Tips on Grammar, Usage, and Style

2004 by Megan McInnis www.thescarletpen.com

Grammar and Usage

Among usage experts there are those called purists and those called permissivists. Permissivists are open to the changeability of the language and freely accept that many words have acquired a great number of meanings, some of them contradictory (see livid, below). Purists are thought by some to be nitpickers whose purpose is only to pounce on those who use words incorrectly. This may be true of some of them. However, others are driven by the importance of preserving the expressiveness of the language by adhering to the unique definition of every word. For example, transpire once meant leak out or become known, but it is now used as a synonym for happen or occur. We already have the words happen and occur, but there is no other word for transpire, and if we allow words like this to lose their strict definitions, well have fewer ways to express ourselves. The words in this guide are so commonly misused that dictionaries have changed their definitions to include the misuse in addition to the correct use. One could argue that what is acceptable to dictionaries cant be wrong; however, when words attain too many meanings, they lose their precision and potency. Usage guides exist to keep words from diffusing into meaninglessness, so that when we communicate, well really be saying something. For more details, or with any other questions, please email megan@thescarletpen.com. a lot of, lots of In formal writing, replace these phrases with many, much, or considerable:

Many celebrities were present, wearing much makeup, and considerable fuss was made over their garb.

ability vs. capacity Some grammarians reserve capacity for volumes and amounts, as in the capacity of the container, and argue that people do not have capacities but abilities. Others, including me, unflinchingly use capacity for people, but with these limits: ability can be acquired, but capacity is innate.

If you have the capacity to learn art, you can acquire the ability to paint.

about This word should be used to mean concerning or regarding, and it should refer to linguistic activities (think about, talk about, write about, read about):

Deadly Persuasion is a book about the addictive power of advertising. It can also mean approximately, but aside from that, it should not be used to refer to non-linguistic matters (non-thinking, talking, writing, or reading). The following uses are considered slang: Rebellion is what Im all about. (Should be, Rebellion is my credo, or Rebellion is my most distinctive characteristic.) / The American Way is about pride. (Should be, Pride is the distinguishing American value.) / Love for ones enemies is what Jesus was about. (Should be, The essence of Jesus philosophy was loving ones enemies.) About can also be used in reference to films, because they contain words and can be spoken of, and even to symphonies. The following examples are correct: Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz is about an artist who attempts suicide with opium but only has hallucinations.

The last movement of Beethovens second symphony is about the composers own gastrointestinal disorder.

These are acceptable because the symphonies are metaphorical; they have story lines that can be put into words. A way to test whether youre using about correctly is to see whether the sentence can be reworded beginning, The subject of X is . . . For example, The subject of Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz is an artist who attempts suicide with opium but only has hallucinations. about vs. around In the sense of approximately, about is preferred. Violent, aggressive driving contributes to about two thirds of all traffic deaths. above Just as you would not say in the below example, you should avoid saying in the above example. Instead say, in the example above. absent Absent means away or missing. It should not be used as in the following: Hutch left Rosemarys apartment absent one glove. Either replace absent with in the absence of or without, or write the sentence differently:

Hutch reached into his coat pockets and found that one glove was absent. absolutely, positively, definitely, totally, immensely, incredibly, utterly Like exclamation points, these words should be kept at a minimum or they will lose their potency. Just as good actors limit raising their voices and singers limit the number of times they gesture or close their eyes with feeling, writers can make their words more powerful by reducing their use of intensifiers. These words can be replaced with slightly less common adverbs such as decidedly, emphatically, clearly, indisputably, certainly, assuredly, far and away, hands down, beyond argument, wholeheartedly or undoubtedly, or, when appropriate, they can be simply omitted. Using this kind of restraint can have surprising impact. See also really, very.

