wsq advanced certificate in early years identify how

Identify How Children Learn and Develop WSQ Advanced Certificate in Early Years

ECE0302 WSQ(ACEY)

Copyright © Asian International College Pte Ltd (Co Reg No: 199907030-H) Version 1.3

WSQ Advanced Certificate in Early Years

Identify How Children Learn and Develop

ECE0302

LEARNER GUIDE

Copyright © Asian International College Pte Ltd (Co Reg No: 199907030-H) Version 1. 3

Name of Training School:

Asian International College Pte Ltd

Module Title:

Identify How Children Learn and Develop ECC-DCH-2001-1

Student’s name:

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Subject Title : How Children Learn and Develop

Subject Code : ECE 0302

SS Code : ECC-DCH-2001-1

___________________________________________________________________

Introduction

Welcome to ‘Identify How Children Learn and Develop’ module. This module will provide

you with the competencies (knowledge and skills) to be aware of the principles and

practices in the early years and apply the philosophies in your early childhood teaching

profession.

Overview

The care and education in Early Years is an important sector today. Quality care and

education is vital in the growth and development of children aged 2 months to 3 years.

These infants, toddlers and nursery children have specific developmental needs that

must be met with developmentally and culturally appropriate experiences. It is also

essential to strengthen home-centre partnerships and foster community development

while enhancing one’s professional growth. This module focuses on principles and

practices involved in the early years development to provide an overview of

developmental perspectives on early years care, development and learning. It will also

impart philosophies and pedagogical approaches, policies and guidelines for working in

early years including curriculum framework for the learners to be effective and affective

practitioners.

The aim of the module is to assist learners to :

1. Apply development theories and a variety of practices to provide a holistic program.

2. Consider the learned factors in the provision of early years care and education.

3. Incorporate educational philosophies into goals and personal teaching techniques.


Assumed skills and knowledge

The assumed skills and knowledge for this unit are as follows. Learners are assumed to:

The assumed skills and knowledge for this unit are as follows. Learners are assumed to:

a) be able to apply verbal and nonverbal communication techniques suited

b) to working with a range of stakeholders

c) value the importance of collaboration

d) work as a team member

e) have leadership skills

f) have negotiation skills

g) be able to manage time in an efficient manner

h) know the principles and practices of working in the Early Childhood

Education sub sector

i) understand the importance of confidentiality / privacy of children and

their families

j) have an understanding of child development

k) know the general practices of occupational workplace safety and health

l) be able to listen and speak English at a proficiency level equivalent to

the Employability Skills System (ESS) Literacy Level 5

m) be able to read and write English at a proficiency level equivalent to

Employability Skills System (ESS) Literacy Level 5

n) be able to manipulate numbers at a proficiency level equivalent to

Employability Skills System (ESS) Numeracy Level 5

o) have basic languages / dialects relevant to the client target group have first aid

skills

p) have Information Communications Technology (ICT) skills


Relation to the PQAC/WSQ Framework

This module is tagged at Level 3 of the WSQ Competency and forms part of the following

qualification:

• Higher Certificate in Infant Care

• Advanced Certificate in Early Childhood Care and Education

Target Audience

This course aims to provide people already working or wishing to enter the Community

and Social Services environment with the skills and knowledge required to provide

positive guidance to individual children and implement classroom management

techniques effectively in a setting within the following sub sectors.

• Early Childhood Care and Education

• Student Care

The Competency Unit would be appropriate for people with job titles such as:

• Teacher

• Early Intervention Teacher

• Coordinator

• Supervisor

• Deputy Director


Topic 1: – Introduction to Education and Care Services for Children from Birth to Three

Content Coverage

• Provide an overview of developmental perspective in early childhood care and

development

• Reinforce key child developmental theories which facilitate understanding of

children from birth to 3 years in terms of their growth, development and learning

• Identify culturally and developmentally appropriate practices for care in group

setting, transitions and managing behaviours

Introduction to Education and Care Services for Children from Birth to Three

The early year’s education and care service focus on children from birth to three. The aim

of the early years care and development is to lay a strong foundation in the infant, toddler

and nursery ages in Singapore (EYDF, 2012).

Infants and toddlers are cared for in a variety of settings in Singapore.

1. Home-based Care :

Care arrangements for infants and toddlers are based in the home.

2. Centre-based Care :

Group care settings for infants and toddlers outside home

Activity 1.1: Individual Activity

When you were young…

• When you were young, who cared for you? Draw them.

• How did you feel then?


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• Now that you recall, would you still prefer to be cared by them? Why?

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Home-Based Care:

• Parental Care -

Children are being cared for by own parents

• Care by a Relative -

Care arrangement by a relative in child’s

home or in relative’s home.

• Care by a Nanny / Babysitter -

Paid care service by a nanny (usually

untrained and stay-home mums) in the

nanny’s home.

• Care by a Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) :

Stay-in foreign domestic helper who is being entrusted the child to at the comfort of

child’s residence.

• Family Day Care Services -

A more formalised version of the conventional nanny services. Children are cared

for in child’s home or the family day care provider’s home.


Activity 1.2: Small Group Discussion

Watch the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSRGi-

dvOQY

1. What are some benefits of Home-Based care?

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2. Why is it important to provide for quality care of children in a home-based

settings?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSRGi-dvOQY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSRGi-dvOQY


Centre-Based Care

Centre-based care are generally commercial child care or infant care centres that are

regulated and licensed by Early Childhood Development Agency (ECDA) according to

the standards stipulated in the ECDC Bill (2017). However, for centres that provide infant

care services, are required to follow a stipulated set of standards specially designed

according to the needs of children from birth to 18 months.

Centre-based care is a professional group

care services for children below the age of 7

years in an institutional environment. These

centres are required to offer a nurturing,

caring and safe environment for children, and

they are required to provide programmes that

meet the physical, cognitive and psychosocial

needs of children by embracing a

philosophical model of a need-based

programme.

In addition to providing working parents with

reliable care services, these child care

centres (CCCs) have programmes aimed at

educating and developing children through

effective early childhood education

programmes in a safe and conducive

environment.

Child care centres are required to observe the

following operating hours:

• Monday – Friday : no later than 7 am /

no earlier than 7.00 pm

• Saturday : no later than 7 am / no

earlier than 2.00 pm


Commonly used categories for grouping of children in early years care & education

are:

Young Infants – 1/2 to 5/6 months

Older Infants – 6/7 to 12/13 months

Young Toddlers – 13/14 to 18/19 months

Older Toddlers – 19/20 to 30 months

Nursery – 31 to 36 months

For information on our child care provisions for young children from birth to three, go to

ECDA website.


List 3 observations under each category that your centre adhered to

(e.g. your centre has stipulated operating hours operating hours,

Staff/child ratio etc)

✓ Rules and Regulations

✓ Programmes

✓ Practices

Why are these regulations important for the care and education of young

children’s development?

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The Primary Purpose of Infant – Toddler Care

Activity 1.4: Open Group Discussion

What are we trying to accomplish when caring for infants and toddlers in a

group?

Your thoughts for group discussion:

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Individual Reflection

Your take away from the group discussion:

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Learning Outcome:


Learners will be able to understand the rationale behind government’s efforts in

supporting national economy through the provision of child care services.

Centre-based group care at younger ages and for longer periods of time is becoming a

need for parents in Singapore. Meeting families’, society’s and child’s needs are the

primary purpose of Infant-Toddler Care.

Table 1: The Primary Purpose of Infant-Toddler Care

Meet Child's Needs

Healthy well-beingMore enriching learning

possibilities

Meet Society's Needs

Decrease in delinquency Improved economy

Meet Family's Needs

Financial stability Able to focus on work



In groups, discuss and present the following:

The provision of quality infant-care service is to:

1. To enhance financial stability: Explain the impact on families and the child

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2. Decrease in delinquency: List 2 areas and explain the impact for economy.

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3. Healthy well-being of child: List 2 areas and how these areas affect the learning

of the child.

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Is there a difference between home-based and centre-based care? Why

and why not?

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Reflection:

Review and reflect the content and issues discussed in today’s

session.

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Topic 2: – Philosophies and models of care and education for children from birth

to three

Content Coverage


development





Philosophies and models of care and education for children from birth to three

Activity 2.1 : To Ponder

• Children from birth to three are often seen as cute but helpless little human

being who require special attention.

• It is also viewed as these children only need safe and healthy environment with

tender loving care but intellectual activity is unnecessary as yet.

• On the other hand some feel children in early years must be stimulated by an

adult.

What is your view?

____________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________

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Why?

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Assumptions and Familiar Perceptions: Caring and educating children in the early

years

Where did your assumptions come from…. Check the views you have of children

from birth to three. Are these based on your values, culture and beliefs?

Assumptions and Familiar Perceptions:

Many early years programmes endorse a style of care basing on the images practitioners’

hold about children from birth to three. Here are some assumptions and belief:

• They need developmentally appropriate activities in order for them to grow

cognitively.

• They have their own innate motivation and interest in learning. Therefore

the children will use their natural interest and curiosity to lead to their own

discovery and mastery.

• They need to establish relationships (attachment) and value relationship-

based experiences form the foundation of good programme.


The challenge for Early Years practitioners is to determine how best to care and educate

these young children and what should be taught. The quality of the programme depends

on one’s sound philosophical foundations for their practices.

Activity 2.2: Group Activity

A small group of early childhood interns were discussing their infant and toddler

program philosophies in class.

“A few months ago I didn’t think about philosophy very much - but I am happy to tell

you that when a parent asked me about the philosophy of the center I was able to tell

her the important points and how my center’s philosophy was linked to our

pedagogical approach. My parent was happy and she realised the importance of a

center’s philosophy.”

Let’s Discuss:

• What happen?

• Why is the early childhood intern happy?

• Why do you think the parent is able to realise the importance of the centre’s

philosophy?

• Why is it important for us to know our centre’s philosophy?

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What is Philosophy?

It is a set of views and theories that guide our practices based upon the knowledge, in

this case on development in the early years and how to care and educate children from

birth to three years old. It is a kind of principles that guides pedagogical practices.


Examine your own beliefs and values

• What are needs and goals as a professional?

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• How do you support young children’s learning and development?

___________________________________________________________

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• How do you engage parents and the community?

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Activity 2.4 : Video Time

Let’s watch the following video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Hw0DbxOmJQ

“Effective Teacher-Child Interactions”

After viewing, discuss how do teachers’ interactions suggest their philosophy

in the classroom.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Hw0DbxOmJQ


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Pedagogical approaches and Common themes in pedagogy care and education

Pedagogical practice is teaching technique and centralizes itself on the teacher instead

of the learners. It is understanding the learners, but the teacher is responsible for making

sure things happen like they are supposed to. Pedagogical practice is constructed from

a theoretical perspective.

Pedagogical Approaches to Early Years Educare:

1. Reggio Emilia

This approach founded by Loris Malaguzzi, view child as a subject of rights and

as a competent, active learner, continuously building and testing theories about

herself / himself and the world around her/ him.

The factors are inherent in Reggio approach are:

• taking time to listen to and observe children

• valuing and respecting children,

• involving families and community

• valuing differences rather than perpetuating stigma, and

• being open as a teacher to learn along with the children as they investigate

real-life questions through projects

• Emphasis on beauty, art, discussing what is being done, and groups

cooperating on tasks and learning.



Watch the video on Reggio emergent curriculum:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNFYFSa0720

After the video viewing, discuss the following:

• What are the roles of the teacher in a emergent curriculum classroom?

• Name the ‘3rd teacher’ in a emergent curriculum classroom.

• How does this ‘3rd teacher’ affect young children’s learning?

2. Montessori

This approach is based from Rd. Maria Montessori actual observations of children

and her philosophy of education.

• each child lies a hidden potential

• freedom as the single most important factor in allowing children to develop as

spontaneous, creative individuals.

• stressed that children are full of love themselves and need to be loved in

order to grow.

• relationship is seen as the foundation for healthy development.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNFYFSa0720



Watch the video on The Montessori Method:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nb7QLOCW8hs

After watching the video, write down 3 take-away of the Montessori Method

seen in the video

Share with your peers.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nb7QLOCW8hs


3. Creative Curriculum

The Creative Curriculum is a comprehensive early childhood approach that focuses

on a practical, easy to understand approach to working with children. It promotes

the use of interest areas as a way of providing experiences that promote cognitive,

social, physical and language development

• emphasizes the importance of early learning in the context of relationships.

• learning challenges are presented to children every day for each learning

centres.


Watch the video on“The Creative Curriculum For Preschool”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e06NhVsvsJE

• Discuss how is the creative curriculum being implemented in the classroom?

• What is the role of the teacher in a creative curriculum as seen in this video?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e06NhVsvsJE


4. High/Scope

High/Scope was developed with the purpose of helping children from

disadvantaged areas to be successful in school and society. It is based on the

principle that children learn best through direct, hands-on experiences with people,

objects, events, and ideas.

• During this active learning process, infants and toddlers are encouraged to

discover the world around them by exploring and playing.

• Learning and development are anchored by long-term, trusting relationships

with caregivers who are close at hand to support children as they play.

• Adults scaffold further learning as they interact with children throughout the

day.

Activity 2.8: Video Time

Watch the video on High Scope Preschool Curriculum:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7YaobYTPgk

• Discuss what are the unique characteristics of High/Scope classrooms?

• Research and find out more before presenting

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7YaobYTPgk


5. Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC)

Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) is a commitment to care for infants and

toddlers that respects the differing cultures, lifestyles, preferences, abilities, learning

styles, and needs of the children and families served. The approach stress on

responsiveness to infants and toddlers and their families bring to care, and

emphasizes on relationship-based implementation strategies. The positions

advocated by PITC are based on sound child development and family research,

leading to the following working assumptions:

• Families as partners in care. Programs should seek out families’ beliefs,

values, practices, and child rearing strategies and include them in the

program’s caregiving practices whenever possible.

• Children are unique individuals with varying temperaments, rates of

development and interests. Their unique needs and differences should be

identified and strategies appropriate to be incorporated in child care practice.

• Young children are curious motivated learners and also dependent upon adults

for nurturance, support, and guidance. They need to be both respected as

learners, and protected in their vulnerability. Therefore, planning for a child’s

care in the program is a shared experience including families and program staff

and is individualized for children by:

o welcoming family and cultural practices, including home language, as a

part of the child care experience;

o providing infants close and responsive relationships with caregivers in

intimate settings;

o designing safe, interesting and developmentally appropriate

environments;

o giving infants uninterrupted time to explore;

o interacting with infants during caregiving routines and throughout the day

in ways that physically, emotionally, socially and intellectually support

their initiations in discovery and learning.


Activity 2.9: Small Group Activity

Discuss and share what can you see or infer from the photos with

reference to the relationship-based care.


6. Pikler Approach

This approach is developed by renowned Hungarian paediatrician Dr Emmi Pikler's

at the Loczy residential programme for infants and toddlers in Budapest, Hungary.

It is based on Dr Pikler's research into gross motor development and emphasizes

treating babies with respect. She noticed that healthy babies have an inner

developmental know-how and advised practitioners should trust and respected that.

She also felt strongly that caring adults don't need to entertain or "stimulate" your

infant.

The four principles of the curriculum are:

1. The value of self-initiated activity of children from their earliest age.

2. The value of building a trusting relationship with a consistent professional

caregiver whose attitudes is directed by respect for the child's personality

and understanding of his needs.

3. The value of sustaining each child in building self-awareness. This is done

through encouraging active participation in whatever is going on - alone or

in interaction - rather than simply perceiving the child as an object to be

cleaned and fed.

4. The value of fostering optimal health in the children, reciprocally influenced

by the first three points.

Activity 2.10: Small Group Activity

In groups, discuss:

• What are the roles of the caregiver?

• How do you think caregivers care for their children based on the

Principles of Pikler Approach?

• Cite some examples that you could see in your centre.


7. Resources For Infant Educarers (RIE)™

RIE™ approach is derived from the model that Emmi Pikler developed at the Loczy

residential programme for infants and toddlers in Budapest. It is founded by Magda

Gerber who believed that infants must be treated with respect in order to help

children grow up to be independent people with strong sense of self. It focuses on

respect; honour; and esteem.

Magda was the one who coined the words “Educarer” and “Educaring” to describe

RIE’s philosophy, “We should educate while we care and care while we educate.”

RIE’s ten principles of Caregiving:

1. Involve children in things that concern them.

2. Invest in quality time

3. Learn child’s unique ways of communicating and teach yours.

4. Invest time and energy to build a total person.

5. Respect children as individuals.

6. Be honest about your feelings.

7. Model the behaviour you want to teach.

8. Let children solve their own problems.

9. Build security by teaching trust.

10. Be concerned about the quality of development in each stage.


Activity 2.11: Individual Reflection

⬧ Use a word or two/ a phrase to describe in general the images of infants

and toddlers you have.

⬧ What can and cannot they do?

Note your responses down

1. Young Infant (Birth to 6/7 months) : ___________________________________

2. Older Infant ( 6/7 to 13/14 months): ___________________________________

3. Young Toddler (13/14 to 18/19 months) : _______________________________

4. Older Toddler (18/19 to 30 months): ___________________________________

5. Nursery Child (31 to 36 months): ______________________________________

• Based on these images, think about the approaches on how you would be caring

and educating these children?

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___________________________________________________________________

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Learning Outcomes:

Learners understand that their beliefs and knowledge about children so influence

how they care and educate them.


Activity 2.12

What do you know about RIE, PITC and Pikler Approach?

Are there any common themes? What are the common themes?

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Common Themes in Pedagogy of Care and Education:

Looking at the various pedagogical approaches, one can easily find a common theme

among them. Quality care is reflected as one of respect where young children

experience gentle and responsive interactions during all care times. The key elements

in the care are

1. Respect

and value

child’s

authenticity

and

individuality

2. Relationship

- based

3. Need-

based

(Child’s)

4. Value

movement &

exploration

5. Culturally

responsive


• Refer to back to Activity 2.11 in your LG.

