124Ronnet L Analyse des absinthes du commerce Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes 19113477ndash479

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Balavoine P A propos de la thuyone dans les absinthes et ses imitations Mitt Geb Lebensm Hyg 195243195ndash196

Rocques MX Caracteacuterisation et dosage de lessence dabsinthe dans les liqueurs Annales de Chimie Analytique et Revue de Chimie Analytique Reacuteunies 190813227ndash232

Enz H Zum Nachweis des Thujons im Absinth Schweiz Wochschr Chem Pharm 191149337ndash340Meacuterat E Martin E Duret M Vogel J Extraction et dosage par chromatographie en phase gazeuse de β-

asarone et de α- et β-thuyone dans les apeacuteritifs Trav chim aliment hyg 197667521ndash526Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Kuballa T Sartor G Thujone-Cause of absinthism Forensic Sci Int

20061581ndash8 doi 101016jforsciint200504010 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Krumm B Koumllling R Senn T Thujongehalte von Wermut-Extrakten bei unterschiedlichen

Extraktionsbedingungen Lebensmittelchem 200660accepted in pressAshcraft B The mystery of the green menace Wired Magazine 20051311Schaefer I Bindler F Lugnier A Toxicological rehabilitation of absinthium liqueur Toxicol Lett 199474

Suppl 175 doi 1010160378-4274(94)90413-8 [Cross Ref]Luauteacute JP Saladini O Benyaya J Neuropsychiatric toxicity of absinthe History current data Ann Med

Psychol (Paris) 2005163497ndash501Hein J Lobbedey L Neumaumlrker KJ Absinth - Neue Mode alte Probleme Dt Aumlrztebl 200198A2716ndash

A2724Muumlller O Wermut - gefaumlhrliches Kraut in harmloser Verpackung Zahnaumlrztl Mitt 20029278Lachenmeier DW Emmert J Sartor G Authentification of absinthe - the bitter truth over a myth Deut

Lebensm-Rundsch 2005101100ndash104Zolotow M Absinthe Playboy 1971June169ndash174del Castillo J Anderson M Rubottom GM Marijuana absinthe and the central nervous system Nature

1975253365ndash366 doi 101038253365a0 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]Corelli M Wormwood-A drama of Paris London UK Richard Bentley and Son 1890 Thomeacute OW Flora von Deutschland Oumlsterreich und der Schweiz Gera Germany Koumlhler 1885 NTP Summary of data for chemical selection Alpha-Thujone 546-80-5 The National Toxicology Program

httpntpniehsnihgov 2005 Surber W Etude de toxiciteacute sous-chronique de la thujone sur rats Rapport final Genegraveve Institute Batelle

1962 Articles from Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy are provided here courtesy of BioMed Central

COVER STORYThe Appeal of The Green FairyThe infamous absinthe a wildly popular liqueur banned here for nearly a century makes a

comebackBy STEVE ECHEVERRIA JRPublished Thursday September 18 2008 at 100 am Last Modified Wednesday September 17 2008 at 220 pm The Green Fairy has landed in Southwest FloridaClick to enlarge Absinthe Buy photo E SKYLAR LITHERLAND Related LinksFamous made absinthe famous Famous made absinthe famous Spreading Green Fairy dust Absinthe makes a return | Video

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

After being banned for nearly a century the highly alcoholic licorice-flavored liqueur known as absinthe has made its way back to the United States finding a home in local bars and liquor stores

With a rich history dating back to the ancient Egyptians absinthe gained most of its fame and infamy with French artists and Bohemians mdash including painters Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet mdash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Falsely portrayed for decades as an addictive drug causing hallucinations the green-colored brew is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity

With the European Union reauthorizing the sale of absinthe in the 1990s the drink has found a new generation of admirers

And with the rediscovery we present a primer on absinthe explaining its history proper preparation and known effects and listing its most notable drinkers

The absinthe ritualA key to absinthersquos mystery and adoration comes from its simple and traditional preparationDuring the height of absinthersquos popularity French waiters would serve a dose of absinthe ice water in a

carafe and sugar separately leaving the drinker to prepare it in a glass specifically designed to indicate absinthe doses

And with increased popularity the absinthe fountain a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots became popular allowing more drinks to be prepared at once with patrons socializing while preparing their glass

Here are instructions for the traditional ldquoFrenchrdquo way to make the drink Pour 1 to 2 ounces of absinthe into a glass

Place a sugar cube on a specially designed slotted absinthe spoon then place the spoon on the rim of the glass

Drip or pour ice-cold water between 3 and 10 ounces over the sugar until the drink is dilutedThe drinkrsquos herbs and other components mainly anise fennel and star anise blossom out of the solution

clouding the drink and resulting in a milky opalescence called the ldquoloucherdquo Servemdash Source The Virtual Absinthe Museum