absolutes Some usage experts contend that certain words express absolute conditions which logically cannot exist in degreesso, for example, absolutely perfect is redundant and more perfect, impossible. (Our founders would have been more accurate saying in order to form a more nearly perfect union.) Not everyone agrees with this argument (most dictionaries do not), but, for the record, here are just a few words that you might want to think twice about before modifying: absolute adequate complete consensus discomfit (this word means to wholly undo; to defeat) equal eternal fatal final incomparable panacea perfect simplistic supreme total unanimous unique unqualified academe, academia Academe (from Greek) and academia (from Latin) denote institutions of higher learning as a collectivity or an abstraction. Plato taught in a grove in Athens considered sacred to the Greek hero Academos, and Platonic philosophy came to be called the Academy (capital A). As Erik Wensberg points out in Modern American Usage, 1998, To call universities collectively academe is equivalent to calling them John Harvard. He goes on to say that academia is preferred to academe, but he considers both words affected, noting that we dont use familia for families in general or biblioteca for the collectivity of libraries. He recommends using the simple English words the academy (small a). accept This word should not be followed by to or that, as in these sentences: He could not accept to lose. (Should be, He could not accept losing.) / I accept that you dont like my children. (Should be, I accept your not liking my children, or I recognize that you dont like my children.) Instead, accept should be followed by a noun, including a gerund (a verb made into a noun by the suffix ing) or the pronoun it: I will not accept lies from you. I will not accept your lying. I do not accept it as my duty to tolerate your lies. acquiesce

This word is different from agree and assent, which are followed by to, in that it implies silent, tacit, or quiet compliance. It should be followed by in: He was afraid, and acquiesced only halfheartedly in the plan. address, speak to People, in speech and in writing, address and speak to other people: That statement was addressed to the rest of the class, not to you. I need to speak to you in my office. It is legalistic to use these words figuratively and abstractly, as in the following: The candidate promised to address the problem of overtaxing the poor. (Should be . . . see to/tend to the problem . . .) / The new program doesnt speak to the needs of Native Americans. (Should be . . . account for/consider the needs . . .) / Bergs opera really spoke to me. (Should be . . . really meant something to me.) adherence vs. adhesion Adherence is used in the figurative sense, adhesion in the literal sense: My adherence to animal rights keeps me from supporting 3M, the makers of

Scotch tape, Post-It Notes, and other products used for adhesion. admit This word should only be used when a charge has been made:

Yes, I admit that I used your black silk scarf for a Batman cape.

It should not be used in sentences such as this: He admitted to having read the complete works of Shakespeare. This false modesty is like answering a compliment with, Guilty . . . as charged! admonishment Admonition means the same thing and is preferred. advancements Advances is preferred. adverse vs. averse Both words mean opposed or hostile, but averse describes the subjects opposition to a thing, and adverse describes something opposed to the subject: Im not averse to trying the drug, as long as it doesnt have any adverse

effects. advise This word should be used to mean recommend or suggest. When substituted for tell or inform, it often comes across as condescending. If you need to leave early, please tell/inform your supervisor.

affect vs. effect As verbs, affect means influence, cause, or have an effect on, and effect means bring about, accomplish, or execute: The medication did not affect me. I had hoped that it would effect a change in me. As nouns, affect (with the stress on the first syllable) is a psychological term meaning feeling or emotion, and effect means result:

The patients description of her mood was contradicted by her affect. Lius plea for mercy in the aria Signore, ascolta has no effect on Calaf.

agenda Although this word is the Latin plural for the singular agendum, Theodore Bernstein contests in The Careful Writer, 1965, that it has departed from its original meaning of things to be done, and now means a program of things to be done. The singular force is so strongly felt that the word has developed its own pluralagendas. Data, on the other hand, has retained its meaning of things or facts. See also data. aggravate The two most common senses of this wordto worsen and to irritate or exasperateappeared almost simultaneously in the early 17th century, but because the first sense is closer to the etymological meaning, it is preferred by grammarians:

Katerina was heartbroken when Sergei gave her stockings to Sonetka, but her pain was aggravated when Sonetka bragged about how warm she was.

ahold This word is colloquial, like ascared, and should be avoided in formal writing. It is sometimes correct to use the two-word phrase a hold, but for other instances, simply use hold: I couldnt get a hold on the smooth cliff face. I called her all day but never got hold of her. You can determine when to use the two-word phrase by whether it would work to insert an adjective, as in, I couldnt get a firm hold. all ready vs. already All ready means completely prepared; already means by now: I was all ready to go with them, but they had already left. Note: there is only one spelling for all right. A common misspelling is alright. all together vs. altogether All together means in unison; altogether means entirely:

I had altogether forgotten that wed planned to go all together. allusion vs. illusion vs. delusion An allusion is an indirect reference, an illusion is a deceptive appearance, and a delusion is a false and often perilous belief:

In Mendelssohns Overture to A Midsummer Nights Dream, measures 199 to 205 are an allusion to the braying of Bottom as an ass. First, Macbeth sees the illusion of Banquos ghost, and later his wife thinks she sees blood on her hands that wont wash off. Oedipus has the delusion that he has escaped the fate of marrying his mother and killing his father.

alternate vs. alternative (the adjectives) The first means one after the other, the second, one or the other: He and I work on alternate days of the week. The alternative would be working together. Road signs instructing you to Use alternate route are incorrect. alternative vs. choice (nouns) Because alternative derives from the Latin alter, meaning other of two, strict grammarians reserve it for choices between only two possibilities, but most allow for its use with more than two. Alternative connotes a mandatory decision, whereas choice does not: Your only alternative is to fight or to die. You may have your choice of desserts. amount vs. number Use amount with singular nouns, number with plurals: Food Not Bombs provides a large amount of food to a great number of people. and/or Most grammarians detest this construction, some calling it a mental and visual abomination, others a monstrosity of legalese. Logicians insist that or means and/or, and that if a brochure says You can swim or play tennis, the implication is that you are free to do both. However, even logicians admit that menus offering soup or salad really do mean one or the other. Though most stylists prefer concision whenever possible, all seem to agree that and/or is not an acceptable way of condensing a sentence. They prefer the following: You will receive a thousand-dollar fine, four weeks in jail, or both. anticipate vs. expect Both mean look toward, but anticipate requires performing some preparatory action, no matter how slight. To expect a good meal is to believe that youll be

well fed; to anticipate a good meal is to set the table, try not to spoil your appetite or, at the very least, feel your mouth watering.

Desdemona expects that Othello will still be angry when he comes to bed. She anticipates her death by singing her own funeral song.

anxious vs. eager Anxious means nervous or worried and is followed by about or for; eager means looking forward and is followed by to: Cressida is anxious about becoming a prisoner of the Greeks. She is eager to meet in secret with Troilus. any, other, else Its correct to say, She was stronger than any man, but when comparing likes, add other or else. (She was stronger than anyone would mean that she was stronger even than herself.) She was stronger than any other woman. She was stronger than anyone else. any more vs. anymore Any more means any additional amount; anymore means any longer, and is used in questions and in negative sentences: Im stuffed; I dont think Ill eat any more. Hes wasting away; he just doesnt eat anymore. Do you ever cook your own meals anymore? Note: anymore is correct only in the negative and, occasionally, the interrogative (as in the last two sentences). An incorrect colloquialism is a declarative such as, Anymore, I do all my shopping online. anyways, anywheres The correct words are anyway and anywhere. appreciate The root of this word is value or appraise, and it once meant to evaluate truly (even if negatively), but now means only be grateful for, value highly (or increase in value, as in stocks). It is commonly used to mean understand or realize, especially when the speaker wants to seem level-headed during an argument or in preparation for refusing a request. This can come across as condescending. I appreciate your hard work. I understand your position but Im not going to let you out. I realize that the handcuffs are uncomfortable. apt vs. likely vs. liable Likely means probable and apt means probable because of a natural tendency. Liable can either mean in danger of or legally responsible:

Hes apt to cry when lightning strikes, even though it isnt likely to hit him. Youre liable to trip on that wet floor, and then the owner of the store will be held liable.

Also note: it is unidiomatic to say, We will likely go to the food bank tomorrow. Instead say most likely, very likely, or quite likely. as vs. while vs. because Substituting as for while or because can cause confusion, as in the sentence As youre busy fixing the tire, Im going to stretch my legs. Instead, say one of the following:

Because/Since youre busy fixing the tire, Im going to stretch my legs. While youre busy fixing the tire, Im going to stretch my legs.

See also since. as bad or worse, as good or better Be careful with these words because they require different conjunctions; its incorrect to say as bad or worse than, or as good or better than. Instead, say as bad as or worse than, as good as or better than. Even better, reword as follows: Hes as bad as she is, or worse. as far as One use of this phrase causes no problems: Each year, competitors in the 26-mile New York Marathon will run as far as

Pheidippides ran on his journey from Marathon to Athens.

But when used in another sense, the phrase can be problematic. Its incorrect to say, As far as physical fitness, he was a champion. The following sentence is correct: As far as physical fitness goes/is concerned, he was a champion. as to vs. about As to is considered stuffy by many people; instead, use about:

Reagan claimed no recollection about the details of the Iran-Contra affair. However, its fine to begin a sentence with as to when you want to give immediate attention to an element that otherwise would appear further on in the sentence:

As to his conduct as president of the Screen Actors Guild, he remembered even less.