• Share your philosophy and the approach that you will use.

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________________________________________________________________

• Describe the programme you will adopt.

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• Explain the link between your philosophy and the programme?

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Influences on Programme Development for Children from Birth to Three

1. Developmental theories and research

The core knowledge for developing an effective education and care programme is the

understanding of the theoretical explanations and the research studies on children

development and how children acquire concepts and skills.

2. The field movement in preschool/kindergarten education

Any notions that brought forth by Early Childhood Care & Education practitioners and

educators will also have an impact on the kind of programme offered by centres with

young children from birth to three.

3. Societal belief

With the increasing emphasis on academics and accountability, some of the active,

sensory experiences are being replaced by more passive experiences (e.g. rote learning,

adult-directed and product-oriented activities, etc.).

4. Environmental and health issues.

With the increasing concerns on the safety, hygiene and health, the promotion on

sensory exploration for young children are certainly affected.

5. Observation & Documentation

Observation and documentation of developmental progress of children is significant in

planning a culturally and developmentally appropriate programme. With this collected

information and data from the observation, the early years practitioners have a clearer


picture of the children’s current developmentally level, hence they may modify/adjust the

programme to match the children’s developmental needs and interests.

Activity 2.14: Small Group Discussion and Presentation

Read the programme statement below

“Our infant and toddler programme are planned to ensure that the physical, social,

emotional and intellectual needs of children are met. Our programme encompasses

developmental stages, characteristics, strengths and the needs of the individual child as

well as their families. It also includes a wide variety of stimulation such as sensorial

experiences, songs and rhymes, verbal interaction by means of toys, puppets and books.

Play in all experiences is used to enhance children’s growth and development. Our

programme is tailored for interaction between infants / toddlers and the caregiver during

routine care and rituals to foster the children learning and development. Safety and health

is observed throughout our infant and toddler programme.”


Note all the influencing factors that your group has identified

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Present and share your findings

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Topic 3: – Guidelines and Developmental Frameworks for Working with Children

Content Coverage


development





Guidelines and Developmental Frameworks for working with children

Centre-based care services in Singapore for children from 2 months to six years old

must be licensed and regulated. The two common care and education services are Child

and Infant care centres and kindergartens.

Childcare and / or Infant care centres are regulated and licensed by Early Childhood

Development Agency (ECDA). These centres must comply with the rules and

regulations stipulated in the Child Care Centre Acts (Chapter 37A).

Kindergartens are preschools that must be registered with Early Childhood Development

Agency (ECDA). Kindergartens were previously registered by Ministry of Education

(MOE) but have now come under the oversight of ECDA. Kindergartens must adhere to

all rules and regulations detailed in the MOE Education Act (1985 edition)

ECDA is an autonomous agency jointly overseen by the Ministry of Education (MOE) and

the Ministry of Social and Family Development (MSF), and is hosted under the Ministry

of Social and Family Development. (https://www.ecda.gov.sg/pages/aboutus.aspx)

ECDA serves as the regulatory and developmental authority for the early childhood sector

in Singapore, overseeing key aspects of children’s development below the age of 7,

across both kindergartens and child care centres. Then the MOE and MSF also

developed guidelines and frameworks to maintain quality and best practices amongst

https://www.ecda.gov.sg/pages/aboutus.aspx


service providers. The guidelines and frameworks provide standards and principles with

recommendations in the care and education of children from birth to six years. These

regulations and guidelines can be retrieved from MOE’s website at

https://www.moe.gov.sg/education/preschool/resources-for-pre-school-educators and

MSF’s child care link at http://www.childcarelink.gov.sg/ccls/home/CCLS_Home.jsp .

Early Years and Development Framework (EYDF) and MOE Framework for

Kindergarten in Singapore are very significant for practitioners.


• What are the fundamental requirements between a child care centre and a

kindergarten?

• Are there differences?

• Discuss and share.

The Early Years Development Framework (EYDF)

This Early Years Development Framework (EYDF) is developed by Ministry of Social

and Family Development, Child Care Division and it is a national framework to guide

child care centres in applying care and holistic development practices for children

from birth to three years.

EYDF is an excellent resource developed to help early years practitioners to:

• cultivate respectful and appropriate care

• be responsive practitioners with consideration to culture and development

• create nurturing environment.

The framework describes desired outcomes, key principles and practices for young

children's holistic development and learning. The Framework provides educarers with

broad guidelines to plan and deliver culturally and developmentally appropriate

https://www.moe.gov.sg/education/preschool/resources-for-pre-school-educators

http://www.childcarelink.gov.sg/ccls/home/CCLS_Home.jsp


experiences, strengthen home-centre partnerships, enhance professional development

and foster community networking.

The framework comprises the following:

Three aspects of quality:

The EYDF embraces the following vision for centre-based quality child care:

1. Children being secure, confident, safe and healthy.

2. Children being involved, engaged and enquiring.

3. Centre, families and the community connecting and relating.

The Five Key Pillars:

1. The Developing Child

2. The Intentional Programme

3. The Professional Educarer

4. The Involved Family

5. The Engaged Community

The Five Guiding Principles and Five Desired Outcomes:

The 5 principles are desired norms and values that guide the care and education of

very young children.

Guiding Principles of EYDF Desired Outcomes of EYDF

Guiding Principle 1:

Developing secure attachments and

confidence in children with nurturing

adults.

Desired Outcome 1:

Children are secure and

confident.


Generating culturally and

developmentally appropriate

opportunities for children’s holistic

development and learning in a safe

and healthy environment.

Desired Outcome 2:

Programmes are holistic and

provide optimal support and

experiences for growth,

development and learning in a

safe and healthy environment.



Committing to professional

standards and ethics in working

with children, families and

educarers’ own professional

development.

Desired Outcome 3:

Educarers are professional and

engage in reflective practices


Involving families as partners in the

care, development and education of

children.

Desired Outcome 4:

Educarers develop strong

partnership and relationships with

families.


Engaging the community as support

and resources for home and centre.

Desired Outcome 5:

Community provides a network of

resources and support for home

and centre.


The five outcomes are divided into 15 sub-outcomes:

1.1 Children

are secure

and

emotionally

connected.

1.2 Children

demonstrat

e

increasing

confidence

and

autonomy.

1.3 Staff–child

interactions

are

respectful,

responsive

and

reciprocal.

2.1 Educarers

use routine

care for

learning

and

developme

nt.

2.2 Educarers

foster a

disposition

for

learning.

2.3 Curriculum

offers

holistic

experience

s for

learning.

2.4 Educarers

provide

access to

a variety of

spaces

with

natural and

man-

3.1 Educarers

adhere to

professional

standards

and ethics.

3.2 Educarers

engage in

reflective

practices.

3.3 Educarers

are

committed

to

continuing

professional

developmen

t.

4.1 Families

and

educarers

engage in

regular

communicati

on and

feedback.

4.2 Families

are involved

in various

ways in the

centre.

5.1 Centres

have

updated

information

and access

to

community

resources.

5.2 Community

serves as a

resource to

enrich

children’s

learning and

provides

support for

families.


made

materials.

2.5 The

environme

nt is safe

and

healthy.

Suggested Practices:

The suggested practices in the EYDF provide detailed strategies for each principle,

so as to guide educarers to achieve the desired outcomes for young children.

The suggested practices accomplish the following:

1. Facilitate children’s growth, development and learning.

2. Create purposeful environments.

3. Foster quality partnerships.

4. Promote professional accountability.

A Framework for a Kindergarten Curriculum in Singapore (MOE)

This framework explains the principles and desired outcomes for Kindergarten

education, which caters to children in the immediate years before primary schooling.

The framework includes the principles for effective education, which forms the basis

life-long learning. It suggests the different types of learning experiences that are

considered necessary in helping children grow and develop and in a way that is best


suited to young children and ensure that firm foundation is built for the next stage of

learning.

This framework aims to guide parents and teachers to design a curriculum which will

foster in children the following dispositions and skills:

• Sound moral and social values

• Good habits of working and playing with others

• Positive self-concept and confidence

• A strong sense of curiosity about things and objects around them

• An ability to communicate effectively in English and a mother tongue language

• Physical control and manipulative skills

• Positive attitudes towards a healthy lifestyle

• Positive family values and strong community ties

Principles of the framework

The principles identified in the framework are drawn from best practices in early

childhood settings and based on findings from local and international research on

various pedagogical approaches. They are well-accepted tenets that undergird early

childhood education.

Principle 1:

A holistic approach to development

and learning.

Six critical areas of learning

experience have been identified for

this purpose:

1. aesthetics and creative

expression

2. environmental awareness

3. language and literacy

4. motor skills development

5. numeracy

6. self and social awareness

Principle 2:

Integrated learning

Young children learn from everything

that happens to them and do not


separate their learning into subjects.

Their learning experiences should

therefore be integrated as a whole

Principle 3: Children as active

learners

Learning is most effective when

children are actively involved and

engaged in carrying out tasks that

are meaningful to them. These

activities should be based on

children’s curiosity, needs and

interests. Ample opportunities should

be provided for children to learn from

observations, enquiry, exploration

and first-hand experiences. Adults

facilitating these learning

experiences should bear the

following points in mind:

- Allow for messiness: The

process of exploration,

experimentation and

creation of unique products

and artefacts is often a

messy affair and part of

active learning.

- Ensure that the

environment is safe for

children: Look out for such

hazards as slippery floor,

sharp objects, and make

sure that the children are

not exposed to naked

flames.


- Allow for mistakes: Children

should not be made to feel

afraid to try something new.

Even if they make mistakes

or encounter failure in doing

something, they should be

encouraged to try again,

and should be praised for

their effort.

Principle 4: Supporting learning

Adults should be interested

supporters in children’s learning.

They can guide children to the next

challenge or level of difficulty. They

are there to encourage and instil a

positive disposition to learning and

risk-taking without fear of failing.

Principle 5: Learning Through

Interactions

Participation in groups is central to

how individual learning is

constructed.

This principle has implications for:

- Children’s talk: Ample

opportunities must be given for all

children to talk about their

experiences, express their

thoughts and opinions, and

explain how they solve problems

that occur during play. Children

should be actively engaged and

involved in interactions and

dialogue.


- Adult talk: Adults act as role

models for the correct use of the

language and should be affirming

and supportive in encouraging

children to express their thoughts.

The best teachers listen to

children and have conversations

with them.

- Group dynamics: Children should

work in pairs and groups, and

have many opportunities to talk to

adults and their peers. Child-

centred lessons will feature

children asking questions or

extending ideas. Settings should

provide experiences and support

to enable children to develop a

positive sense of self.

- Language-rich environments:

Children also interact with

materials and the environment.

Much of incidental and life-long

learning comes from children’s

interactions with books and

environmental print. As such, a

variety of reading material should

be put within easy reach and

made accessible to them.

Principle 6: Learning Through

Play

Play is being promoted as a medium for

learning in this framework. Adults

should therefore value play as


children’s work, and guide and facilitate

play as a part of the learning process

Childcare centres use the same MOE framework for kindergarten curriculum and the

Singapore Pre-school Accreditation Framework (SPARK). SPARK is an accreditation

framework that examines 5 core values - Child Our Focus, Leadership with Vision,

Professionalism with Impact, Partnership for Growth and Innovation with Purpose.

Participation in SPARK is voluntary and an endorsement of the quality of Kindergartens

and on the nursery and kindergarten programmes in Child Care Centres (MSF, 2011).

Activity 3.1: Fill in the blanks

1. The two licencing authorities for early childhood care and education centre-based

services are ________________________________________________________

and_______________________________________________________________

2. The framework for working with children from birth to three years is

__________________________________________________________________

3. Developmental frameworks provides educarers with broad guideline to plan and

deliver ________________and __________________ appropriate experiences,

strengthen_______________ _________________ and enhance one professional

development including fostering ___________________ _________________.

4. The MOE framework for a kindergarten has ___________ principles which are

drawn from best practices and based on researches and various pedagogical

approaches.


5. Explain how the EYDF five guiding principles can help you in your caring and

educating for children in the early years.

Principle 1:

__________________________________________________________________

Principle 2:

__________________________________________________________________

Principle 3:

_________________________________________________________________

Principle 4:

__________________________________________________________________

Principle 5:

___________________________________________________________________


Topic 4: – Principles and Theories of Child Development

Content Coverage


development





Principles and Theories of Child Development

Principles and Theories

• A principle is an established relationship between two or more factors.

• A theory is a set of interrelated concepts, or integrated statements of principles, which

are used to make predictions or explain phenomenon.

What is child development?

Childhood is a process every human goes through. It is a unique and distinct period of

development. This process involves learning and mastering skills like sitting, walking,

talking, skipping, and tying shoes.

Span of Childhood (varied among nations and cultures):

• Prenatal Period - Unborn child

• Infancy - New-born to 18 months

• Toddlerhood - 19 to 30 months

• Early Childhood - 2 to 6/7 years

• Middle Childhood - 7/8 to 12 years

• Late Childhood - 11 to 14 years

Activity 1.1: Class Discussion

1.How do you perceive children? 2.How do you perceive children think? 3.How do you perceive children develop? 4.How do you perceive their needs? 5.Do you think your assumption is based on self-standard and expectation? 6.Or it is based on values and beliefs?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________


___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

Child Development Studies of Early Years The study of child development is devoted to understanding all aspects of human growth from conception through adolescence. The period of early year’s development covers all aspects of growth and development in early years of human life from conception through three years of age. Why do we need to study child development?

• To provide effective care and guidance for infants and toddlers, it is essential that parents, caregivers, and teachers understand the basic principal of child development that has emerged from various theories.

• With this developmental knowledge, we are in a better position to understand the meaning behind children’s actions and words.

• When our work with children is based on this knowledge, we would be able to handle their early social and emotional development, guiding their cognitive awareness and stimulating their physical accomplishments.

• With this understanding, educarers will be able to describe and identify those factors that influence the dramatic changes in children during their first early years.

• Each child’s overall development and behaviour can be focused. Basic Issues in Child Development

To provide effective care and guidance for young children, it is essential that educarers

understand the basic principal of child development that has emerged from various

theories:

1. The Three Controversial Issues in Development

Is the child an organismic

or mechanistic being?

Organismic Being

- Active

Children are active beings with

psychological structures that

underlie and control development

Mechanistic

Being

- Passive

Children are passive recipients of

the environmental inputs


Is development a

continuous process, or

does it follow a series of

discontinuous stages?

Continuous Child development is a matter of

cumulative adding on of skills

and behaviours

Discontinuous Child development involves

qualitative, stage wise changes

Is development primarily

determined by nature or

nurture?

Nature Development is pre-determined

by genetic factors

Nurture Environmental factors as the

most important determinants of

child development

A balanced point of views:

Modern theories recognise the merits of both sides. They regard both the child and

the surrounding environment as active and as collaborating to produce

development. It is also believed that both continuous and discontinuous changes

characterize development and alternate with one another. And, they have also

moved away from asking which is more important - heredity or environment, but are

more interested to know how nature and nurture could work together to influence

the child’s traits and capability.

3. The Four Primary Developmental Domains

Physical Development

- Body growth and changes; brain growth; motor abilities; perception and sensory development; …

Cognitive Development

- Understanding; thinking and problem-solving skills; speech and language; …

2. The Three Principles in Child Development

Relatively Orderly and Gradual Process

• Development is a relatively orderly progression that takes place gradually over time.

• Growth follows a universal and predictable sequence.

Individual Rates • There is variability between individuals, as children progress at their own rates of development

• Each child has an individual pattern and timing of growth

Within and Across Domains

• All areas of development are interrelated and interdependent.


Emotional Development

- Self-awareness; self-recognition; self-concept; self-regulation; emotions / feelings; attachment; social referencing; …

Social Development

- Relationships; interactions; pro-social behaviours; empathy; fairness; …

Genetic and Environmental Foundations of Development Context of Development and Growth Context of development and growth refer to the pattern of movement or change that

occurs throughout our life span. The sequence of growth is continuously influenced by

both the intrinsic and extrinsic forces that produce individual variation and make each

infant’s developmental path unique.

Genetic inheritance does exist and is obvious in one’s personality traits, appearance,

and health condition. Biological maturation and environmental factors also shape the

process of development.

Contextual issues affecting development include cultural and religious background;

economic status; family composition; immediate physical environment; level of

education (adults in the family); quality of adult interaction; and the consistency of

treatment.

Developmental Variation

Children of the same age differ in their rate of physical growth. They grow to different

heights and weights in adulthood. Individual (including cultural and ethnic) differences

in body size, as in all aspects of development, do exist during infancy. These are more

apparent during early and middle childhood, and will be greatly magnified at adolescence.

Posture and balance improve as children move into early and middle childhood. They

also gain better motor coordination.

Body Size & Proportions

Changes in height and weight are rapid during the first 2 years and gradually slow down

during early and middle childhood.

- Length increases 50% by 1st year, 75% by 2nd

- Weight doubles at 5 months, triples by 1st year, and quadruples by 2nd year


Body fat also declines during the second year and children become longer and leaner.

As “baby fat” declines, the child’s body become more streamlined, flat-tummy, longer-

legged with the body proportions similar to that of adults.

Skull growth is also rapid during the first 2 years due to the large increases in brain size.

Changes in Body Proportions (Berk, 2003)

Development Milestones

It provides a systematic approach to observe the progress of children over time and

serves as the basic screening tool for most standardized assessment.

Focusing narrowly on discrete milestones may fail to reveal atypical organizational

processes that are involved in the child’s developmental progress. It is important to

analyse all milestones within the context of the child’s history, growth, and physical

examination.

The Family

There are various environmental factors that influence the growth and development of

children. Some are direct and some are indirect. Family has the strongest influence as it

is the first context that introduces the child to the physical world! Family provides

opportunities for social interaction and exploration, creates unique bonds between

people, communal living. Within the family, the child acquires language, receives

information, masters skills, and gains an understanding about him; the moral and cultural

values, etc. (refer to Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Theory).