The exact origins of absinthe are a mysteryAnd although absinthersquos worldwide popularity arrived with the French Bohemians in the 1800s its rich

history dates back to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks who used the drinkrsquos main herb wormwood for remedies

1550 BC Ancient Egyptians use wormwood for medicine1100BC-146 BC Greeks use wormwood extracts and wine-soaked wormwood for remedies and drinks1792 French doctor Pierre Ordinaire patents a distilled absinthe all-purpose elixir while living in

Switzerland1797 Major Dubied acquires elixir formula from the Henriod sisters and with son-in-law Henry-Louis

Pernod opens the first absinthe distillery in Couvet1840s Absinthe is given to French troops to treat malaria Eventually they bring their taste home with

them and the drinkrsquos popularity grows1860s Absinthe is so popular in French bistros cafes and cabarets that 5 pm is called ldquothe green hourrdquo 1874 Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer opens The Absinthe Room in New Orleans1880s Mass production and a wine shortage make absinthe Francersquos drink of choice1905 The move toward banning absinthe begins with reports of Jean Lanfray murdering his family after

drinking absinthe A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland nets more than 82000 signatures Two years later the drink is banned

1910 The French drink 36 million liters of absinthe per year1912 The United States bans absinthe Three years later France bans it The drink is never banned in

England or Spain1988 Newer flexible European Union regulations result in the re-emergence of French absinthes2007 Absinthe is legal to produce and sell absinthe in every country where alcohol is legal And two

brands of absinthe Lucid and Kuumlbler are sold in the United Statesmdash Sources Various

The effects of absinthe

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Absinthersquos longest lasting myth contributed to its allure and vilificationFor nearly two centuries absinthe was believed to cause hallucinations During the late 19th century these

stories were embraced by Bohemian artists particularly Vincent Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Today itrsquos common knowledge that absinthe does not cause hallucinationsOne of the drinkrsquos chemicals thujone can produce muscle spasms in large doses but there is no evidence

it causes hallucinationsMany theorize that 19th century reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to

poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink to give it a more vivid green colorThe debate over whether absinthe produces enhanced effects on the mind have not been conclusive

however and enthusiasts continue to describe absinthersquos effects as ldquomind-openingrdquo and ldquoclear-headedrdquomdash Sources Absinthe History in a Bottle Biomed Central The Book of Absinthe Thujoneinfo

Absinthe onlineSince its revival in the 1990s absinthe has enjoyed a devoted following resulting in an explosion of Web

sites dedicated to all aspects of absinthiana the intricate spoons sophisticated glasses and numerous absinthe brands

Here are several online resourcesThe Virtual Absinthe Museum (oxygeneecom) An online museum of absinthe history art and antiques

La Fee Verte (feevertenet) Absinthe guide and forum filled with user reviews and absinthe-related articles

The Wormwood Society (wormwoodsocietyorg) A nonprofit organization focused on providing current historically and scientifically accurate information about absinthe

eAbsinthe (eabsinthecom) The first online absinthe retailer featuring more than 70 brandsAbsinthe in the United States

During the height of its popularity absinthe enjoyed the same reverence outside of France In places like Spain and the Czech Republic the drink was very popular

And although absinthe did not fully catch on in the United States it found a home along the Gulf Coast particularly New Orleans during the late 1800s

The Crescent Cityrsquos connection to the ldquoGreen Fairyrdquo centers around The Old Absinthe House on Bourbon Street

Originally called The Absinthe Room it was opened in 1874 by Catalan bartender Cayetano Ferrer who brought his love for the European concoction with him to America

The building frequented by the rich and famous including Franklin Roosevelt Frank Sinatra Mark Twain and Oscar Wilde still stands

mdash Source ExperienceNewOrleanscom

Famous absinthe drinkersFrom French Bohemian artists to American presidents to hip-hop artists absinthe has garnered many

admirers Herersquos a list of some of the more well-known devotees of the ldquoGreen FairyrdquoCharles Baudelaire mdash French poet and criticSamuel L ClemensMark Twain mdash American humorist and writerEmile Cohl mdash animation pioneerEdgar Degas mdash French artistMarshall ldquoEminemrdquo Mathers mdash American rapper record producer and actorPaul Gauguin mdash French post-impressionist painterErnest Hemingway mdash American novelist short-story writer and journalistAndrew Jackson mdash the seventh president of the United StatesAlfred Jarry mdash French writerTommy Lee mdash American rock drummerJack London mdash American authorEdouard Manet mdash French painterMarilyn Manson mdash American rock singerGuy de Maupassant mdash 19th century French writerOutKast mdash Grammy Award-winning American hip-hop duo

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

Pablo Picasso mdashSpanish painter and sculptorEdgar Allan Poe mdash American poet and short-story writerArthur Rimbaud mdash French poetTheodore Roosevelt mdash 26th president of the United StatesKevin Smith mdash American screenwriter film director and actorHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec mdash French illustratorVincent Van Gogh mdash Dutch post-Impressionist artistPaul Verlaine mdash French poetOscar Wilde mdash Irish playwright novelist and poethttpwwwheraldtribunecomarticle20080918ARTICLE8091702462406