ASAP This abbreviation isnt so bad in the sentence below: Ill fix the sink ASAP.

Here, at least, one could assume that the writer was in such a hurry to get to the leaky faucet that she didnt have time to write out the whole phrase. However, it can sound rude in the following sentence: Get this report done ASAP. If the person who needs the report expects you to finish the job immediatelyand, its assumed, thoroughlythen theres no excuse for her not to show you equal respect by writing out as soon as possibleor, at least, right away. average, number, total These words are given plural verbs when preceded by a or an, singular when preceded by the:

The number of people killed in the US each year by environmental tobacco smoke is greater than the number killed by all illicit drugs combined. The total killed in the US each year by ETS is about 50,000. In addition, an average of four million children are treated yearly for diseases caused by ETS.

awhile vs. a while Awhile is an adverb; a while is a noun: Take off your coat and stay awhile. Take off your coat and stay for a while. bad vs. badly Bad is an adjective and can therefore be used as a subject complement (describing a condition or a passive verb); badly is an adverb (used to describe an active verb): He felt bad that he couldnt help, but his legs ached badly. In the sentence above, felt is a linking verb, requiring a complement (adjective) rather than an adverb. Therefore, it would have been just as wrong to say He felt badly as to say He felt sadly/gladly/madly. Other examples of passive verbs or linking verbs are looked, seemed, sounded, tasted, and smelled: He looked bad, smelled bad, and sang badly. The following sentences demonstrate when to modify feel in the usual waywith a complementand when to use an adverb: Now that Ive been lifting weights for three months, I feel strong. I feel strongly about the importance of exercise. See also fine, and good vs. well. behalf In behalf of means for the benefit of; on behalf of means in place of: Would you sign this petition in behalf of the homeless? Certainly. And may I also sign on behalf of my husband?

better vs. had better Better is not sufficient to mean ought to; for that purpose, it must be preceded with had: You had better stop. biannually, bimonthly, biweekly These words used to mean every two years/months/weeks, but have also come to mean twice a year/month/week. Some usage experts prefer that the latter sense be expressed with the prefix semi-, but since not everyone agrees, its best to say every two years or twice a year, for claritys sake. McSweeneys is bimonthly, so I only get to read it six times a year. blame on This phrase should not be used in formal writing; therefore, avoid such wording as this: The Situationists blamed the deadly diversion of the force of life in favor of an empty heaven on the Catholic Church. Instead say the following:

The Situationists blamed the Catholic Church for the deadly diversion of the force of life in favor of an empty heaven.

Another option is to use the first (incorrect) sentence and replace blame . . . on with attribute . . . to. blatant vs. flagrant The first definition of blatant is brazenly obvious; the second is offensively noisy; obnoxiously loud. Flagrant means openly evil, glaringly wicked, notorious, or scandalous.

He blatantly honked his horn in blatant disrespect for his date and for the entire neighborhood. Though the tobacco industry denies that they must addict three thousand children a day to replace those smokers who die or quit in the US alone, their flagrant use of cartoons to sell cigarettes gives them away.

briefly People often use this word as shorthand meaning to be brief, but it can make for some odd sentences, such as, Briefly, I was detained for three hours. The proper use of the word is as follows: Aeneas stayed briefly with Dido before going on to found Rome. For the first sense, either say to be brief or leave off the word altogether and get right to your story. Thats the briefest solution. but Because this word implies negation, using it with not produces a double negative. Therefore, instead of, It wont take but a minute, say one of the following: It will take but a minute.

It wont take more than a minute. See also cant help but. but rather This phrase is redundant; the proper usage follows:

Then must you speak Of one that lovd not wisely, but too well. Othello, V.ii.346-7

callus vs. callous Callus is a noun and callous, an adjective: Callous to the calluses on her feet, the officers made Katerina keep walking. cannot This is nearly always one word; the following sentences show its two uses: He cannot drive a car. She can not only drive a car, but fly a plane. In the second sentence, can is an auxiliary not only for drive but for fly, so it needs to be separated from not. You can observe that by rewording the sentence without the word not: She can drive a car and fly a plane. cant help but Some usage guides suggest replacing cant help but wish/think/notice with cant but wish/think/notice; others say (and I agree) that help is not the problem in that phrase; while cant help wishing makes perfect sense, cant but wish is still a double negative. The archaic version is I can but wish; its logical, but awkward to the modern ear. Another option is can only wish: I cant help wishing the pain would go away.