Principles and Theories of Child Development


Theories of Child Development Developmental theory explains why a child is behaving in a particular way. It has been shaped by the persistent debate of whether nature (intrinsic forces) or nurture (extrinsic forces) is the predominant influence. Theorists arrive at their ideas through formal observations, researches and testing. 1. Maturational Theory of Arnold Gesell (1880-1961)

Main points Development genetically determined by universal “maturation patterns” which occur in a predictable sequence.

Gesell’s theory promotes a biological (nature) approach to human development. It is

based on evolutionary ideas (genetic influences) – development is a genetically

determined process that unfolds automatically. He stressed the importance of

respecting child’s readiness, and avoiding teaching children any things before they

are ready for.

Gesell based his theory on three major assumptions:

1. Cephalocaudal : Development from head to tail

2. Proximodistal : Development from trunk to extremities

3. Gross to fine : Motor development progresses from the gross to fine

(large and small muscles).

2. Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud (1857-1959)

Main points Experiences in early childhood influence later development. Assumes sexual factors are major factors, even in early childhood.

Freud regarded basic sexual instincts as being the driving force behind virtually all

behaviour. He regarded the development of personality as being the balance between

the Id, the Ego and the Super-Ego. The Id strives for unrealistic gratification of basic

desires; the Super-Ego strives for unrealistic moral responsibility and conscience while

the Ego acts to compromise these two opposing forces.

He believed that how children were treated while going through each psychosexual

stage determine healthy/abnormal personalities.

Psychosexual Stages:

• Oral stage (Birth – 1 year) – Oral needs

• Anal stage (1-3 years) – anal region of the body

• Phallic stage (3-6 years) – genital region of the body


• Latency stage (7-11 years) – activities outside their bodies

• Genital stage (adolescence) – stimulation and satisfaction of genital region of

the body

Psychosexual Stages during the Early Years

Oral Birth – 1 year • The oral character is the primary focus. The child preoccupies himself with nursing, with the pleasure of sucking and accepting things into the mouth.

• If oral needs are not met appropriately (e.g. deprives the child of the sensory pleasures of nursing and of the psychological pleasure of being cared for, mothered, and held), the child may develop habits such as thumbing sucking and over-eating, and even smoking later in life.

Anal 1 – 3 years

• The child meets the conflict between the parent's demands and the child's desires and physical capabilities in excreting bodily wastes.

• If the child manages to derive pleasure and success from this expulsion, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character - generally messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant.

• If child manages to puts up a fight or he simply refuses to go, and the child is overindulged, he will develop into an anal retentive character - neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, and passive-aggressive.

Oral Phase

The oral phase begins at birth. It is characterized by the infant's concern for his mouth

and gratification he feels from oral stimuli. The most obvious oral activity the child derives

pleasure from is eating. Oral stimulation, however, is also produced by engaging in such

activities as sucking, biting, swallowing and manipulating various parts of the mouth.

Freud contended that these activities are the child's means of fulfilling his sexual urges.

During this phase, the child's personality is controlled by the id. He demands immediate

gratification of his wants.

Anal Phase

The anal stage of motivational development is characterized by the child's central area

of bodily concern in the rectum. Bowel movements become a source of pleasure to the

child. He may defecate often to achieve this pleasure. This, however, would bring him


into conflict with his parents. The conflict leads the child to develop an ego. He comes

to realize that he cannot always do what he wants when he wants. He learns that there

are certain times when it appropriate to expel waste and other times when it is

inappropriate. He gradually comes to understand his mother's wishes and abides by

them

3. Psychosocial Theory of Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Main points

Each of his eight psychosocial stages of development is regarded

as a "psychosocial crisis," which arises and demands resolution

before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated.

Erikson maintained that children develop in a predetermined order. Development is

cumulative, with each step laying the foundation for the next. Foundation of emotional

& social development is hinge on early years.

Erikson formulated eight distinct stages of psychosocial development. Each is being regarded as "psychosocial crisis" - when inner needs and drives conflict with social expectations and demands. Each stage involves a struggle of two opposing states and with two possible outcomes. Eight Stages of Development Psychosocial Crisis

Stages during the Early Years: 1. Learning Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)


Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The

child, well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic

optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful.

2. Learning Autonomy versus Shame (Will) The second psychosocial crisis that Erikson believes occurs during early childhood,

probably between 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The "well -parented"

child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and

proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with

assured self - possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the

early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness,

and negativism. For example, one may see 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to

prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound

of "NO" rings through the house or the grocery store.

3. Learning Initiative versus Guilt (Purpose) Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs from 3½ to entry into formal school. During this period, the healthy developing child learns: • to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy • to cooperate with others • to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is fearful; hangs on the fringes of groups; continues to depend unduly on adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination. 4. Functional Emotional Developmental Levels of Stanley Greenspan (1941-2010)

Main points

The natural developmental stages typical children advance

through as they make sense out of the world around them.

Greenspan’s Functional Emotional Developmental Levels are six stages of healthy

emotional development of infants and toddlers. He advocated that appropriate emotional

experiences during each of the six developmental phases help develop critical cognitive,

social, emotional, language, and motor skills, as well as a sense of self.

According to Greenspan, through all these stages, the child’s emotional, social, and

cognitive skills grow and her sense of self grows increasingly complex. This sense of

self will continue to expand as the child grows older and these new experiences will stir


her interests and capabilities in a new direction. However, her functional sense of self,

that forms the foundation for further learning, is in place. This has been nurtured through

the millions of daily interactions; primarily with her parents, as every glance, every smile,

every tickle, every question built her sense of who she was. With these interactions, she

can layer on additional cognitive, intellectual, and social skills to serve her throughout

her life. She is prepared for the further challenges of her own development, and for the

world.

However, Greenspan also stressed the importance of getting children to fully master one

level before proceeding to the next as each level builds on the previous. It is important

that children have a solid base at Levels 1, 2, and 3, so that they will begin to

spontaneously problem solve. But it is impossible to achieve mastery of Levels 4, 5, and

6 without the foundation of Levels 1, 2, and 3.

Greenspan’s Functional Emotional Developmental Levels

I. Regulation and interest in the world (birth+).

During the first stage, up to about 4 months, babies are learning to take an interest in

sights, sounds, touch, smell, and movement. Babies are also learning to calm

themselves down. We find that even during the first weeks of life, children respond to

care differently. For example, some babies are especially sensitive. In addition, babies

differ in their abilities to understand the messages that their senses take in. The ability

to make sense of a caregiver’s sounds, learned during the first 2 to 3 months of life,

varies from baby to baby. It is very important for caregivers to detect these individual

differences because they are the basis for babies developing an interest in the world.

Caregivers should learn what is special about each infant’s way of dealing with

sensations, taking in and acting on information, and finding ways to organize their

movements to calm or soothe themselves, and then act accordingly. What caregivers

do early is important.

II. Falling in love – Attachment (4 months+).

By 4 months of age, infants are in the second stage of emotional development, a stage

in which the baby needs to be wooed into a loving relationship. Babies differ in the

ways they act during this stage also. There are some passive, “laid back” babies who

need to be sold on the human world and those who eagerly reach out and embrace

their caregivers. Caregivers who are not afraid to feel rejected, who don’t take a

particular baby’s lack of interest as a personal insult, can do this baby a world of good.

They can try many different “wooing” tactics based on observations of what the baby

likes and doesn’t like. Facial expressions, holding positions, types of touch and

pressure, and sounds can all be used to communicate the adult’s part in the falling-

in-love process.


III. Purposeful communication (8 months+).

By 8 months, the babies need experiences that verify that their signals are being read.

Dependency (reaching out), assertiveness, curiosity, and even aggression are now

part of give-and-take, cause-and-effect pattern whereby caregiver and baby “read”

and respond to each other. Sometimes the amount of exploration and excitement

generated by new and different experiences during this period can lead to the

caregiver over-stimulating the infant. Experienced caregivers are usually involved in

constant “signal reading.” They know when to do more with the infant and when to do

less. While neither over-stimulating nor under-stimulating, caregivers also model how

purposeful communication should go. By respecting the infant’s messages, they

model respect of others for the infant.

IV. The beginning of a complex sense of self (10 months+).

By 10 to 18 months, babies need to be admired for all the new abilities they have

mastered. They have organized these abilities into schemes to get things done and

make things happen. They are inventive and show initiative. By acknowledging the

child who completes such a complex action, caregivers contribute to the child’s

developing sense of self. When caregivers engage in complex play with the child and

intellectually expand it, they model new ways for the child to grow. Lots of imitation

happens at this point in development, and thus, pretend play begins. By allowing for

and taking part in early games and imitation play, caregivers help children expand

their sense of themselves as complex, organized persons.

V. Emotional idea (18 months+).

By 18 to 24 months, children are able to create images in their minds, as evidenced

by their pretending to be someone else. During this stage, caregivers can be of great

help if they assist children to express their feelings as emotional ideas, rather than

just acting them out. Make-believe play is wonderful for this purpose because children

begin to use words and gestures to label their feelings. Caregivers can provide young

children a safe way to put into words their curiosity about sexuality, aggression,

rejection, and separation through make-believe play. This expression of emotional

ideas is very releasing to a child but sometimes uncomfortable to adults. If a caregiver

finds that she is having trouble letting children put these feelings into words, she can

turn to another caregiver for help. Another caregiver might be quite comfortable

allowing children to explore competition and anger but may cut off imaginative play

about closeness and separation. By getting help with “hot spots” and “blind spots,” a

caregiver will open up more emotional areas to the child for his/her exploration.

VI. Emotional thinking (30 months+).

When children are about 30 months old, their emotional development involves

shifting gears between make-believe and reality. Young children are beginning to

have the ability to reason about their feelings instead of being able to act them out

only in pretend play. During the stage of emotional thinking, setting limits and

discipline become very important. However, limit setting must always be in balance


with empathy and an interest in what the child is feeling. Here, too, the caregiver

needs to look at herself. Some caregivers who are very indulgent are great on the

pretend-play side but very weak on the limit-setting side; some who are law-and-

order people are great on the limit-setting side but very weak on the make-believe-

play and empathy side.

Source: From S. I. Greenspan, “Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers” in Infant/Toddler

Caregiving: A Guide to Social-Emotional Growth and Socialization (pp. 15–18), by J. R. Lally (Ed.),

1990, Sacramento: California Department of Education.

5. Attachment Theory of John Bowlby (1907 – 1990) &

Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)

Main Points:

Early experiences in childhood have an important

influence on development and behaviour later in life.

John Bowlby

John Bowlby devoted extensive research to the concept of attachment, which can be

defined as the emotional connection between the child and caregiver. He believed that

attachment has an evolutionary component; it aids in survival. According to Bowlby, the

early and powerful experiences with the caregiver will shape a child’s long-term

emotional wellbeing. Infant’s emotional tie to the mother provides foundation for all later

relationships. It is also related to cognitive and social development in early childhood.

Four Phases in the Development of Attachment:

I. Pre-attachment Phase

- birth to 6 weeks

- signals such as smiling and crying bring baby to close contact with caregiver

II. “Attachment-In-The-Making” Phase

- 6 weeks to 6/8 months

- response differently to a familiar caregiver than a stranger

III. “Clear-cut” Attachment Phase

- 6/8 months to 18/24 months

- displays separation anxiety, becoming upset when the familiar caregiver leaves

- uses caregiver as a secure base from which the child confidently explores the

environment and returns for emotional support.

IV. Formation of a Reciprocal Relationship


- 18 months – 2 years on

- separation protest declines,

- child uses requests and persuasion to negotiate with the caregiver before her

departure.

- the understanding of caregiver’s going and returning helps child withstand

caregiver’s absence.

Mary Ainsworth

Mary Ainsworth is best known for her elaboration on the work of John Bowlby and

attachment Theory. She provided the most famous body of research offering

explanations of individual differences in attachment – Strange Situation, a procedure

involving short separations from and reunions with the parent.

Ainsworth identified a secured attachment pattern and three patterns of insecurity:

• Secure Attachment

- Distressed by parental separation and easily comforted by parent upon return

• Avoidant Attachment

- Not distressed by parental separation and avoids the parent upon return

• Resistant Attachment

- Remains close to the parent before departure and displays angry upon return

• Disorganized / Disoriented Attachment

- Confused when reunited with parents, reflect the greatest insecurity

6. Behaviourism and Operant Conditioning Theory of B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Main points Reinforcement and punishment moulds behaviour. Children are conditioned by their experiences.

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the causes of

an action and its consequences. He coined the term operant conditioning; it means

changing of behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired

response.

According to Skinner, behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.

strengthened); behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e.


weakened). Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by providing a

consequence an individual finds rewarding. The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can

also strengthen behaviour. Skinner called this as negative reinforcement, because it

stops or removes an unpleasant experience. Punishment is defined as the opposite of

reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than

increase it.

Based on Skinner’s theory, children’s behaviour can be affected by “reinforcers” and

“punishers”. Children will probably try out a number of behaviours and learn from the

consequences of their behaviours.

7. Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura (1925 – present)

Main points Learning takes place by imitation. More emphasis is on inner motivational factors.

Bandura’s focus is on motivational factors and self-regulatory mechanisms that

contribute to a person's behaviour, rather than just environmental factors. He believes

that a child’s environment shapes learning and behaviour. He stresses that violent

behaviour is taught to children through modelling, and is not inherent. He recognises

that children acquire favourable and unfavourable responses through observational

learning, i.e. imitation.

“Monkey see, Monkey do” 8. Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)

Main points

Children construct their knowledge through active exploration of

interaction with their environment.

Jean Piaget - the most influential figure in the unfolding of our understanding of the

process and pattern of cognitive development. He regards the child as an active solver

of problems. His concept emphasizes the role of the child’s natural motivation as the

key factor in development.

Key Principles:

Piaget’s theory has had a strong lasting impact on the future of education and

developmental psychology. His work has generated an enormous interest in child

development. There are three educational principles that derive from Piaget’s theory:


1. Discovery learning;

2. Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn;

3. Acceptance of individual differences.

Piaget on Cognitive Abilities Piaget believed that the development of cognitive abilities occurs because of two factors:

I. Maturation of the brain

As the brain grows and becomes more complex, this allows higher levels of

thinking. However, this means that it is not possible for children to benefit from

experience until their brain is sufficiently developed.

II. The child's interaction with the environment

Children are intrinsically motivated to explore and experiment with their

environment. This led Piaget to describe children as little scientists.

Key Piagetian Concepts: Emphasize the role of a child's natural motivation as the key factor in development.

• According to Piaget, children are active and motivated learners and they organize

what they learn from their experiences.

- The things they learn and do are organized as schemes (mental organisation)

- When they use these schemes repeatedly, they form into operations (logical

thought process)

• Children adapt to their environment through the process of assimilation and

accommodation.

- Assimilation is the act of taking in new information in a way that is consistent with an

existing scheme

- Accommodation is making new information fit into the existing knowledge by either

modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one

• These stages are completed in a fixed order with all children, even those in other

countries. However, the age range can vary from child to child.

• Interaction with the physical environment and other people is critical for cognitive

development. Piaget called this learning behaviour adaptation, the building up of

scheme through direct interaction with the environment.


• Children are in a state of equilibrium, when they are able to address new events with

existing schemes, they sometimes encounter disequilibrium when their existing

schemes are not able to address new events. When they form a new scheme and go

back to equilibrium, it is called equilibration, the process of going back and forth

between equilibrium and disequilibrium.

Adaption

Assimilation

Accommodation

Adaptation


• There are qualitative differences between child & adult thinking because adults have

more knowledge of the world and children do not use the same logic in their thinking

as adults do.

The Stages of Development in Piaget’s Theory Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development. Children move through the four stages between infancy and adolescence:

Here are the first two stages children go through during the early years:

• Sensorimotor (0 to 2 years)

- Learns through senses and movement

• Preoperational (2 to 7 years)

- Egocentric, symbolic, uses perceptions to learn

Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2 years) Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it is based on physical

interactions / experiences. Infants and Toddlers “think” with their eyes, ears, hands and

other sensorimotor equipment. They co-ordinate their sensory inputs with motor actions

through a system called circular reactions...i.e. children repeat the action in order to test

their sensorimotor-motor skills relationship.

This is the first developmental stage beginning with reflexes and ending with complex

combinations of sensorimotor skills:

1. Reflexive Schemes ( 0 - 1 month)

2. Primary Circular Reactions ( 1 - 4 months)

a. just an action of his own

b. limited anticipation of events

For example, the baby may suck her thumb. That feels good, so she sucks some

more... Or she may blow a bubble. That’s interesting so she does it again....

3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4 – 8 months)

a. an act that extends out to the environment

b. learning “procedures that make interesting things last.”

She may squeeze a rubber ducky. It goes “quack.” That’s great, so do it again, and

again, and again. She is learning “procedures that make interesting things last.”


4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8 – 12 months)

a. intentional, or goal directed, improved anticipation of events

5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

a. exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways

b. involve in active experimentation - discovering new and interesting ways

of doing the same act

I hit the drum with the stick -- rat-tat-tat-tat. I hit the block with the stick -- thump-thump.

I hit the table with the stick -- clunk-clunk. I hit daddy with the stick -- ouch-ouch.

6. Mental Representation (18mths – 2yrs)

a. Internal image of absent objects/past events.

⬧ Deferred imitation

- The ability to remember and copy behaviour which is not

immediately present.

⬧ Functional play

- Pleasurable motor play with or without object.

⬧ Make-believe play

- Pretend, acting out every day and imaginary activities.

Important capacities emerge during this period:

1. Imitation

- Imitating, modelling or copying behaviours.

2. Play

- Through play, children practise previously learned skills for pleasure and fun of

it.

Imitation, according to Piaget, is viewed as a pure form of accommodation and play

is prominently assimilation.