FEATURESamptitle=The_Appeal_of__The_Green_Fairy_p=5amptc=pg

Famous brands of absinthe

King of Absinthe PlatinumA new king amongst the Absinthe ranks has just arrived The new King of Absinthe Platinum is now the

most exciting Absinthe around The same caliber of the traditional recipe the new King of Absinthe Platinum maintains its 70 alcohol (140 proof) potency while being distilled with fresh herbs including wormwood from the Czech Republic

What makes the new King of Absinthe Platinum more exciting then its older siblings By using historic methods for extracting the highest Thujone level possible the King of Absinthe Platinum now has a more potent herbal taste with 110mL of Thujone in each bottle

What has made it even better then its predecessors is that the King of Absinthe Platinum is all natural and contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste and its rich color entices you to enjoy the mysterious elixir that lies within

Absinthe has inspired artists like Pablo Picasso and Vincent Van Gogh it was drunk by the scandalous playwright Oscar Wilde the eccentric Toulouse-Lautrec the poets Charles Baudelaire and Edgar Allen Poe and the famous 20th century author Ernest Hemmingway

Absinthe is also the drink of choice for some of the best known artists and musicians today Marilyn Manson Eminem Johnny Depp and Leo DiCaprio have enjoyed Absinthe and its euphoric effects

Absinthe King Of Spirits GoldOriginally based on a Swiss recipe this Czech Absinthe has no artificial color or preservatives and contains

100mg of the psychoactive thujone adored by some of the worldrsquos most notorious artists and writers Van Gogh Picasso HemingwayhellipBob Dylan Marilyn Manson and Eminem are just a few who used and drew inspiration from this original Absinthe and its effects

Naturally green in color the lsquoKing of Spirits Goldrsquo is 70 alcohol (140 proof) and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood that distill inside and enhance the taste and thujone content All the ingredients are carefully selected to ensure its distinctive taste

The King of Spirits Gold is great for veteran Absinthe drinkers and the adventurous alike

Absinthe King of SpiritsFor the lightweight of the absinthe crowd with 70 alcohol by volume yet one tenth of the psychoactive

Thujone content this is the absinthe Picasso and Earnest Hemmingway acclaimedNatural green in color this product is all natural and is bottled with fresh herbs and wormwood to distill

inside and enhance the taste and Thujone content This product is great for a gift or to make a memorable impression at a party a must try for any creative writer or artist

Although this product is not allowed to be sold by businesses located inside the US and most of Europe Absinthe is legal to posess in the United States It is also legal for customers in these countries to buy from international companies (such as ours) and we currently ship worldwide Absinthe is legal to possess in the United States With each shipment we offer our standard guarantee that you will receive your order safely

07L per bottle

La VoieLa Voie is French meaning the way For the production of this product we pulled out all the stops and

selected the worlds leading absinthe distillery in France to produce a product unrivalled Not only does the taste exceed others in the market place it also has the Thujone levels needed for that absinthe effect which is sought after a feature no other French absinthe possesses This product is designed for the customer who still wants the psychoactive effects which make absinthe famous but in a way which tastes great and keeps you coming back

Staroplzenecky AbsintheA strong alcoholic liqueur made with herbal extracts the main herb being wormwood Emerald green in

color this drink has a very distinctive taste Manufactured according to the original French recipe with 70 alc vol and a production method that dates back centuries all the essential ingredients are carefully selected and processed to ensure the unique taste of Absinthe Expressive taste and its characteristic cloudy effect when water is added make this drink one of the best Absinthes on the market today Containing a potent 10 mgkg of thujone this genuine Czech label absinth exceeds the rest

Red AbsintheSpice up your Absinthe collection or experience with something a little different an eye-catching red

version our standard recipe It makes a unique addition to any collection at home in a bar or at a party Quite popular amongst the young and energetic looking for something new 60 alcohol 10mg thujone and flaming devil red Comes in three sizes

Cannabis VodkaTrendy original wild popular and quickly spreading worldwide this Czech specialty is conquering the

nightlife throughout city bars clubs and discos all around the planet Containing 40 of cereal alcohol spring water sugar and singularly bottled with a handful of Cannabis Sativa L seeds (better known as Beniko species) this peculiar liquor is undoubtedly becoming the most in vogue drink

Cannabis Vodka can be legally bought in all countries and we ship it worldwide to all regions with the exception of Australia

Absinthe 35Absinthe 35 is the newest addition to our Absinthe collection and bridges the gap between our King of

Spirits GOLD and other Absinthe brands This Czech Absinthe contains an excellent mixture of selected herbs 70 alcohol and 35 mg of thujone it also offers a distinct bitter herbal flavor Itrsquos an Absinthe without aniseed and contains no artificial flavor