I can only hope the pain goes away. careen vs. career These verbs are often confused. Keeping in mind that careen rhymes with lean, you can remember that it means to lean, sway, or tilt. Career means to move rapidly, especially at full speed: Careering out of control, the sailboat began to careen. carat vs. karat vs. caret Both carat and karat are used as measurements for the fineness of gold (pure gold being 24 karats), but carat, which equals 200 milligrams, can also refer to gemstones, and karat cannot. On the other hand, a caret is a small V shape used in math to indicate is greater than (>) or is less than (

celebrant vs. celebrator A celebrant participates in a public religious rite; a celebrator celebrates:

The celebrants were disturbed by the shouts of drunken celebrators outside the church.

censor vs. censure Censor means cut or prohibit; censure means criticize, reproach, or formally reprimand:

When CBS announced they would censor advertisements by PETA and MoveOn.org, they were censured by thousands of viewers, who refused to watch the Superbowl.

centers around Centers on is more logical than, and preferable to, centers around. Other options are revolves/rotates/clusters around, concerns, and is about. chord vs. cord A chord is an emotion, as in struck a chord of pity, or a combination of three or more musical notes. A cord is a rope or a cable, or a cordlike structure, as in spinal cord, vocal cords, and umbilical cord. classic vs. classical Both these words are misused. Aside from the slang use of classic meaning priceless or unforgettable, as in The look on his face was classic, or quintessential, as in That was classic Tarantino, the word means of the highest class or standard. Therefore, it makes some sense to say a classic Seinfeld or classic rock (just dont make the mistake of saying classical rock), but this use in reference to popular culture tends to cheapen the word. In formal writing, it should be reserved for instances such as the classic method of teaching art or a classic novel. (The classics are books which, over time, have been recognized for their outstanding literary and cultural merit.) Classical music can mean one of two things: loosely, it is art music, concert music, or opera (as opposed to jazz, folk, or popular music); specifically, it refers to compositions of the late eighteenth century, particularly by Mozart, Haydn, and early Beethoven. (That is distinct from some other forms of art music, including Baroque and Romantic.) In addition, classic and classical both refer to the art and culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans, who were the inspiration for Mozart and his contemporaries.

He read Stephen King; I read the classics. He liked classic rock and I preferred classical music. He called these classic examples of our differences.

community A community cannot be planned; it can only come about. Therefore, the now-common phrases used by developers to advertise their apartment communities or, more ridiculously, their one- and two-bedroom communities are absurd. A

community is not a building or even a set of buildings, but a social group who not only share a neighborhood or village but, often, have a common cultural and historical heritage. They dont necessarily share a government (though they might), but, for goodness sake, they have to share something other than a general locality.

When divorce left him a single father, he found practical and moral support from his community.

complected The correct word is complexioned: He was fair complexioned and freckled easily. complement vs. compliment To complement is to add to or complete; to compliment is to praise:

He complimented the way Tonys green sweater complemented his red hair. comprise Since the 15th century, this word has meant consist of or contain:

Gandhis possessions comprised a bowl, a pair of glasses, and the dhoti he wore.

Since the late 18th century, it has also been used to mean compose:

A bowl, a dhoti, and a pair of glasses comprised his possessions. All but one usage guide I consulted frowned on the latter meaning, and even that one agreed that comprised of was incorrect, as in, His possessions were comprised of a bowl [etc.]. For that sense, use composed or made up. Note: include is not a proper synonym for comprise, because include suggests an incomplete list of components, whereas comprise denotes the kit and caboodle. conditions This word should be reserved to mean requirements. Weather conditions, traffic conditions, and housing conditions can be shortened to weather, traffic, and housing. connote vs. denote To denote is to mean or to symbolize; to connote is to imply:

During wartime, displaying your countrys flag denotes support for the war. The truck-sized flag in his yard connotes jingoism.

contagious vs. infectious Contagious comes from a Latin word meaning a touching; therefore, a contagious disease is one communicated by touch. An infectious disease is communicated by air or water, and may or may not be contagious:

He slapped my arm and laughed his infectious laugh; I only hoped he wasnt contagious.