The major achievements during this stage:

1. Development of Object Permanence

- Occurs during the end of this stage

- Understanding that objects (or person) exist even when out of sight.

2. Development of Symbolic Thinking

- Using symbols in thinking and behaviour.


- Thinking moves from action-based thinking towards symbolic thinking.

Preoperational Stage Children are bound by their perception. Their thinking is still done in a non-logical, non-

reversible manner. They are not able to keep more than one attribute or idea in mind at

a time and are not ready to reverse thought. However, development of language occurs

at a rapid pace. Children interact with their environment in a more complex manner

through the use of words and images.

This stage is marked by Egocentrism …… the child’s belief that everyone sees the

world the same way that she does.

- have difficulty in seeing things from another person’s point of views

- fail to understand the differences in perception and believe that inanimate objects

have the same perceptions they do.

9. Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Main points

Development is primarily driven by language, social context and

adult guidance.

Key Principles:

• Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

• Full development requires social interaction.

Vygotsky felt that both social interactions and cultural practices affect children’s

development. His focus is on providing challenges and support, or scaffolding within

the child's zone of proximal development (ZPD) - just beyond the child's actual level

of development— and withdrawal of support as child begins to gain competence in

functioning independently.


Learning as Collaboration - Learning together rather than individuals.....promotes critical thinking & interest. Zone of proximal Development (ZPD) - This is the distance between a child's current and potential abilities

“What a child can do with help today, he can do independently tomorrow” Scaffolding - Begin with full support, gradually remove support as abilities and confidence increase. 10. Ecological Systems Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 – 2005)

Main points

The developing child is within a complex system of

relationships that form his or her environment. Each layers of

the environment have an effect on a child’s development.

Bronfenbrenner developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a

child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labelled

different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development,

including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem and

the chronosystem.

Bronfenbrenner’s structure of environment:


Source: Berk, 2000

1. The Microsystem

The microsystem – this is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with

which the child has direct contact. Structures include family, school, child care centre,

and neighbourhood – the child’s immediate surroundings.

At this level, bi-directional influences are strongest and have the greatest impact on the

child. However, interactions at outer levels can still impact the inner structures.

2. The Mesosystem

This layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem.

3. The Exosystem

This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function. The

structures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure

in her microsystem

The child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel the positive or

negative force involved with the interaction of his own system.

4. The Macrosystem

This layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment. It comprises

of cultural values, customs, and laws. The effects of these defined larger principles have

a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers.


5. The Chronosystem This system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environment.

Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s death,

or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child. As

children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be more

able to determine how the change will influence them.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the

child’s environment. He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these

environments becomes more complex.

11. Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)

Main points

The essential need for growth is a hierarchy of basic and growth

needs.

According to Maslow, gratification of needs (physiological, safety, belongingness and

love, esteem, and self-actualization) leads to psychological health. Everyone has a

number of physical and psychological needs that must be met in order to survive, thrive,

and develop to our best potential. He believed that these needs are interrelated and

interdependent and self-actualizing and that if lower level needs go unmet, one cannot

possible strive for higher level needs.

Early developing years are the most critical in the entire life span. Children in their early

years do have essential needs for optimal growth and development too.

Hierarchy of Needs of Children Needs

The Essential Needs for Growing Children:

1. Basic Physical Needs

• Shelter & protection

• Food (nutritious and appropriate to age)

• Warmth, adequate clothing

• Prevention health and dental care; treatment of physical and mental conditions

needed

• Cleanliness

• Rest and activity, in balance

2. Love and Sense of Belonging


• Affection

• Trusting relationship (bonding)

• Reciprocal exchanges

• Appropriate adult expectations

• Sense of emotional security

3. Respect and Self Esteem

• Acceptance

• Respect

• Recognition

• Attention

• Encouragement and Descriptive Praise

• Awareness

4. The Need to Learn

• Freedom to explore

• Access to developmentally appropriate experiences and play materials

• Inclusion in an active language community


Topic 5: – The New Beginnings – Prenatal Development

Content Coverage


development





The New Beginnings – Prenatal Development

It refers to “Life in the Womb”. Prenatal development begins

with conception and ends at birth. The unique individual’s make- up

is said to be established at this moment.

The development proceeds in a genetically determined pattern.

It is critically influenced by interactions within the context of the

mother’s body.

There are three stages in this prenatal development:

1. The Period of Zygote : Conception to Week 2

From fertilization until the blastocyst becomes deeply implanted in the uterine lining.

2. The Period of Embryo: Week 2 to Week 9

The foundations for all body structures are laid down during this period.

3. The Period of Foetus : Week 9 to Birth

The “growth and finishing phase” – the completion of body structures and dramatic

body growth in size takes place.

Trimesters:

Prenatal development is divided into 3 equal time known as trimesters, each lasts about

3 months:

The First Trimester

- from fertilization to about the beginning of period of foetus

- 1st to 12th week into pregnancy


The Second Trimester

- 13th to 24th week into pregnancy

The Third Trimester

- from 25th week to birth of child

(Source: Berk, 2003)

Prenatal Environment Influences Teratogens

Teratogen refers to any environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal period.

The effects vary with the organism’s age at the time of exposure.

List of known teratogens

• Illegal Drugs

- withdrawal syndrome after birth

- also associate with physical defects and central nervous system damage

• Medicine & Herbs

- has caused miscarriage, physical malformation, and mental retardation.

• Infectious Disease

- has caused a wide variety of abnormalities, which vary with time of occurrence


during pregnancy

• Alcohol

- may lead to disorders involving mental retardation, poor attention, and slow

physical growth

• Tobacco

- Often born underweight; and may have attention, learning, and behavioural

Problems

• Pollution & Radiation

- has been linked to diverse impairments and mental retardation

Impact of other Maternal Factors on Prenatal Development

• Poor Health & Physical Fitness of Mother - can endanger the pregnancy

• Malnutrition

- miscarriage, baby born underweight

• Emotional Stress

- baby at risk for a wide variety of difficulties

• RH Blood Incompatibility

- has linked to mental retardation, damage to heart muscle, and even

Premature infant death

• Maternal Age & Previous Birth

- aging of the mother’s reproductive organs increased the likelihood of a wide

variety of pregnancy complications

- previous miscarriages or premature terminations of pregnancy also increased

the likelihood of complications

The Importance of Prenatal Health Care

During the routine check, doctor (Obstetrician Gynaecologist) uses

ultra sound to evaluate the development of foetus. Doctor will also

keep track of the mother’s general health, weight gain, and the

capacity of her uterus and cervix to support the foetus. Regular

prenatal check-ups help ensure the health of both the mother and the

foetus. Early and sustained prenatal care is crucial for a healthy

pregnancy!


Prenatal Stimulation Techniques

Prenatal stimulation is a process that encourages learning in unborn

babies optimizing mental and sensory development. Prenatal

stimulated babies tend to exhibit enhanced visual, auditory, and

motor development. They also show superior learning capacity and

higher IQs

Valuable research has shown that stimuli such as stroking the foetus through the belly,

soft and melodious sounds, the sound of the human voice, especially the mother's, as

well as light and vibrations are pleasurable to the baby.

However, the baby can learn to relate these stimuli to their meanings only if they are

presented in an organized way, otherwise, they will probably forget or ignore them. You

have to show them that these stimuli have a related significance by creating a meaningful

context. We know that when the experiences occur in a pattern, they are organized in

the baby's brain more efficiently.

But that is not all ...

The way parents interact with their babies even before they are born has an impact on

the development of the child later in life. A confident person trusts themselves because

he/she knows that they have been loved since they were conceived. A child that is

optimistic, confident and with a good demeanour can be the end result that occurs when

the uterus is transformed to a warm and enriched surrounding. Communicating with the

unborn child provides the stable, supportive environment that every child needs in order

to learn and grow… and this is the final goal of the prenatal stimulation techniques

Approaches to Child Birth

1. Natural / Prepared Child Birth

- Normal delivery at home or hospital

- Some require the help of instrument like forceps or vacuum extractor

- Some choose to have induced labour, usually by breaking the water bag

(amnion)

2. Water Birth

- This delivery uses the hypo-birthing technique, the use

of water immersion in labour.

3. Caesarean

- An operation to deliver a baby by cutting through the mother’s abdomen and

womb.


The 3 Stages in Child Birth

First Stage : Dilation and effacement of the cervix take place.

Transition happens, in which the frequency and strength of

contractions are at the peak and the cervix opens completely.

Second Stage : Delivery of the baby.

Third Stage : Birth of Placenta

Steps of Normal Delivery

1. Partial Crowning 2. Crowning 3. Head emerging and turning

Complications in Birth


Breech Birth

- Refers to a delivery in which the baby's buttocks appear first

instead of the head.

Prolapsed Umbilical Cord

- The umbilical cord precedes the foetus' exit from the uterus.

- It is an obstetric emergency during pregnancy

- This is often concurrent with the rupture of the amniotic sac.

Preterm Baby

- Baby born before due date is at risk for many health problems as the major

organs are usually too premature to function independently.

Neonate Development

The time when newborns adjust to life in their new surroundings

Physical Characteristics of Newborn

• Bones in skull not completely formed

• The skull can be squeezed together or moulded

• The skull has open spaces called fontanel

• The neonates skin is reddish because of his thin skin

• Puffiness in his face due to face down position during birth

• Weak neck

• Large head in comparison to the trunk and legs

• Underdeveloped jawbones

Behaviours of Newborn

• Reflexes : Voluntary responses that help babies survive


• Taxes : Spatial Orientations (Movements that orientate organism to particular stimulus, e.g. Viper moves towards warm body)

• Fixed Action : Genetically programmed sequence of coordinated actions Patterns located actions in the Central Nervous System

Characteristics of Newborn

• It is stereotyped in its form (unvarying sequence of actions / species)

• It is present without relevant previous experience

• It is universal for all species (all members )

• It is relatively unchanged as a result of experience and learning

Motor Capabilities of Newborn – Reflexes

Reflex is an automatic innate response to a particular form of stimulation:

• Most obvious organised patterns of behaviours that help baby to survive.

• These reflexes are voluntary responses and will gradually disappear.

• Their presence or absence at different times is a good indicator of the baby‘s

neurological functioning.

• Newborn has little control over voluntary responses.

• Certain reflexes help parents and infants establish gratifying interaction.

Some Newborn Reflexes

• Blinking - blinks at flash of light, sign of normal light perception

• Rooting - turns head toward light touch on cheek, opens mouth,

tries to suck

• Sucking - sucks rhythmically when finger or nipple is in mouth

• Stepping - lifts one foot after other in a stepping movement when bare feet

touch a flat surface

• Babinski - Big toe extends and other toes spread when the outer edge of the

sole of the foot is stimulated

• Knee Jerk- jerks knee when tendon below knee is tapped

• Palmar Grasp - closes hand tightly when pressure is applied

to palm; grips


• Moro (startle) - at loud noise or sudden drop of body, extends arms, fans

out hands, throws head back, extends legs, and then

clenches hands to chest

• Swallowing - swallows when food or fluid is in mouth

• Tonic Neck - when head is turned to one side while

lying on back, one arm extends to the side at

eye level and the other is flexed.

• Swimming - paddles and kicks in swimming motion when being

placed face down on tummy

States of Arousal

Recurring periods of wakefulness and sleep

• Regular sleep : 8 – 9 hours,

NREM (non-rapid eye movement)

full rest, little or no body movement, breathing is slow but

regular, face relaxed,

• Irregular sleep : 8 – 9 hours,

REM (rapid eye movement),

gentle limb movements, occasional stirring, facial grimacing

occur, breathing is irregular

• Drowsiness : Varies in occurrence,

falling asleep or waking up, body is less active than

irregular sleep, eyes open and close, when open, they

have a glaze look, regular breathing but somewhat faster

• Quiet alertness : 2 – 3 hours

Body is relatively inactive, eyes open and attentive,

breathing is even

• Waking activity and crying : 1 – 4 hours

frequent bursts of uncoordinated body

activity, breath9ing is very irregular, face may be relaxed or tense and

wrinkled, crying may occur

These behaviours are organised and cyclical


Crying

Crying is the way babies communicate with their caregivers. Babies cry differently for

different needs. Direct physical intervention soothes a crying baby most effectively.

Sensory Capacities of Newborns

Babies’ abilities are amazing! They learn to do sophisticated things naturally and the

basis for learning is the sensory systems of touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight.

Touch : Responsive to touch, temperature change and pain

Taste : Prefers sweetness; can distinguish sweet, salty, and sour.

Smell : Reacts to this smell of certain foods in the same way as adults; can

identify the location of an odour and turn away from unpleasant odour;

and distinguish own mother’s breast odour.

Hearing : Prefers complex sounds to pure tone; can distinguish some sound

patterns; recognises differences among almost all human speech

sounds; turns in the general direction of a sound; prefers high-pitched,

expressive voices with rising intonation and sound of own mother’s

voice.

Vision : Least well-developed sense at birth; focusing ability and visual acuity

limited; scans visual field and attempts to track moving objects; colour

vision not well developed.

Learning

Many studies have shown that newborns are capable of learning. It is the result of

complex interactions among the child; her biological and environmental systems.

According to Piaget, babies continually modify their behaviour on the basis of experience

and thus respond differently to different kinds of situations.

• Babies know the world only through their physical and sensory interactions with

objects.


Topic 6: – Physical Growth and Development in the Early Years

Content Coverage


development





Physical Growth and Development in the Early Years Physical development concerns one’s growth and changes over time. It involves

observable changes in body; skeletal growth; brain development; perception and

sensory development; and motor development.

Physical development is driven by physiological changes in the body, particularly in the

brain and nervous system. A young child will not gain mastery of physical skills without

adequate nutrition and the satisfaction of all basic needs (refer to Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs).

Body Growth

According to the Maturational Theory of A Gesell, pattern for muscular growth is very

organised. The three trends he theorised are

1. Cephalocaudal Trend

• Growth proceeds from head to toes.

• Gradually the lower portion of the body catches up.

• At birth, head takes up 1/4 of the body and the legs only 1/3.

2. Proximodistal Trend:

• Growth begins with improved control of muscles closest to the central portion of

the body, gradually moving outward and away from the midpoint to the arms and

legs.

• Child’s torso lengthens and widens gradually for internal organs to tuck neatly

inside, and the spine straightens.

3. Refinement Trend:


• Muscular development that progresses from general to the specific in both gross

and fine motor activities.

Skeletal Growth

Changes in height and weight are rapid during the early years and gradually into a slower

pattern of growth. Each child has an individual pattern and timing of growth. The body

shape and size is dependable upon the skeletal growth and muscle-fat makeup. Once

bones have taken on their basic shape, muscle tissue will grow according to the plan

and body fat begins to appear. Interestingly, between boys and girls, slight differences

in body sizes do exist. Girls have higher ratio of fat to muscle and they are advanced in

skeletal growth.

Growth of the Skull

Skull growth is rapid during the first two years because of the increase in brain size. At

birth, the bones of the skull are separated by six gaps called fontanels. The gaps permit

the bones to overlap as the baby passes the birth canal. The fontanels gradually close

during the first 2 years. As the skull bones come in contact with one another, they form

sutures that permit the skull to expand easily as the brain grows.

Dental Growth in Early Years

Source: Health Promotion Board


First tooth emerges around 6 months of age. The two bottom front teeth will be the first

to come in and this will be followed by the four upper teeth in four to eight weeks.

The whole set of 20 milk or primary teeth are usually fully erupted by 3 years of age.

Improved dental care and water fluoridation have led to dramatic declines in childhood

tooth decay.

Dental development provides a rough clue to overall rate of skeletal development. A child

who gets teeth early is likely to be advanced in physical maturity.

Understand Brain Development

“Our brains shape and reshape themselves in ways

that depend on what we use them for throughout our lives.” Lally, R. J.(2007).

The amazing human brain is part of the central nervous system. This

complex organ plays the role in controlling many bodily functions,

including both voluntary activities (such as walking or speaking) and

involuntary ones (such as breathing or blinking).

The basic brain architecture is constructed through an on-going

process that begins within a week of conception and continues into adulthood.

Brain Architecture

Different parts of the

brain control different

kinds of functions.

As it develops, the quality of brain architecture establishes a sturdy or weak foundation

for learning and behaviour.

Many research studies have provided insight into the brain systems and how the

processes that govern brain development are being shaped by experiences.

Development of Neurons


Neurons are responsible for storing and transmitting information. They have tiny gaps,

or synapses, between them. Neurons are constructed to form connections. They

release chemicals that cross the synapse, sending messages to one another. Neurons

that are stimulated by input from surrounding environment continue to establish new

synapses.

At birth, about 100 billion neurons (brain cells) have been produced, but yet the brain is

not completely developed at birth. Forming and reinforcing these connections are the

key tasks of early brain development. Connections among neurons are formed as the

growing child experiences the surrounding world and forms attachments to parents,

family members, and other caregivers.

Brain development consists of an on-going

process of wiring and re-wiring the

connections among neurons. During

prenatal period, neurons are already busy

sending and receiving messages about

touch, hearing and movement. The senses

of taste, smell and sensitivity to light are

also beginning to develop. Much of the

connecting of neurons and strengthening of

those connections takes place after birth.

This blooming of synapses happens at different time in different areas. Development then proceeds by keeping the synapses that are used and pruning away those that are not. Hence, if these synapses are used repeatedly in a child’s day-to-day life, they are reinforced and become part of the brain’s permanent circuitry. If they are not used repeatedly, or often enough, they are eliminated. In this way, experience plays a crucial role in “wiring” a young child’s brain.

Brain circuits consolidate with increasing age, making them more difficult to rewire.

The timetable of brain plasticity varies - it is narrow for basic sensory abilities, wider for

language, and broadest for cognitive and social-emotional skills.

PET scans images

Stimulation is vitally important for maintaining and increasing this complex communication network.


5 Days 2 months 1 year 28 years

These PET scans (featured above) suggest that the brain of a one year old more closely

resembles an adult’s brain than a newborn’s. It is evident that in the early years,

children’s brains form twice as many synapses as they will eventually need.

Sensitive Period of Development

Brain growth spurts occur during the early years. Stimulation is vital for brain growth.

Infants and children who are rarely spoken to, who are exposed to few toys, and who

have little opportunity to explore & experiment with their environment during these period

may fail to fully develop the neural connections and pathways that facilitate later learning.

Experience Can Change the Actual Structure of the Brain:

Growth had been thought to be determined primarily by genetics, but scientists now

believe that it is also highly dependent upon the child’s experiences. The brain develops

and changes in response to the demands of the environment to enable learning to take

place.

While good early experiences help the brain to develop well, experiences of neglect and

abuse can literally cause some genetically normal children to become mentally retarded

or to develop serious emotional difficulties.

Neglect Impedes Brain Development:

• Limited exposure to language, touch or social interactions

• Emotional or cognitive neglect

• Structural Changes

• Lack of brain growth beyond effects of poor nutrition

• Neuronal death beyond “pruning”


Connections between Early Environmental Experiences and Neurobiological

Development

• Environmental stimulation during early periods of life is critical for normal development because neurons and their synapses require stimulation to persist.

• Abundant synapses created from genetic signals will not be retained unless they are stimulated. Source: Derrington, T., Shapiro, B. & Smith, B. (1999).

What Do Recent Research Studies Suggest?

Many research studies suggest that

• The types of stimuli infants and children are exposed to help shape the brain and

behaviour.

• The early period of life is characterized by sensitive periods that are dependent

on the pattern of input from the environment.

• A lack of good quality experience is detrimental; they do not provide evidence for

the effects of enriched experience.

The new developments in brain research show us what children need; and our challenge

is to ensure that every child receives it.

Key-points to remember:

• Stimulation is vital during growth spurts, which occur during early years.

• Experience “wires” a child’s brain growth


• The more stimulating experiences mean the more circuitry that is built for

enhanced learning in the future.

• The brain operates on the "use it or lose it" rule.

• Visual stimulation can produce developmental advantages including enhanced

curiosity, attentiveness and concentration.

• Under-stimulation impairs development.

• Possible to overwhelm children too!

Source: WestEd, The Program for Infant/Toddler Care.

Class Activity: Reflection on “Rethinking the Brain”

• Allow 5 minutes for learners to read and reflect. Get learners

to

think about the implications on brain development.

• Allow another 5 minutes for them to discuss their views in

their small groups.

- What can we do to support early brain development?

Have an open sharing session and get the groups to share their views and suggestions.

Reading: Rethinking the Brain

Old Thinking… New Thinking...

How a brain develops depends on the

genes you are born with.

How a brain develops hinges on a

complex interplay between the genes

you’re born with and the experiences

you have.

The experiences you have before age

three have a limited impact on later

development.

Early experiences have a decisive

impact on the architecture of the brain,

and on the nature and extent of adult

capacities.


A secure relationship with a primary

caregiver creates a favourable context

for early development and learning.

Early interactions don’t just create a

context; they directly affect the way the

brain is “wired”.

Brain development is linear: the brain’s

capacity to learn and change grows

steadily as an infant progresses toward

adulthood.

Brain development is non-linear: there

are prime times for acquiring different

kinds of knowledge and skills.

A toddler’s brain is much less active

than the brain of a college student.

By the time children reach age three,

their brains are twice as active as those

of adults.

Activity levels drop during adolescence.

Source: Shore, B. (1997). Rethinking the Brain. New Insights into Early Development. NY : Families and Work Institute. (P16-18).

Motor Development in Early Years

Motor development can be understood as the way young children learn to coordinate

body movements, to gain control of their bodies, and their abilities to do the tasks they

want to do. Children use their muscles to do small, precise tasks, such as cutting, which

is a fine motor skill. Muscles are also used for larger tasks such as running, which is

considered a gross motor task. Developing gross motor skills and fine motor skills gives

the young child the building blocks he needs to skip, play or dance.

Milestones in Gross Motor Development

Types of Physical Motor Skills


1. Gross Motor Skills

- Gross motor skills refer to a child's ability to use large groups of muscles to move

and control the body.

- Holding the head up independently (young infant), turning body, sitting, raking arm

movements, pulling to stand, pushing, kicking, pedalling, throwing, are all examples

of gross motor skills

2. Fine Motor Skills

- Fine motor skills refer to the child's abilities to use his hands and feet and his

coordination with his fingers and toes.

- Grasping, using scissors, opening or closing hands, clapping, shifting objects from

one hand to the other, picking up objects, turning pages catching, folding or

unfolding are all examples of activities for fine motor.

- Fine motor skills develop well after the larger motor skills and giving your child tasks

that require skills more advanced than his developmental range can lead to

frustration.

3. Locomotor Skills

- Locomotor skills are the gross motor skills that involve coordinating the entire body.

- These skills are more complex and controlled forms of body movement

- Crawling, walking, running, jumping and skipping are some of the examples

Creeping - Sequence of

movements are learned

naturally.

4. Stability Skills

- Stability skills are gross motor skills that incorporate the use of balance in body

motion.

- Learning to turn, twist, bend, roll, swing and dodge require stability

- Stopping a locomotive action such as running or jumping is also a stability skill that

develops after the child learns the initial locomotor skills.


5. Manipulation Skills

- Manipulation skills are the final phase of gross motor development, and incorporate

elements of fine motor skills such as use of the hands and fingers to manipulate

objects.

- Some examples are opening and closing of container, turning of bottle caps, fixing

objects together, etc.

- To complete the manipulation phase of motor development, the child must have

already learned the related locomotor and stability skills since manipulative motor

skills require balance and precise control of large groups of muscles.

The Developmental Process for Throwing

➢ Some ball skills are very difficult to master, and older children are still learning and practicing them.

➢ Throwing a ball is not as easy as it looks!

➢ Skills of throwing develops over a number

of years and progresses through.

These locomotor skills require better balance and coordination.

Acquiring New Physical Skills - Maturation or Experience?

Studies have shown that maturation is the crucial factor but experience does influence

the timing of motor development. Stimulation and opportunities for movement and

exploration are necessary for motor development. But researchers caution against trying

to speed up motor development.

Theoretical Perspectives Based On Children’s Natural Inclinations and Development

2 years

3 years

4 years

5 years


- Arnold Gesell theorized that development is genetically determined. He believed that

children’s mastery of physical skills would be in accordance with the maturational

patterns of muscular development which occurs in a predictable sequence.

- Emmi Pikler viewed development as biologically predetermined programme. She

observed and documented the development of children at Lóczy-Pikler Institute in

Budapest, Hungary and witnessed children’s natural way in the mastery of movement

without any adult interference.

- Magda Gerber also viewed development as biologically predetermined programme.

According to her, the infant’s body is intrinsically driven to move through each

milestone.

- According to Neuroscience, young children acquire new motor skills as they

experience physiological changes in their bodies, particularly in the brain and nervous

system. Example, bladder and bowel control are achieved only after certain level of

neurological and motor development has been reached.

- Mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex dynamic systems of

action. New skills are a joint product of central nervous system development;

movement possibilities of the body, environmental supports for the skill,

motivation of the child

Although intimately related, sensation and perception play two complimentary but

different roles in how we interpret our world. Sensation refers to the process of sensing

our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. This information is sent

to our brains in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we

interpret these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us.

Sensation and Perception

Although intimately related, sensation and perception play two complimentary but

different roles in how children interpret their world. Sensation refers to the process of

sensing the environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. This information

is sent to the brain in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way

one interprets these sensations and therefore makes sense of the environment.

Sensory Experience and Development

Healthy infants come into this world beautifully equipped to get acquainted with the

environment and to enjoy and discover how to use it to meet their needs. Young children

use their sensory abilities to explore, discover and learn. However, children vary greatly

in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to sensory


stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and

strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur. Individual

differences among children’s preferences for sensory experience do exist.

The senses constantly guide, stimulate, and reward the actions of the baby. For instance,

as an active baby reaches to touch objects in the environment, he encounters things that

give him pleasure or pain. He learns what is "out there," and he also discovers what he

likes and dislikes. Babies experience feelings of pleasure and pain in different areas,

and at different levels of intensity. Senses and motor skills cooperate. Neither can

function without the other. First, movements are unintentional but soon, most have

purpose. As children involve their senses to take in information about the world, they find

pleasure in it. As they grow older, they go beyond a reflex reaction to participating with

greater awareness and planning in what they see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. They

discriminate between shapes and sounds and learn what to expect and what to reach

for. They formulate whole images by synthesizing sensory information. In time, toward

the end of their first year or early in the second year, they connect these images with

words, so they can begin to ask for what they want. But the process of connecting words

and images is much slower than the development of the images themselves.

Sensory experiences tell children who they are and where they are. The accumulation

of images seen and heard, tasted, touched and smelled builds a complex image of his

surroundings in a little child's mind.

Perceptual Development

Perception is developed through the information that is gathered from senses. It refers

to the detection, organisation and interpretation of information from the environment. As

they grow, infants and young children learn to discern information from the environment

that is significant to them. This ability to filter information helps children interpret and

attach meaning to objects and events.

Depth Perception:

Depth perception is the ability to judge the distance of object from one another and from

ourselves. It helps in understanding the layout of the environment and in guiding motor

activity. Emergence of depth perception occurs during late infancy. Responsiveness to

motion develops first follow by sensitivity to binocular (eyes moving in unison) and then

pictorial cues. With free movement and ample opportunities for practice, crawling

infants distinguish deep and shallow surfaces and avoid dangerous-looking drop-offs

(the three-dimensional understanding).

Pattern Perception:


Sensory Input

Muscular Input

With visual acuity, infant develops contrast sensitivity which explains early pattern

preferences. Infant can detect the contrast in complex patterns. Infants look at the border

of a stimulus and at single features. Gradually, he explores the internal features of a

pattern and starts to detect pattern organisation. The ability to discriminate increasingly

complex patterns is essential for learning to read and write (early literacy development)

later.

Object Perception:

This refers to the ability to perceive objects as stable and unchanging. There are typically

three constancies - size, shape, brightness. Both size and shape constancies are evident

during the early years,

1. Size constancy refers to the ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even

when the distance from them makes things appear larger or smaller.

2. Shape constancy allows one to perceive that the object (e.g. round plate) as still

being in the same shape (a circle) even though the angle from which the view of the

object (round plate) appears to distort the shape.

Intermodal Perception:

It refers to perception that combines information from more than one sensory system.

Infants are capable of combining information across modalities after just one exposure

to a new situation. Intermodal perception is yet another capacity that helps young

children build an orderly, predictable perceptual world.

Perceptual Motor Development

Perceptual motor development is based on the works of Piaget and Gesell. It refers to

the relationship between a child‘s perceptions and his motor responses. A child’s motor

abilities can influence perceptual development, and likewise, perception can have a

strong effect on a child’s motor-skill development.

Perceptual Motor - A Sensory and Muscular Interplay

Motor Ability

Muscular Input


Piaget's stages of cognitive development often being use to describe the development

of perceptual-motor (A quick review of Sensorimotor Stages in Piaget’s Cognitive-

Developmental Theory). According to Piaget, children develop through sensory

experiences of tactile (touch), kinaesthetic, visual, and auditory modalities which later

forms the child’s perception. He stressed that knowledge is acquired through action,

either physical or mental. Throughout the sensorimotor stage, physical action is the

primary source of new information.

Factors Influencing Physical Development

Genetic Factors (Nature):

• Heredity largely determines height and rate of physical growth because of the

release of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Growth

hormone (GH) affects the development of almost all body tissues, except the

central nervous system and the genitals. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) that

stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine, affects the development of the

nerve cells of the brain and body size.

Environment Factors

• Nutrition is one of the known factors as nutrient are mostly devoted to growth. A

high-quality diet is necessary for every developing child as the nourishing

substance from food provides nourishment for the body and skeletal growth.

Being picky eaters and having food preferences may affect the quality and quantity

of nutrient required for growth. A change in their appetite usually is due to the

slower growth rate among toddlers and preschoolers.

Malnutrition causes small babies and impedes brain development. It can cause

dietary diseases that affect healthy growth.

• Sleep contributes to the general health, body growth and well-being of children. A

well-rested child is a healthy growing child because GH is released during the

child’s sleeping hours.

Perceptual Information

The Coordination Centre - To achieve body and mind coordination for balance and control as well as to gain better understanding and awareness of body movement


• Health & safety is essential for optimal growth. Ordinary childhood illnesses have

no effect on physical growth but when disease interacts with malnutrition in a

vicious spiral, the physical growth can be affected severally. Some infectious

diseases can significantly affect physical growth and may even be fatal. Early

Immunizations and good medical care can protect children from infectious diseases.

Young children like to test their skills and abilities and they often not aware of the

risks they are exposed to. Accidents and unintentional childhood injuries, if

severe can alter the genetically predetermined growth pattern of children.

Psychological Factors

• Stimulation, attention, and affection are important for normal physical growth..

The lack of any of these may cause nonorganic failure to thrive. Unpleasant

experiences like abuse or neglect; and prolong exposure to stressful condition; the

decreased GH secretion (which is responsible for growth) will affect physical growth

and health. When such children are removed from their emotionally inadequate

environment, their GH levels quickly return to normal and they grow rapidly. If not

corrected, children remain small and have cognitive and emotional problems.

Individual Differences in Motor Skills

Partly genetic, but environmental pressures seem to exaggerate them:

⬧ Body build influences gross motor abilities.

A child with a tall, muscular body tends to move faster and acquire certain skills

earlier than a short and stocky child.

⬧ Ethnicity

Due to differences in child rearing and education practices among cultures, the

value of physical play and attitude towards mastery of motor skills do have an

impact on children’s acquiring the skills. Examples, the misguided belief that early

academic instruction will result in super-babies; the need to confine children in

bouncers, playpens, highchairs; or the way to learn to walk by cruising about in a

walker, etc.

⬧ Gender

This is not obvious during infancy but the differences are evident as they get older.

Boys’ greater muscular mass may contribute to their skill advantages. Social

pressures for boys to be more active and physically skilled than the girls are also

contributing to this gender difference in motor skill.


⬧ Experiences & Opportunities

Gross and fine motor skills are learned through repetition— both by virtue of being

practiced and because repetition lays down patterns in the brain. A child who has

been given ample opportunities to explore and practice is certainly more skilled

than his peers.

⬧ Environment

Movement opportunities and a stimulating environment profoundly affect motor

development. A child being provided with a physically safe and emotionally

nurturing environment as well as developmentally appropriate challenging fun

activities for him to acquire and master complex motor skills is certainly better and

more confident in balance and precision of movements

To gain mastery of motor skills, children must have adequate nutrition and the

satisfaction of all basic needs (Maslow’s theory). These skills are relating to increased

refinement of control of large and small muscles of the body, and the functioning of the

senses.

The quality of motor development has a profound effect on other aspects of development.

Key-points to remember: ⬧ The emergence of reaching and grasping is largely controlled by maturation;

however, experience plays a part as well.

⬧ Locomotive development is largely controlled by biological maturation but is also by

environmental factors.

⬧ Movement activates the neural wiring throughout the body, makes the entire body –

not just the brain- the instrument of learning.

⬧ Gross and fine motor skills are learned through repetition as well — both by virtue of

being practiced and because repetition lays down patterns in the brain.

⬧ Pushing young children beyond readiness can undermine the development of

important motor skills.

A Message from KK Children’s Hospital

Read article: Sensory Defensiveness In Children

Reading :

Sensory Defensiveness In Children


Each of us has the ability to sense potential danger. We are able to respond to

these events with an appropriate amount of defence. Some people have a

tendency to respond to certain harmless sensations as if they were dangerous or

painful. This is called "sensory defensiveness".

What Is Sensory Defensiveness?

Sensory defensiveness is simply an over-activation of our protective senses. It is

a tendency to react negatively or with alarm to sensation that is generally

considered harmless or non-irritating. Take, for example, children with sensory

defensiveness. Their clothes may feel like spiders on the skin and a flight of stairs

may seem like a cliff to them. Common symptoms may include over-sensitivity or

over-reaction to light or unexpected touch, sudden movement, high-pitched noises

and certain smells.

Sensory defensiveness results in varying degrees of stress and anxiety with each

child. The child with sensory defensiveness may perceive the world as dangerous,

alarming or at the very least irritating. Children with sensory defensiveness can be

described as sometimes over-active, emotional or sensory-seeking. Learned

patterns and habits are often developed around avoiding disrupting sensory events

or seeking out sensation that might restore comfort. When sensory defensiveness

dominates a child's behaviour, parents or caregivers may find it increasingly

difficult to manage the child. For example, the child may frequently hit or bite other

children at school, throw temper tantrums during outings or destroy toys and

books.

Types Of Sensory Defensiveness

Each child with sensory defensiveness develops his own set of behaviour. These

are usually a combination of sensory avoidance and sensory seeking behaviours.

There may be defensiveness to one or many types of sensations. Although it is not

possible to list all the symptoms of sensory defensiveness, the following is a list of

common symptoms that can be attributed to each of the sensory systems.

Tactile Defensiveness:

Children with tactile defensiveness avoid letting people touch them and would

rather touch others instead. They frequently fuss or resist hair washing or cutting.

They may scream or throw a tantrum during baths/showers or when having their

clothes changed. They often do not like to get their hands or feet dirty. Some may


bump or crash into things on purpose as a way of seeking sensation or seem

under-responsive to certain sensations or pain.

Oral Defensiveness

Some children dislike or avoid certain textures or types of food. They may be over

or under-sensitive to spicy or hot foods, avoid putting objects in their mouths and

intensely dislike brushing their teeth or washing their faces.