continuously vs. continually Continuously means incessantly; continually means repeatedly (with breaks in between): Add eggs, beating continuously. Simmer ten minutes, stirring continually. converse vs. contrary vs. opposite vs. reverse Converse denotes oppositeness and declares a transposition of the important parts of a proposition or statement: premise: All Christians love their enemies. converse: The enemy loves all Christians. contrary: Not all Christians love their enemies. opposite: No Christians love their enemies. The most general of the words denoting oppositeness is reverse, which can include all the others. convince vs. persuade To convince is to change [someones] mind; to persuade is to move [someone] to action. Therefore, convince should be followed by of or that, whereas persuade may be followed by of, that, or to:

Once Id convinced him that his rights were at stake, I persuaded him to join the union.

could care less To say could care less indicates that you do care to some degree; the proper expression is couldnt care less. could of, should of People used to hearing the contractions couldve and shouldve often write them as could of and should of. Instead, use have in conjunction with could, should, would, must, might, and may:

I could have and I should have; if you had let me, I would have. councilor, counselor A councilor is a member of a council. A counselor gives counsel. couple Some of the rules for the use of this word are contradictory; for instance, it is considered bad English to say a couple drinksit should be a couple of drinksbut when you add an adjective of degree, you drop the of, so that its a couple more drinks and a couple too many drinks.

Another oddity concerns whether the word is plural or singular. It is plural when it is followed by a (necessarily plural) noun: A couple of birds were trapped in the garage. It is singular when it stands alone: The couple was hiking in the mountains. But the last rule changes in certain sentences, such as the following: The couple lost their place in line. That is because the alternative, its place, would be even stranger. criteria As a plural noun (the singular being criterion) , this word requires a plural verb: Their criteria are strict. cultivatable This word can be found in the dictionary, but the preferred word is cultivable. data Some authorities point out that data is plural and should therefore require a plural verb, but others argue that, like agenda, erotica, insignia, opera, and other technically plural Latin and Greek nouns, we should give it a singular verb. When the authorities disagree, it becomes a matter of preference.

The data show/shows that, in the US, more people die annually from cigarettes than from alcohol, cocaine, heroin, fires, car crashes, homicide, suicide, and AIDS combined.

See also agenda and media. deadly vs. deathly The first means lethal, the second, resembling death or indicating death: Claudius poured a deadly poison into King Hamlets ear. When the king returned as a ghost, he had a deathly complexion. debut Some grammarians prefer that this word be used only as a noun. For the intransitive verb sense, they would prefer appear, begin, come out, commence, or start. For the transitive verb sense, as in Burts Bees will debut a new sunscreen, they would prefer introduce, and for the awkward past tense, debuted, they would prefer just about anything else. decimate This word originally described a Roman punishment for mutinous troops in which every tenth soldier was ordered to step forward and be stabbed. You no longer

need to use it so specifically, but you should never use it to mean annihilate; instead it should only mean partly destroy. Also, it should be reserved for destruction that can be reckoned in numbersnot The forest was decimated by fire, but the following:

The population was decimated by plague. denouncement Denunciation is preferred. deprecate vs. depreciate To deprecate is to express earnest disapproval of; protest against; to depreciate is to reduce in value, decline in value, undervalue, or belittle. Depreciate is the opposite of appreciate; deprecate comes from precari and literally means to pray against. The proper term for self-deprecating is technically self-depreciating, but the former has almost completely replaced the latter in use, and is now the preferred term in dictionaries. deserts vs. desserts Deserts, as opposed to desserts, are things deserved, whether punishments or rewards: The kittens who lost their mittens got their deserts: no dessert. deter Because this word is derived from the Latin terrere, to frighten, it conveys the notion of preventing or discouraging through fear and therefore applies only to people and animals, not to things. Plans cannot be deterred, but people can be deterred from carrying out their plans. diagnose A condition is diagnosed, not a patient. Instead of He was diagnosed with cancer, say, His disease was diagnosed as cancer. different from vs. different than The correct phrase is different from:

Humans are different from animals in their ability to empathize, but that doesnt stop them from vivisecting cats, dogs, rabbits, and mice.

However, many editors accept different than when the alternative would be monstrously wordy, as in, You have moved me in a different way from the way in which you ever did before. Instead, they would prefer the following: You have moved me in a different way than ever before. dilemma In keeping with the prefix di-, this word should be used to describe a choice between two alternativesboth of them distasteful. Otherwise, use problem, predicament, question, quandary, plight, difficulty, or pickle.