Gravitational Insecurity

This appears to be an irrational fear of change in position or movement. These

children are often fearful of having their feet leave the ground, or head tipped

backwards e.g. when sitting on swings at the playground.

Postural Insecurity

This is a fear and avoidance of certain movement activities like jumping, hopping

and climbing stairs.

Visual Defensiveness

This may involve over-sensitivity to light and visual distractibility. They may startle

more easily or avert their eyes and avoid eye contact with others.

Auditory Defensiveness

This reflects over-sensitivity to certain sounds and fearful responses to noises like

vacuum cleaners, motors, fire-alarms etc. Children sometimes make excessive

amounts of noise to block out sound.

Others

Other symptoms can include unusual sensitivities to taste or smell.

Where Can You Get Help?

Occupational therapists have successfully identified and treated sensory

defensiveness for many years. It is important that the diagnosis be made by a

knowledgeable therapist through a careful sensory history review.

Topic 7: – Cognitive Development in the Early Years

Content Coverage


development






Cognitive Development in the Early Years Cognitive development refers to the development of thinking and reasoning. It is the

process involving perception, memory and concept formation in mastery and

acquisition.

Perception:

It involves making sense of information and refers to the detection, organisation and

interpretation of information from environment. Perception has a profound effect on the

efficiency of thinking

Memory:

Memory is the storage of information that are gathered and retained through senses

It is accessible and necessary for use in thinking. Recognition is simplest form of

memory, and recall is also a form of memory but it is remembering something not

present

Concept Formation:

This refers to the ability to think of things by grouping similar ideas and objects together

efficiently. Concepts can be concrete; more specific; and abstract. Concepts formed

by children may differ from adults as they do not think in the same way as adults. This

ability improves with age, experiences and maturity.

Understanding Children’s Thinking

There are 2 types of thinking:

1. Convergent Thinking

- Involves the use of established or given information to arrive at a single correct

answer.

2. Divergent Thinking

- Involves moving in many directions from the established or given information to

arrive at an answer where no one answer is necessary correct.

It is the divergent thinking is associated with Creativity


Theoretical Perspectives on Children Learning and Cognitive Development

The child is regards as an active leaner and solver of problems. Most theories emphasize

the role of a child's natural motivation as the key factor in development.

This motivation can include the desire of children to satisfy their curiosity, master

challenging tasks, or reduce the inconsistencies and ambiguities they find in the world

about them. It is believed that children form own ideas about the world and the

relationships among its different aspects, then move to a limited set of generalizations

based on their knowledge of specific cases. Finally, the children gain the ability to make

valid and abstract generalizations about reality.

1. Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Jean Piaget was a most influential figure in the unfolding of our understanding of the

process and pattern of cognitive development.

• He studied the way children view the world and how they learn.

• He considered the ability to adapt is their intelligent behaviour

• He found that children grow and mature in their thinking through the processes of

assimilation and accommodation.

Piaget’s theory describes how children’s thinking and learning develops (Review

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory)

2. Basic Learning Mechanisms

In Learning Theory, it proposes that developmental changes occur as a result of learning experiences. Maturation and heredity have relatively little importance.

• Conditioning - Learning through the association with reinforcement

• Operant Conditioning - Learning due to the natural consequences of our actions.

• Habituation and Dishabituation - a learned behaviour being internalised

• Observation and Imitation - Learning through observing others.


(Refer to Behaviourism and Operant Conditioning Theory of B.F. Skinner and Social

Learning Theory of Albert Bandura)

3. The Social Context

Lev S Vygotsky felt that the acquisition of knowledge was active and socially constructed

rather than a passive conditioning. According to him, full development requires social

interaction. He theorised that guidance within the zone of proximal development is

related to advanced play, language, and problem-solving skills.

(Refer to Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev S. Vygotsky)

Postmodern Conceptions on Cognitive Processes

Currently, there is a shift in conceptions and that have changed the way we think of

young children and have also influenced the early care and educational practices.

1. A Neurological View

Recent discoveries about early brain growth and neurological development now

reinforce many prominent child development theories. The new developments in brain

research show us what children need; and our challenge is to ensure that every child

receives it.

One of the most important of these discoveries is the idea of windows of opportunity,

which is also referred as the Sensitive Period in development. The brain is especially

sensitive to environmental influences, both positive and negative. During this period,

certain essential experiences strengthen particular brain activities. When adults expect

young children to master skills for which the necessary brain circuits have not yet been

formed, they waste time and resources, and may even impair healthy brain development

by inducing excessive stress in the child.

Neuroscientists believe that stimulating healthy early experiences lay the foundation

for later learning. That is because brain architecture and developing skills are built “from

bottom up”, simple circuits and skills provide the foundation for more advanced circuits

and skills over time. However, adverse early experiences result in weakened brain

architecture and often lead to problems in learning, health and behaviour.

The developing brain is like a super sponge, rapidly absorbing experiences into its

architecture. By age three, 80% of neural construction is complete.


2. Core Knowledge Perspective

Core knowledge perspective asserts that an inherited foundation helps infants and

toddlers make sense of their experiences.

Their views:

➢ Infants begin life with innate special-purpose knowledge systems, or core domains

of thought.

➢ These core domains of thought are regarded as the prewired understandings or

the initial knowledge.

➢ These are elaborated as children experience during their interactions with the

environment; objects; and people.

➢ Each domain permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore

supports early, rapid development of certain aspects of cognition.

➢ Each core domain is essential for survival.

➢ Do not regard development as a general process but rather domain specific and

uneven.

➢ Each core domain develops independently.

➢ Children are viewed as naïve theorists – building on core knowledge concepts to

explain their everyday experiences (their theory).

Core knowledge perspective prescribed the following as the core domains of thought:

➢ Physical knowledge

- understanding of objects and their effects on one another

➢ Numerical knowledge


- the capacity to keep track of multiple objects

- add and subtract small quantities

➢ Linguistic knowledge

- the ability for language acquisition

➢ Psychological knowledge

- early orientation toward people

➢ Biological knowledge

- ideas about bodily processes, such as birth; grow; illness; and death

3. Information Processing Model

From birth, people are confronted with stimulation and information that their minds must

process. Information-processing (IP) model is another way of examining and

understanding how young children develop cognitively. It attempts to account for

changes in a child's cognitive ability via interactions between the developing brain and

the child's increasing knowledge of the world. This approach reveals a detailed

understanding of what children of different ages do faced with tasks and problems.

IP model discusses how a young child processes information and how the processing

develops as the child matures. It is just like how a computer processes information and

store them for later use. There are three main areas involved:

- Sensory Register (SR) – Information is first received through a child's senses, it

comes from the environment around the child, and it is referred to as the sensory

register.


- Short Term memory (STM) – This is the working memory where information

received from SR being processed and "problem solving" occurs; it usually only

processes things for a short period of time.

- Long Term Memory (LTM) – This is where the information remembered over

time is kept; there are many ways that information is moved from working memory

into long term memory.

There are many important components involved during information processing and

they influence how and what information is processed, and the processes develop as a

person grows. Without these, a child would not be able to perceive, understand, use,

and remember the information they are given everyday.

⬧ Attention - actively concentrating on the information; an important component

because it is what causes information to move from the sensory register to the

working memory. Infants gradually attend to more aspects of the environment,

taking in information more quickly. Sustained attention improves with the

transition to toddlerhood

⬧ Retention - which simply means holding onto the information (memory)

⬧ Retrieval - bringing the memory out of storage and reversing the process of

encoding (recognition and recall).

⬧ Recognition - noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously

experienced (Simplest form of memory).

⬧ Recall – also a form of memory but it involves remembering something not

present. Indicated by ability to find hidden objects and imitate others’ actions long

after observing the behaviour.

⬧ Categorization - grouping similar objects and events into a single representation;

it helps young children to learn and remember new information. Earliest

categories are perceptual; by end of 1st year of life it become conceptual; in the

2nd year toddlers become active categorizers

Forgetting is a natural phenomenon. It is physiologically pre-programmed to eventually

erase data that no longer appears pertinent or not used for an extended period of time.

Sometimes the information is still in the memory storage but for various reasons, it

cannot be accessible. Possible reasons could be either distractions; an error of

association; regression; or amnesia.

Mental Strategies Gradually Improve With Age

This IP model regards cognitive development as a continuous process - an idea that the

development of abilities and cognitive processes occurs steadily and gradually through

trends. The mind and the way it process information is very complex and continues to

develop.


Individual Differences in Early Cognitive Development

Infants and toddlers can be similar in some ways but different in others with respect to

many other kinds of cognitive skills. The reasons for such differences could be the

environmental factors - variations in experiences (both positive and negative ones),

mental health condition, instinctive drift (instinct to stimuli interfered with learning), and

cultural factors (culture affects the degree and content of learning). Heredity is also one

of the reasons for the individual differences because biological risk factor cannot be

changed. A child's genetic background can predispose certain inherited diseases and

disorders that affect the child’s cognitive development.

There are many forms of testing available to assess the individual differences in

intellectual development of infants and toddlers. Contrast to the cognitive theories which

are concerned with the process of development, mental tests measure cognitive

products that reflect mental development and predict future performance.

Infant Intelligence Tests

It is a challenging task as infants cannot answer questions or follows directions. So

infants are simply presented with stimuli and then they are coax to respond. Their

behaviours and responses are documented. Hence, most tests can only emphasize on

perceptual and motor responses with some that include early language, cognition, and

social behaviour (problem-solving).

Computing Intelligence Test Scores

Intelligence tests for infants, children, and adults are scored in much the same way. Test

designers engage in standardization to make this comparison possible– giving the test

to a large, representative sample and using the results as the standard for interpreting

scores. From within the standardization sample, results at each age level form a normal

distribution - – a bell-shaped curve in which most scores fall near the mean, or average,

with progressively fewer towards the extremes.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) are scores that indicates the extent to which the raw score

(# of items passed) deviates from the typical performance of same-aged individuals

Here are some of the approaches used to assess the individual differences in the

development of infants and toddlers:

1. The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development:

It is a commonly used assessment instrument designed to measure physical, motor,

sensory, and cognitive development in young children from 1 month to 3½ years old.

The most recent edition, Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-

III) are recognised internationally as one of the most comprehensive tools to assess


young children. It can assist child's paediatrician in identifying early signs of delays

and potential learning disabilities.

Young children are assessed in the five key developmental domains:

• Cognitive scale

Includes items regarding attention to familiar and unfamiliar objects, looking for a

fallen object, and pretend play

• Language scale

Assesses understanding and expression of language, e.g. recognition of objects

and people, following simple directions, and naming objects and pictures

• Motor scale

Includes gross and fine motor skills, such as grasping, sitting, stacking blocks,

and climbing stairs

• Socio-emotional scale

Obtains detailed information from caregivers on child’s behaviours such as ease

of calming, social responsiveness, and imitation in play

• Adaptive behaviour

Obtains detailed information on adaptation to the demands of daily life, including

communication, self-control, following rules, and getting along with others

A PDF copy of the Bayley-III Observational Checklist is available at

http://psychcorp.pearsonassessments.com/NR/rdonlyres/8174AA45-E80A-40E7-

A5B3-62E45426AA4B/0/Bayley_ObsChklst_Scr_RF_final.pdf

2. Developmental Screening:

A brief, standardized procedure designed to to determine if sensory, behavioural,

and/or developmental skills are progressing as expected, or if there are causes for

concern or a perceived need for further evaluation. Developmental screening

instruments are designed to survey children’s abilities in areas of development

identified in the Birth to Three Learning and Developmental Standards:

• Physical health

• Approaches to learning

• Social and emotional development

• Language and communication

• Cognitive development and general knowledge

• Motor development

3. Child Assessment:

This child assessment enables early care and education professionals to gather and

interpret information about young children and to make decisions regarding their

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education and care. It is the basic process of finding out what children, both

individually and as groups, know and can do in relation to typical developmental

expectations and the goals of the program. Information from the assessment is used

to determine strategies to support the development of the child within the context of

the early childhood environment, as well as the child’s family, culture, and

environment, while monitoring progress along the way.

Factors That Influence Cognitive Development Learning is dependable upon cognitive processes in a child’s development. The

biological or genetic factor is known to be one that influences a child's cognitive

development and physical growth. Early environmental factors and experiences are also

factors that can influence development. They can either foster or inhibit cognitive

development because neuroscientist already confirmed that these two factors shape the

brain’s architecture.

Source: WestEd, The Program for Infant/Toddler Care

Genetic Factors

Children are born with their "genes" in place and the genetic make-up acts like a blue-

print for what characteristics a child may have. Genes determine when specific brain

circuits are formed and individual experiences then shape how that formation unfolds.

There are biological risk factors that can affect a child’s cognitive development because

a child's genetic background can predispose certain inherited diseases and disorders to

the child. This certainly impact the child’s learning.


Environmental Factors

The experiences children have in their home, school and community environments are

identified as the environmental factors impacting a child’s development. These

environmental factors can either improve or harm a child's genetic blueprint. For

example, malnourished children who live in third world countries may not reach their IQ

potential because of the impact of their environment on their brain development. Below

is the list of environmental factors:

• Home culture, traditional practices, and belief

Cognitive development, the process by which reason, thought, ideas, and critical

thinking emerge, is significantly impacted by interaction with family members and the

community. The child being born into the family usually looks up to the family

members as models for him in learning how to interact with the environment and as

teachers to teach him about the bigger environment outside home’s comfort zone.

The child is “programmed” into the specific society, family, belief, values as well as

rules and laws which apply to children. His attitudes towards acquiring knowledge and

skills, concept formation and problem solving will depend on the forces of the

influences.

Examples, a child born into a family who enjoy reading and learning, the child will also

grow up enjoying reading and leading. If the home environment is not demonstrating

the socially desirable behaviours, attitudes and values like being aggressive,

disrespectful, and hates school, the child will also grow up sharing all these

behaviours and hence his learning journey will not be able to lead to academic

success.

• Parenting styles and early educare practices

The way the child is being taken care of has an impact in his learning and cognitive

development. If a young child is being care of in a respectful and responsive way and

have a well-developed relationship/ strong attachment with the parents or caregivers,

the child grow up feeling emotionally secured; trusting; happy; and confidence, he will

be motivated to actively explore his environment, practice newly acquired skills with

great interest, and enjoy discovery, etc. These activities will certainly stimulate his

brain and lay the foundation for later learning.

Child’s interest in learning depends on the 2 motivating factors – encouragement for

participation; and the presentation of age and developmentally appropriate activities.

When children are neither motivated nor encouraged to participate in tasks and

activities that are intended to develop cognitive abilities, certainly the development

would be impacted negatively due to lack of stimulating experiences that aids brain

development.


Young children are generally curious by nature. They explore, question, and wonder,

and by doing so, they learn. They need to be presented with experiences that

stimulate their curiosity and learning. When young children are curious about

something new, they want to explore it and discover how things work. A child’s

potential (emotional, social, and cognitive) is expressed through the quantity and

quality of their experiences. Curiosity plays an enormous role in the depth and breadth

of these experiences. Generally speaking, if a child’s curiosity is nurtured and

encouraged, they are more likely to make new friends, have more rewarding social

lives and be interested and excited about new activities and experiences. Because of

this enthusiasm, the curious child is usually easier to teach and motivate.

According to Bruce Perry (2001) the following natural cycle results by inspiring and

supporting a child’s curiosity:

❖ Curiosity leads to exploration.

❖ Exploration leads to discovery.

❖ Discovery leads to satisfaction.

❖ Satisfaction leads to repetition.

❖ Repetition leads to mastery.

❖ Mastery leads to new skills.

❖ New skills lead to confidence.

❖ Confidence leads to improved self-esteem.

❖ Self-esteem leads to a sense of security.

❖ Security leads to further exploration.

• Health Condition

Maintaining a good level of health and fitness are essential for a growing and

developing child for optimal learning and development. Offering the child a nutritious

diet rich in vitamins and minerals provides them with the necessary nutrients to

support healthy growth and development. In addition, sufficient sleep and

encouraging active play and incorporating physical activity into daily life helps the

child to build muscle, increase coordination and develop self-confidence. It is also

crucial that a child has good development of gross and fine motor skills to effectively

exhibit the developed cognitive skills.

Educarers and parents should foster good health by modelling and sustaining an

active, healthy lifestyle as well as good health practices.

• Injuries / illnesses

For good cognitive development, it is certainly important to ensure safety and good

hygiene practices when caring for young children. Severe Injuries (e.g. brain injury)


and serious infectious diseases may alter the child’s genetic blueprint and can

negatively impact on a child’s cognitive development.

• Stress / neglect / abuse

Love and affection are very real needs create a strong self-esteem and increased

development of brain circuitry. Young children naturally want to impress their parents

and other adults. In their first year, children learn the value of rewards and the feeling

of esteem and confidence that coincides with completing a new task. This feeling

stays with most of us for life. Equally, a child who receives no praise will likely

experience learning difficulties and social issues.

Early Cognitive Development: From Neurological Studies

• Opportunity to practice newly acquired skills.

• Opportunity for social interaction: Benefits from varied strata of interpersonal

interactions at school and at home.

• Emergence of internal psychological mechanisms helps the child to construct

successively more complex cognitive models based on maturation and experience.

• Neuronal plasticity is crucial for learning and remembering and therefore for the

cognitive development. It permits the central nervous system to reorganize neuronal

networks in response to environment’s positive and negative stimulation.

• In face of injury or new learning, the body draws upon the reservoir of neurons bank

created as a result of large number of neurons produced during the third trimester and

early infancy. Each neuron develops about 15,000 synapses by 3 years of age.

• The neuronal “pruning” leads to preservation of synapses of frequently used pathways

and atrophy of those that are less-used.

• The strength of synapses increases or decreases as a direct effect of a child’s

experiences that influence the synaptic activity.

• The early experiences are particularly important because learning proceeds more

efficiently along established synaptic pathways.

• Children can be moulded by controlling the stimuli and the associated responses:

Smaller achievable challenges instil confidence in a growing child to accomplish the

tasks and thus lead to better cognitive development during early childhood.

Early Language Development

Language Development


YouTube Clips on Early Language

Part 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oRhl5zCRaKI&feature=related

Language is a form of communication. Language development is the process by which

young children come to understand and communicate language during the early years.

Infants can perceive the difference between human speech and other sounds, and can

also distinguish intonations when people talk. Infants and toddlers comprehend more

language than they are able to speak. Infants focus on and develop language mostly

because they want to communicate.

Young children develop language at an extraordinary rate. The stages of language

development are universal among humans. However, the age and the pace at which a

child reaches each milestone of language development vary greatly among children. But

language development does reflect the growth and maturation of the brain, hence most

people think of ‘language” as a measure of general development.

Between birth and three years of age, children begin to learn that they can communicate

with adults through crying, gestures, expressions, sounds, and later through words or

other alternative methods. These language skills develop through playing, listening,

talking, reading, and learning the skills that adults use to communicate. Early nonverbal

interactions (smiling, facial expressions, gestures, etc.) are followed by spoken language,

sign language or other alternative communication methods to practice the rules of

communication within their culture and family. These skills set the foundation for

development in all areas, but especially literacy development.

2 aspects of language:

• Receptive Language - Language that children understand from hearing

• Expressive Language - The words in speech that the child can say and use

Theories of Language Acquisition

Humans are "hard-wired" to acquire language in a way that other mammals cannot.

There are 3 theoretical explanations on language acquisition:

• Behaviourist Perspective

• Nativist Perspective

• Interactionist Perspective

Behaviourist Perspective

According to Skinner, language is acquired through operant conditioning

- Parents reinforce their baby’s sounds that most sound like words.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oRhl5zCRaKI&feature=related


- Imitation combines with reinforcement

- Conditioning and imitation support early language rather fully explains it.

It simply means infants and young children hear speech around them and copy it. As

children continuously receive language input, their language is revised to more and more

become a model of adult grammar.

Nativist Perspective

Nativist theorists like Noam Chomsky believe that language learning is an innate ability

that results from specific parts of the brain that are responsible for language processes.

The biological Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is in every child regardless of culture,

race or the social context the child is in. He also added that children speak in a rule-

oriented way from the beginning. But language acquisition is not immediate; it occurs in

a steady and gradual manner.

Nativist also reckoned that when an adult talk to an infant, his or her voice tone is different

from the normal tone but of a higher pitch. They call it motherese - a way mothers teach

infants language.

Youtube Clips:

Noam Chomsky’s View of Language Development

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gU-B0-DCKI&feature=related

Interactionist Perspective

Interactionists believe that infants acquire language through the interaction process of

innate abilities and environment influences. Even in their early months, infants are

eager to have “conversations” with their caring adults. They start by smiling and cooing

back and forth with their caring adults. This “back-and-forth” is practice for having a

conversation later on. By 3 months they begin to use their bodies to communicate –

kicking their feet, waving their hands, etc.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gU-B0-DCKI&feature=related


Infants and young children acquire language when they are able to interact in a rich

linguistic environment (hear human speech, have people to talk to and talk with) in a

trusting social environment (secured attachment with respectful and responsive caring

adults).

The Precursors of Language

Most people think of language as the beginning when the baby uses her first words. But

there are all sorts of important developments that precede the first words. Here are a list

of early sounds and gestures which appear in the pre-linguist period:

• The cry stage - the first vocalisation

• The coo stage - pleasant vowel-like noises

• The babble stage - repetition of consonant-vowel combinations in long strings.

Note: Language comprehension develops ahead of production.

Key Points - Getting Ready To Talk

• Babies must hear human speech for babbling to develop further

• Adult-infant interaction increases the amount of spoken language.

• Frequent one to one early conversations, maintaining eye contact, and repeating

back those gurgles and coos from the baby help the infant to understand the back

and forth nature of language and conversation.

• Vocalization in early months sets the stage for early language and literacy skills, as

seen when an older baby plays with rhythmic language and nonsense words.

Native Capacity of

Child

Linguistic Environment

Social Environment

Language Capavities


• When young children begin to speak, the first words that they use describe their

own experiences and interests. This is the very special and ego-centric first

language.

• Expressing the child's own intentions may first be seen in his sounds, gestures, or

other emergent communication.

Stages of Language Acquisition

1. Prenatal & Neonatal Stage

Infant experiences and processes vast array of stimuli before birth and that promote

neurological development in the brain. A newborn infant can distinguish some sound

patterns and prefers and sound of own mother’s voice. Responding to the mother’s voice

is the most apparent neural sensation.

2. Infancy Stage (2 – 12 months)

When an infant is between 1 and 5 months they vocalize mostly when lying down and

they begin to develop vocal "games". They explore manipulations with pitch, practice

consonantal features such as friction noises, bilabials and nasal murmurings. First vowels

begin to appear around this period. Infants start to play with their articulators – clicking

tongue; opening and shutting mouth, etc.

At about 6-8 months, the infant makes more specific sounds and begin babbling repeated

single consonant-vowel syllable like "gagagagagag" and later combinations of repeated

consonant-vowel syllable like "mamamma-gagagaga". They can still recognize language

sounds that are not a part of their language.

When infants are about 8 – 12 months, they begin to babble using sounds from only their

language. They begin to imitate language and use appropriate rhythm, phrase, intonation

and speech patterns (non-replicated babbling).

3. The Holographic Stage (About 12 months)

Children move from babbling to authentic speech at this stage. They begin to understand

the function of speech as communication and able to use one word to represent a whole

concept, idea, or complete thought (e.g. pointing and saying "ball" but meaning "can I

have the ball?"). Able to understand and obey simple verbal commands (e.g. “no” and

“don’t do that”).

4. The Telegraphic Stage (about 12-24 months)

This is when children are at the “two-word utterance phase” stage -typically subject-verb,

verb-object, and adjective-noun. These are the type of expressions that they can vocalize:


✓ To describe objects and actions (“bad dog”)

✓ To identify locations (“Daddy by-bye”)

✓ To suggest who is doing what (“birdie fly”)

✓ To make requests (“me cookie”)

✓ To express interest (“pretty kitty”)

✓ To provide information (“my doll”)

5. To Fluency Stage (about 3 years)

Children experience “language explosion” at this stage. They begin to speak in whole

sentences and phrases, use language to ask questions beginning with why, how, and

who. They interrupt less often and understand turn-taking in conversation. They also

recognize when they have not been understood and rephrases communications.

Characteristics of Speech in the Early Years

Underextension – Word is applied to a smaller number of objects and events than is

appropriate (e.g. – “ye-ye” (auntie in Chinese) referring to the sister of child’s mother and

not any other ladies)

Overextension – Word is applied to a wider collection of objects and events than is

appropriate (e.g. kitty – refer to any furry animal)

Overgeneralization -

• Even though the child has used the plural form correctly in the past the child may

revert back to using "foots" instead of "feet".

• Even though the child is breaking the plural rule it is a representation of linguistic

progress.

• Word order is often confused.

• Syntactic function of a noun phrase is most often determined by its position.

Milestones for Language & Speech Development

Birth to 5 months

✓ Reacts to loud sounds.

✓ Turns head toward a sound source.

✓ Watches your face when you speak.

✓ Vocalizes pleasure and displeasure sounds (laughs, giggles, cries, or fusses).

✓ Makes noise when talked to.

6 - 11 months

✓ Understands "no-no".

✓ Babbles (says "ba-ba-ba" or "ma-ma-ma").


✓ Tries to communicate by actions or gestures.

✓ Tries to repeat your sounds.

12 - 17 months

✓ Attends to a book or toy for about two minutes.

✓ Follows simple directions accompanied by gestures.

✓ Answers simple questions nonverbally.

✓ Points to objects, pictures, and family members.

✓ Says two to three words to label a person or object (pronunciation may not be

clear).

✓ Tries to imitate simple words.

18 - 23 months

✓ Enjoys being read to.

✓ Follows simple commands without gestures.

✓ Points to simple body parts such as "nose."

✓ Understands simple verbs such as "eat," "sleep."

✓ Correctly pronounces most vowels and n, m, p, h, especially in the beginning of

syllables and short words. Also begins to use other speech sounds.

✓ Says 8 to 10 words (pronunciation may still be unclear).

✓ Asks for common foods by name.

✓ Makes animal sounds such as "moo."

✓ Starting to combine words such as "more milk."

✓ Begins to use pronouns such as "mine."

2 - 3 years

✓ Knows about 50 words at 24 months.

✓ Knows some spatial concepts such as "in," "on."

✓ Knows pronouns such as "you," "me," "her."

✓ Knows descriptive words such as "big," "happy."

✓ Says around 40 words at 24 months.

✓ Speech is becoming more accurate but may still leave off ending sounds.

Strangers may not be able to understand much of what is said.

✓ Answers simple questions.

✓ Begins to use more pronouns such as "you," "I."

✓ Speaks in two to three word phrases.

✓ Uses question inflection to ask for something (e.g., "My ball?").

✓ Begins to use plurals such as "shoes" or "socks" and regular past tense verbs

such as "jumped."


Topic 8: – Understanding Social-Emotional Wellness of Children

Content Coverage


development





Understanding Social-Emotional Wellness of Children

Social-emotional wellness is often known as the child’s mental health by early childhood

professionals. It is about self (thoughts; feelings; and expectations) as well as towards

others and the world. The sense of self and others starts to develop from the very

beginning! It is about the developing capacity to experience and regulate emotions, form

secure relationships, and explore and learn—all in the context of the child's family,

community and cultural background.

Human are social beings and young children are no exception. With improved motor skills

and cognitive abilities, young children are able to engage in more complex social

exchanges. A young toddler may lack social skills necessary to enter into friendships as

friendship develops in line with the child’s cognitive ability. Very young children need to

learn how to act in social situation; how to express themselves and solve problems without

hurting others; and how to trust, enjoy and care for others. They are still in the egocentric

stage.

Emotions refer to the basic human experience, joy, anger, happiness and so on. It is very

individual and complex. They are usually aroused by external events and emotional

reactions are directed into these events. Emotions can totally possess a young child! Very

young children need to have a certain level of cognitive ability and motor skills in order to

understand and acquire the skills of emotional control. Thus, children often get

themselves hopelessly entangled in social difficulties.

Relationships & Development


Relationships are the way children come to know the world and their place in it. It is

through relationships that these young children develop social emotional wellness.

Nurturing relationships are crucial for the development of trust, empathy, compassion,

generosity, and conscience.

Children below 3 have complex social and emotional needs that have to be met in a

number of different ways. Many theorists have established that relationships between the

carer and infant play an important role in meeting these child’s complex needs.

Theoretical Explanation

Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud

Freud advanced a theory of personality development is related to psychosexual stages –

how children are treated while going through each stage determine healthy/abnormal

personalities.

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson theorised that caregiver’s relationship with the child during the early years plays

significant role in child’s social – emotional development

Operant Conditioning Theory of B.F. Skinner

Skinner claimed that children are conditioned by their experiences. Children master

emotional regulation based on their encounters with people and the situations they are in.

Caring adults’ reactions towards their display of emotions and the way they interact their

friends teach them which behaviours are socially desirable and which are not! When

similar encounters happen frequently, their behaviours and reactions became conditioned.

Staneley Greenspan’s Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers.

Greenspan advocated that appropriate emotional experiences during each of his six

developmental phases help develop critical cognitive, social, emotional, language, and

motor skills, as well as a sense of self.

Concept of Attachment of John Bowlby

Bowlby believed that attachment had an evolutionary component; it aids in survival.

He believed that the early and powerful experiences with the carer will shape a child’s

long-term emotional wellbeing. It is also related to cognitive and social development in

early childhood.

The Attachment Patterns of Mary Ainsworth

Ainsworth identified the several individual differences in attachment which strengthen

Erikson’s basic notion that of trust and security in infancy. Her findings imply strongly that


Infants with “secure” attachments tend to be better equipped emotionally to deal with life

than infants with “anxious” attachments. Later longitudinal research of a group of children

for more than twelve years provides clear evidence about the kind of attachment a child

has formed by age and the child’s possible future behaviour.

Advance in Neuroscience

Numerous studies on brain development have shown that feelings, empathy and

emotional understanding are hard-wired into the brain through early relationship

experiences in the first years of life.

How do young children learn about emotions?

Many emotional characteristics of children are acquired. They may need help in learning

how to understand and control their emotions. Infants and young children rely on a trusted

person’s emotional reaction in an uncertain situation. This is Social Referencing, a

method of learning about the environment through indirect experience. Just like adults,

children do have different levels of expressing their emotions. Though it is healthy to

express different emotions but children must be taught to express them in an accepted

manner.

Infants and young children perceive facial expressions and emotional tone as

organised patterns. They match the voice to the face of a speaking person and learn

about the way emotions are being expressed. Example, an adult in a joyful moment

speaking in between laughers; an angry adult shouting loudly with a very crossed facial

expression and may even be accompanied by an aggressive behaviour like banging or

throwing things; a disappointed person keeping head low, with a about to cry facial

expression; etc.

Anxieties and Fears:

Anxiety is defined as "apprehension without apparent cause." Everyone, from the

youngest child to the oldest adult, experiences anxieties and fears at one time or

another. Feeling anxious never feels very good but these are normal, in fact, they

are necessary. A little bit of anxiety can actually help people stay alert and focused.

Experiencing and dealing with anxieties can prepare young children to handle the

unsettling experiences and challenging situations of life.


• Babies (about 6 months) experience stranger anxiety, clinging to parents when

confronted by people they don't recognize.

• Toddlers around 10 to 18 months experience separation anxiety, becoming

emotionally distressed when the trusted caring adult leave.

• Children about 2 to 3 years do have anxiety about things or situations that they are

not familiar with.

Anger

Children’s anger is easily aroused. It is expressed during the first months when

babies cry in response to unpleasant experiences. Children who have been shouted at

or physically punished for misbehaving will probably direct these same behaviours toward

others. Cognitive development plays an important role in anger reactions. Culture can

modify these emotions through infant-rearing practices.

Children have the right to angry feelings! Parents and educarers need to teach them the

appropriate way to show anger and without hurting others.

Aggression

This is an emotion that causes the greatest concerns. It can take many forms

– may be the result of over-exuberance; lack of awareness of strength; or may be a sign

of deeper problem of anger and conflict.

According to Social Learning Theory, aggressive responses can be learned through

imitation and increased if positively reinforced. Parents and educarers need to understand

that when a child experiences aggressive behaviour can either increase subsequent

aggressive behaviour or maintain it at the same level. Indirect, observed or vicarious

expressions of aggression may also increase or maintain aggressive behaviour in

children. Viewing violence also affects the young child’s social behaviour.

Studies have shown that social factors (poverty; overcrowding; a sense of loss; low self-

esteem; etc.) seem to associate with anger & aggression. Young children’s aggressive

behaviour can be directed at any beings (bite, push, and beat people) or any inanimate

objects (throw, destroy, and bang toys). Children can be aggressive for different reasons.

It is necessary to redirect the angry child’s energy into other activities that allow the

release of pent-up energy in him who is inclined towards such destructive behaviours.

Self Esteem

Self-esteem is the collection of beliefs or feelings one has about self (self -

perceptions), with feelings of being loved and appreciated. How children view themselves


influences their motivations, attitudes, and behaviours and affects their emotional

adjustment. Enhancement of the sense of self (pride, and achievement) actually helps

children to acquire values of society, and develop ideas about his/her capabilities,

develop accurate, healthy self-perceptions. Injury to the sense of self (shame,

embarrassment, and guilt) will lead to child having a misconception of the values of

society and about self! Self-esteem fluctuates as a young child grows.

Children with low self-esteem:

• Tend to be overly critical of and easily disappointed in them.

• May not want to try new things.

• Exhibit a low tolerance for frustration, giving up easily or waiting for

somebody else to take over.

Children who have healthy self-esteem:

• Tend to enjoy interacting with others as well as independent pursuits.

• When challenges arise, they are able to work toward finding solutions.

• They know their strengths and weaknesses, and accepts them

Emotional Self-Regulation

This refers to the strategies young children learn to adjust emotional states. These are

some strategies usually young children use to regulate their emotions:

• Sucking pacifier to release emotion

• Pacing or moving around the room permits them to regulate feelings

• Crying softly or sobbing and hugging a soft item tidely to calm down.

• Use words for the verbal toddlers - language permits young children to describe their

emotions

• Move away and seek comfort and support elsewhere (arms of a caring adult)

Cultural differences:

• Some encourage positive feelings

• Some that stress collectivism place emphasis on appropriate emotion

• Some learn to hide emotions esp. unhappiness and affections, etc.

Development of Sociability


Developing sociability refers to the making friends and adjustment to the norms of society.

The effect of the socialization process depends on child’s attachment relationship with

his/her caregiver as well as his/her level of cognitive development.

Rudimentary peer sociability is present during infancy but true social interaction is rare.

Social interactions are more sustained during toddlerhood and able to engage in social

games but play is fairly solitary until about age 3.

Emergence of Prosocial Behaviour

Infants are initially purely self-centred, they unable to understand other’s views and

emotions. However, they are able to perceive the distress of others but they are not able

to take any actions. And, they may be affected emotionally (child will also cry when sees

another child cries in distress).

Children are capable of empathic responses before age 2 , will hug or pat a friend who is

crying; or leaves the crying child or even attack the crying child. As children get older,

their level of social cognition (the ability to understand other’s problems and feelings) gets

higher, it is easier for children to respond in socially appropriate ways.

Friendship Formation

Children’s ideas about friendship change as they develop – in line with cognitive ability.

For young children about 2 - 3 years, friendship is formed easily and equally easy to be

broken too because they do not have the social skills necessary to enter into any intimate

and trusting friendships. They regard friends as those whom they play or share material

goods. As they grow older (above 3 years), friendship becomes a more mutual affair as

it involves more than sharing materials – include helping, caring, being kind and not taking

advantage of each other.