While Americans face the dilemma of whether to starve or remain overweight, other people dont have to choose.

direct vs. directly Direct can be either an adverb or adjective; directly is only an adverb. To mean immediately, use directly: He was ordered to go directly to his room. Also use directly to convey a certain degree: He was held directly responsible for the death of Afghani civilians. In other instances, direct is acceptable and has a crisper sound: Youll get a better price by going direct to the publisher. There are some other adverbs that can be used with or without an ly, but in these cases the meaning is the same in both forms: slow and slowly, quick and quickly, sharp and sharply, cheap and cheaply, right and rightly. The shorter form of each word is normally confined to brief commands (Drive slow) and comparisons (quick as a wink). dis- The following words can be replaced by their less cumbersome counterparts: disassociate: dissociate disenfranchise: disfranchise disembark: debark disenthrone: dethrone disenravel: unravel disentwine: untwine discomfit vs. discomfort Discomfit means to wholly undo, to defeat, to thwart the plans of, or to foil. To discomfort is to make uneasy: Mr. Burns was discomforted when his plans to block out the sun were discomfited. discreet vs. discrete Discreet means tactful or unobtrusive; discrete means distinct:

Phil Knight is discreet about his use of sweatshops to produce Nikes. Calculus is used to organize indiscrete data.

disinterested vs. uninterested Disinterested means impartial; uninterested means lacking interest: Only a disinterested judge can rule fairly. The judge was yawning and seemed uninterested.

doubtful vs. dubious People are doubtful about things that are dubious: His argument is dubious; I doubt hes telling the truth. dove (the verb, not the bird) Like proven and woken, this word is rapidly gaining acceptance, but dived is preferred:

She dived as she had never dived before. due to The following uses of this phrase are incorrect: I was absent due to illness, and Due to snow, the schools were closed. Due to means caused by or resulting from, not because of; therefore, it should be preceded by a noun or noun phrase and, usually, some form of to be: My absence was due to illness. The schools closure was due to snow. The damage due to moths made the sweater unwearable. Most usage guides recommend avoiding the phrase altogether in favor of caused by or a result ofor an entirely different wording such as I was absent because of illness. Due to at the start of a sentence often presages incorrect usage, and Due to the fact that can always be replaced with Because. each other vs. one another Though a few strict grammarians reserve each other for two and one another for three or more, other strict grammarians declare these phrases interchangeable. Each is generally considered a singular pronoun, requiring a singular verb (for more information, see Agreement of Verbs and Pronouns with Indefinite Pronouns). However, each other and one another are considered plural, and in the possessive they are equivalent to their: The two kittens licked each others faces. The six groomsmen straightened one anothers cummerbunds. -ed When nouns are made into adjectives, it is sometimes necessary to add ed and sometimes not. There is no rule for itits a matter of custombut some examples follow of words with and without the added ed and words that can go either way (in which case ed or d is shown in parentheses): backhanded barefoot birdbrained (the noun being birdbrain) boldface(d) (the noun being boldface) bucktoothed (the noun being bucktooth) closed-captioned (note the d ending on both words) closed-minded (same as above)

cloven-hoofed cold-blooded college-ruled corn(ed) beef cross-eyed double-breasted even-handed foul-mouthed five-string four-leaf four-legged full-size(d) fun-size gray-haired hardback hard-surface(d) -headed (tow-headed, two-headed, bareheaded, bullheaded, hard-headed) hash browns/hash-brown(ed) potatoes high-minded hobnailed honey-color(ed) horn-rim(med) ice(d) tea ill-fated ill-omened king-size(d) lantern-jawed left-handed lily-livered longhair(ed) (the noun being longhair) long-sleeve(d) loose-leaf mashed potatoes mealy-mouthed medium-size(d) middle-size(d) off-key old-fashioned paperback peglegged (the noun being peg leg) pigeon-toed pinstriped (the noun being pinstripe) queen-size(d) red-winged soft-hearted spoon-size star-crossed starry-eyed stocking(ed) (as in feet)* teenage(d) thin-skinned