Gender Typing

Sex role development is the learning that results in children acting like “boys” or “girls”.

These sex-appropriate behaviours are not built into the biological make-up but are

acquired during early childhood years.

Stereotypical reaction is evident in some cultures where boys and girls are treated

differently. The most obvious area where sex-type behaviours are evident is the

stereotypes of “masculine” and “feminine” emotional expression. Examples, telling a

toddler boy that only a girl will cry like a baby, and telling little toddler girl must stay proper

and gentle always and not to be too physically active or rough.


Infants and Toddlers: Social-Emotional Well-Being

Behaviours that Indicate Social/Emotional Well-Being May Be At Risk

• Displays very little emotion

• Does not show interest in sights, sounds, or touch

• Pushes away from or avoids being touched or held

• Does not show interest in playing with adults or other children

• Is unusually difficult to soothe or console

• Is unable to comfort or calm self

• Is extremely fearful or on-guard

• Does not seek comfort from familiar adults

• Exhibits sudden behaviour changes

• Clings to strangers

How to Promote Social and Emotional Well-Being

• Be familiar with the stages of social and emotional development.

• Talk with children about their feelings.

• Smile and laugh often.

• Encourage play and friendship among children.

• Respect the cultures of the children you work with.

• Help children learn to respect the feelings of others.

• Use positive guidance methods, such as listening, redirecting, and praising.

• Teach children how to handle conflicts. Does not harm, threaten, or shame.

Source: FDLRS/NEFEC Child Find @ www.firn.edu/doe/bin00014/clerhome.htm

Topic 9: – Attachment and Bonding

Content Coverage

http://www.firn.edu/doe/bin00014/clerhome.htm



development





Attachment and Bonding

Notable names in the study of attachment are John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth with their pioneering work on the importance of parent-infant attachment.

Attachment refers to the affection that young children feel toward a special trustful person

in their lives. The terms "attachment" and "bonding" are often used interchangeably, as

though they had similar implications. However, they have quite distinctive meanings.

Bonding actually refers to the parent's tie to the infant and is thought to occur in the first

hours or days of life. Attachment, in contrast, refers to the relationship between infants

and primary caregivers, which develops gradually.

(Refer to Attachment Theory of Attachment Theory of Bowlby & Ainsworth). Why is attachment so important to a child’s development? The first year of an infant's life is characterized by phenomenal changes in how she understands and interacts with the world around her. According to Erik Erikson's theoretical explanation of psychosocial development, the most important task of that first year is to establish a sense of basic trust of others. The experience with a caregiver who is sensitive and predictable, the young child learns to trust that the caregiver will be there to meet her needs. And this child learns to trust in her own ability to solicit that care. That basic trust in caregivers and in oneself is carried forward, influencing the child's expectations and behaviour in subsequent relationships with other adults and peers. The process of bonding/attachment also determines that they are special to each other.

Watch Clip: Secure, Insecure, Avoidant & Ambivalent Attachment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DH1m_ZMO7GU

Read the article on “Attachment: Supporting Young Children's Emotional Wellbeing”.

Juliet Neil-Hall describes the various attachment styles and discusses the importance of

attachment and meeting the emotional needs of young children.

Read: Attachment: Supporting Young Children's Emotional Wellbeing

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DH1m_ZMO7GU


Reading:

Attachment: Supporting Young Children's Emotional Wellbeing ================================================================ According to attachment theory our first relationship with our carers acts as a lifelong

template, moulding and shaping our capacity to enter into, and maintain, successful

subsequent relationships with family, friends and partners. It is believed that these early

and powerful experiences with the people who first looked after us will shape our long-

term emotional wellbeing.

Advances in neuroscience and the development of early brain scanning have shown

that feelings, empathy and emotional understanding are hard-wired into our brains

through our early relationship experiences in the first years of life.

Levels of key chemicals (serotonin and cortisol) that promote social and emotional

development, mood regulation and self-control are released through interaction with

early care-givers. The infant and young child’s brain is then hard-wired with conceptual

ideas and understanding about emotions and relationships based on these interactions.

This means that pathways in the brain are actually formed or not formed according to

our attachment and relationship with first care-givers both in the home and in any care-

giving setting.

Attachment Signals

As children grow, indeed for all their lives, they adapt to attachment signals and

behaviours (see table, above right) in an age-appropriate way to make emotional

connection to others in order to:

• behave in a socially appealing manner

• approach, seek out and keep near to significant others for reassurance when

fearful or anxious

• send out distress signals designed to invite attention or concern

• set out from, and then come home to, loved ones.

Attachment Styles Research has shown that whether our emotional needs are met or responded to in the first years of life can have a long-term effect into adulthood. This is described as having a secure or insecure attachment. In addition, it has been found that attachment ‘styles’ can often be passed on from one generation to the next. In instances of insecure attachment, it is only through appropriate intervention that the cycle can be broken to introduce more positive relational attitudes within families.

1. Secure Attachment A secure attachment develops when there is a healthy reciprocal relationship between child and carer. Social interaction is characterised by fun and playfulness and the child’s need for comfort when anxious or distressed is met quickly and effectively. The child feels able to explore the world at his/her own pace knowing that the parent or carer is a


secure base to return to. When they become adults, securely attached children are able to enter into reciprocal relationships and have an expectation that their needs will be met and that they will be able to meet the needs of others. They have the capacity to show emotional connection through empathy or ‘mind mindedness’, are able to talk about their feelings, and are familiar with a wide emotional repertoire in both themselves and others. Securely attached children have internalised in early childhood the key elements of positive relationship building. This gives them lifelong protection from stress and emotional anxiety and a greater chance of coping with, and surviving, traumatic life events. 2. Avoidant Attachment Avoidant attachment develops when parents or carers actively discourage signs of either affection or distress, believing that emotions are to be suppressed and feelings should be unexpressed. This means that it is difficult for the child to access a feeling of being loved and nurtured and he or she has to develop alternative coping mechanisms to survive emotionally. Children in this situation can become withdrawn emotionally and learn to internalise painful and difficult feelings. As adults, avoidant children find it difficult to connect with the emotional repertoire of others and find talking about their feelings a source of anxiety and distress. They find it hard to maintain relationships and mistrust intimacy. 3. Ambivalent Attachment

Children experience ambivalent attachment when they are never quite sure whether

their carers will meet their need for reassurance or comfort. The parent may sometimes

respond to distress and anxiety or may sometimes ignore it. There is a lack of

predictability in the behaviour of the carer that makes the child feel ‘all over the place’.

The child often feels distressed but has no confidence that his or her distress will be

heard. This form of attachment is particularly prevalent in families where there are

mental health problems or issues with alcohol or substance misuse.

Ambivalent attachment in children is often perpetuated by producing adults who are

prone to mental health problems such as depression, anxiety and eating disorders.

They also find it difficult to recover from traumatic life events and respond badly to

stress and challenge.

4. Disorganised Attachment Disorganised attachment occurs when children send out attachment signals but these are not received or responded to appropriately by the parent or carer. Sometimes the parent appears unaware of the child’s needs. This attachment style can occur when the parent has many unresolved emotional issues from his or her own past or has no emotional resources to draw on due to mental health problems or a traumatic life event occurring during the first years of the child’s life. Alternatively, and much more seriously, disorganised attachment can occur when the parent is a threat to the child through


abusive behaviours. Children with disorganised attachment often fail to thrive and may have developmental delay. Young children will inevitably show signs of emotional and behavioural difficulties from an early age by demonstrating aggressive, disruptive or withdrawn behaviours both at home and in the early years environment. Disorganised attachment in infancy has been linked by both longitudinal and retrospective studies to a number of mental health problems and personality disorders. In addition, disorganised attachment is a risk factor that hugely increases a child’s vulnerability to other harmful influences or events. In adulthood there is an increased susceptibility to relationship breakdown, substance misuse, self-destructive and self-harming behaviours, eating disorders, suicide, offending behaviour and aggressive, violent and controlling behaviours. The role of the early Years Practitioner As early years practitioners we need to be aware that all children have complex emotional needs that have to be met in a number of different ways. When children’s relationship needs are met they feel secure, happy and confident. Equally, when their emotional needs fail to be met children can feel insecure, unhappy and lacking in confidence. An extreme lack of emotional sustenance can have repercussions in all areas of development – social and emotional, cognitive and even in physical growth and wellbeing. Ideally, children will have most of their emotional needs met by their family at home, allowing them to grow up feeling secure and emotionally stable. Consistent failure to meet these needs at home can produce negative and challenging behaviours and have an effect on long-term outcomes through childhood, adolescence and into adulthood. There is a responsibility placed on the early years practitioner to help to supplement children’s needs within the early years setting and, perhaps even more importantly, to support parents to meet their child’s needs in a primary way at home. It is sometimes difficult for parents to nurture their children emotionally if they have very few emotional resources themselves. By seeking opportunities to meet the emotional needs of parents we can also enhance their ability to meet their own children’s emotional needs. Key Emotional Needs

There are 10 key emotional needs that all human beings have a need for:

1. Attention 2. Acceptance 3. Appreciation 4. Encouragement 5. Affection 6. Respect 7. Support 8. Comfort 9. Approval 10. Security


Successful attachment depends on the infant or young child sending out programmed ‘signals’ and the parent or carer responding to these in such a way that the child feels contained and held, loved, nurtured and safe. 1. Attention needs are met by taking a focused interest in thoughts, feelings and

activities. Listening and spending time together on a one-to-one basis with either a child or a parent can build a sense of value and importance. It is often difficult in the busy day to find time to give parents this attention and nurture. However, by finding time to focus on their needs we also help to fill their emotional tank to enable them to meet the attention needs of their children. Often we talk about people being ‘attention seeking’. It is sometimes more fruitful to think of them as simply trying to meet an emotional need – when it is met they will stop exhibiting attention seeking behaviours. It is easy to forget children or parents who are undemanding when it comes to seeking attention. They too have needs which should be met.

2. Acceptance needs are met through accepting people for just who they are at any given moment in time without judgement. Children need to know that they are accepted even when they exhibit challenging or difficult behaviour and that there is always forgiveness and a new beginning. Acceptance means not comparing one child with another in whatever area. It means allowing the child their own individuality and uniqueness so they grow in their sense of self. Families need to be accepted whatever their socio-economic status, education, gender, race, class, sexual orientation, ethnicity or faith. Setting staff can create an atmosphere of welcome and acceptance that allows parents to be honest and vulnerable and seek support without fear of judgement.

3. Appreciation is shown by giving positive celebratory feedback on big and small things. Telling children what it is they have done well and why you are proud of them means their sense of purpose is enhanced. Achievements should be celebrated in whatever area. A lovely smile or a kind act are as worthy of appreciation as tidying up the toys. Some children like public acclamations of success; others prefer the quiet word of appreciation – just like adults! Parents can be appreciated for contributing in whatever way to their children’s learning and wellbeing whether this in the setting or at home.

4. Encouragement involves ‘cheerleading’ through motivating and empowering from the side-lines thereby giving children a sense of your strong belief in their abilities to meet the challenges of learning, playing and growing. Stretch them a little bit further than they thought they could go. Encourage them when the going gets tough and resolve falters. Equally, we can give parents encouragement in carrying out the complex and difficult task of raising and looking after their children. We can point out to them the positives


and the joy and laughter their children can bring them when sometimes life appears to be particularly challenging.

5. Affection involves using the power of physical touch to communicate our care and

support. Although we obviously need to keep within appropriate boundaries it is vitally

important to reach out to children with a simple pat on the hand or touch on the arm.

Affection is a stronger language than the spoken word and communicates in a way

that a sentences or phrase can never do.

6. Respect for young children means seeing them within the context of their whole life

experiences both at home and in the setting and giving them the dignity that comes

from growing in independence and self.

Respect for parents means holding people in esteem and understanding that they

have their own beliefs, opinions and value systems which are worthy of being heard,

even if they are not the same as ours. We need to take time to listen and to hear and

be ready to negotiate and compromise when there may be a clash or

misunderstanding.

7. Support is necessary when children are finding life challenging in whatever way,

whether it is socially, emotionally or in tackling their learning – they need to feel help

is just there ready to be asked for. Children need to know that we will put ourselves

out and be prepared to go that extra mile sometimes too. This gives a sense of

working and growing alongside others in the knowledge that they are not alone.

In order to support children we need to support their parents in a holistic and pro-

active way. This might mean signposting them to appropriate agencies to find the

help they need or just giving time to listen to their troubles and concerns and offering

sound strategies if advice is asked for.

8. Comfort is needed when children are sad, upset or distressed. They need to know

that their feelings will be acknowledged and heard. Hurt needs to be soothed through

empathetic listening or appropriate physical touch. A time to recover gives dignity and

space. Everyone needs comfort sometimes – both adults and children.

9. Approval is received by giving regular verbal feedback, treats and rewards for

positive behaviour, actions and activities. Speaking highly of children in their

presence and to others allows them to feel proud of themselves and builds self-

concept, internalising a sense of worth. Approval should be about ‘who children are’

as well as what they do.

Parents gain from being given feedback and approval for the way they are parenting.


Parenting doesn’t come with an instruction manual and sometimes a bit of approval

builds self-confidence that we are going about it the right way.

10. Security is crucial to allow children to feel held and contained safely. Clear

expectations and boundaries that are systematically carried through in a fair way

provide the foundation of security.

Children also gain security through experiencing a consistency of routines and from

seeing adults work in a harmonious and integrated way. They also need to know

when there will be changes in routines, or when experiences will be coming to an

end so that a pathway through these can be negotiated in a seamless way.

Equally we need to have clear professional boundaries with parents and be reliable

and trustworthy in doing what we say we will do.

In summary

In order to support the emotional wellbeing of children it is necessary to think through

different and complimentary ways in which we can meet the 10 top emotional needs

effectively. We also need to make sure that we are looking after ourselves and we are

meeting our own emotional needs through the input of family, friends and colleagues. It

is only when we have this ‘input’ that we can provide the necessary ‘output’. This is why

working with parents can have such an important positive effect on empowering and

enable them to invest in their children’s emotional needs.

Sources of information

• Ainsworth, M, and Bowlby, J (1991) ‘An Ethological Approach to Personality

Development’, American Psychologist 46, 331-341

• Brazelton, TB, and Sparrow, JD, Touchpoints Three to Six: Your child’s Emotional &

Behavioural Development, Perseus Publishing, 2000

• Buchanan, A, and Hudson, B, Promoting Children’s Emotional Well-being: Messages

from Research, Oxford University Press, 2000

• Goldberg, S, Attachment and Development: An Integrative Approach Hodder Arnold,

2000

Juliet Neill Hall works an independent consultant to education and multi-agency organisations

on behaviour management and working with parents

Source: Retrieved on 2nd Feb 2010 from Teaching Expertise at

http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/attachment-supporting-young-childrens-emotional-wellbeing-

2358

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Cultural Variations & Individual Differences

http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/attachment-supporting-young-childrens-emotional-wellbeing-2358

http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/attachment-supporting-young-childrens-emotional-wellbeing-2358


Class Activity – Small Group Discussion

Explore the possible attachment patterns of the following:

• Middle class with stable conditions - Attachment quality is fairly stable (social issue)

• Some parents encourage their babies to be independent (cultural issue)

• Some rarely leave their babies in the care of strange people (parenting issue)

Possible factors affecting Attachment Security

• Opportunity for attachment – may be the limitations in the social context child is in, or

cultural childrearing beliefs and parenting practices

- Does the child have the opportunity to develop a close personal relationship with

one or only a few caring adults?

• Is being institutionalized led to greater insecure attachment as institutionalized infants

are often being perceived of displaying the following

- experienced emotional difficulties

- wept

- withdrew

- lost weight

- had difficulty in sleeping

• Quality of Caregiving being viewed as the core factor for attachment security.

Are the following statements true or false?

- Secured infants’ mothers respond promptly to infants, are positive, and handle

babies tenderly.

- Unsecured infants’ mothers dislike contact, handle them awkwardly, and are

insensitive.

- Avoidant infants receive caregiving that is over-stimulating and intrusive.

- Child abuse and neglect are associated with insecure attachment.

The Importance of Family Stability in Attachment Security

Family circumstance influences attachment quality. Stressors, such as anxiety and

instability, job loss, failing marriage, financial difficulties, may interfere with the sensitivity

of parental care (Berk, 2003).

- Families may experience major life changes and hence quality of attachment changes.

- Family transitions affect parent-child interaction.

- Parents’ experiences affect bonds established with their children.


- Mothers who dismiss the importance of early relationships or describe them angrily

usually have insecurely attached babies.

Multiple Attachments

Much of the early theory and research in attachment focused on mother-infant bonding,

so the importance of other relationships is sometimes neglected in popular usage.

However, current concepts of attachment theory accept that children form attachments to

many caregivers at the same time. Bowlby assumed that mothers are attachment but

fathers, grandparents, day care providers and teachers are all considered attachment

figures of typical children. Infants may direct their attachment to a primary figure but may

also bond with many other secondary figures. Long-term foster caregivers are also

thought to be attachment figures, although specific categories of foster care, such as

emergency, short-term or respite foster care may not provide for the relationship

continuity necessary for forming an attachment.

Infants may direct their attachment to a primary figure but may also bond with many other

secondary figures.


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WEBSITES 1. HPBOnline - http://www.hpb.gov.sg/hpb/default

2. Lóczy-Pikler Institute - http://www.pikler.org

3. National Scientific Council On The Development Child -

http://www.developingchild.net

4. Resources for Infant Educarers (R.I.E.™) - http://www.rie.org

5. Westside Pregnancy Clinic - http://www.wprc.org

6. Zero to Three (National Centre for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, USA) –

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http://zerotothree.org/

wsq advanced certificate in early years identify how

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