three-room three-ring (circus or binder) twelve-tone twin-size(d) two-bedroom two-engine(d) two-faced two-tone(d) underhand(ed) up-tempo whip(ped) cream white-tailed warm-blooded white-wall yellow-bellied *Some argue that stocking feet emphasizes the lack of shoes whereas stockinged feet calls attention to the stockings. effete This word is often misused to mean weak, soft, or effeminate. (That weakness and softness are equated with femininity is another question altogether.) Its true meanings are degenerate, decadent, barren, infertile, exhausted, spent: Overuse had rendered the once-powerful metaphor effete. emote This word is a back formation, derived from the word emotion. It means to show or pretend emotion, especially exaggeratedly or ineptly. It is considered jocose and should be used only in jest: With all his emoting, no one could guess what he was really feeling. enormity vs. enormousness Though dictionaries allow for the use of enormity to indicate size, usage guides direct that it be reserved for outrageousness or atrociousness. For size, use enormousness or immensity:

Orwell found himself thinking that the enormity of shooting the elephant was magnified by the enormousness of the beast.

ensure vs. insure Ensure means make certain; insure means the same but is generally used for legal matters:

Being insured against fire does not ensure that your house wont burn down.

enthused This word is a back formation from the word enthusiasm and is considered colloquial. For the adjective, enthusiastic is preferred; for the verb enthuse, try rave, gush, or rhapsodize.

envy vs. jealousy Envy is covetousness; jealousy is suspicion of rivalry or unfaithfulness:

Envious of Cassios appointment as lieutenant, Iago tricks Othello into being jealous of Cassio and Desdemona.

envisage vs. envision Envisage, borrowed from the French in the 19th century, originally meant to look in the face of; now it is often used synonymously with envision. In 1926, Fowler dismissed envisage as an undesirable Gallicism, preferring face, confront, contemplate, recognize, realize, view, and regard. In 1965 Gowers called it a pretentious substitute for the preceding words as well as for imagine, intend, and visualize. Some usage guides find envision equally pretentious, but they favor it over envisageat least in America. The Brits prefer envisage. -er, -est, more, most Use -er and more when comparing two items, -est and most when comparing three or more.

The US is the smaller of the two nations but consumes more. Though the US isnt the biggest of all nations, it consumes most.

An exception to the rule is idioms such as Put your best foot forward. Those can and should be left alone. When combining more or most with adjectives ending in er or est, put more or most second: It was the biggest, most obnoxious display of greed ever witnessed. One reason for this is that if more or most came first, it could be thought to carry over to the second adjective; in other words, most obnoxious, biggest display could be taken to mean most obnoxious, most biggest display. The other reason is that, rhetorically and aesthetically, it is good form to build from the shorter phrase to the longer. etc. This abbreviation is fine in technical writing as long as the sampling from the preceding list makes clear what is being left out. However, in other forms of writing, the use of the term may suggest either a laziness to supply the missing items or an uncertainty about what they are. It should especially be avoided in literary writing. every day vs. everyday Use every day to indicate how often something takes place; use everyday as an adjective: Every day I try to do something that scares me. Running from the police is not your everyday experience.

evoke vs. invoke To evoke is to elicit or draw forth; to invoke is to pray for or appeal to: The medium tried to evoke the spirits of the dead but all he evoked were

giggles from the audience. After 9/11, bumper stickers and reader boards across the US invoked Gods blessings.

the fact that This can often be shortened to that: That the illegalization of drugs causes crime was shown during Prohibition. fail You can only fail if you try; therefore, its wrong to say, King Lear failed to perceive the insincerity of Regan and Goneril. The following is correct: Kent failed to persuade King Lear that Cordelia was blameless. farther vs. further Though dictionaries declare these words interchangeable (except in such instances as to further your education), strict grammarians use farther for distances and further for time: I cant run any farther; my legs wont hold out any further. feasibly vs. possibly Something feasibly can be done; something possibly can happen: Possibly, it will rain. Feasibly, we can make room for the guests indoors. feel Reserve this word for emotional and tactile sensations rather than thoughts or beliefs. In other words, feel should not be used in the following sentence:

I believe/think there should be a maximum wage.

For more information about the word feel, see bad vs. badly. fewer vs. less Although less has been used before plural nouns for centuries, modern usage guides limit it to singular nouns, and modify plural nouns with fewer: Now that I have less money I find that I have fewer needs. However, less should modify plural nouns when they represent a unit or sum:

Im glad we have less than ten miles to go because we have less than two gallons of gas and less than three dollars between us.

fine This word should be used as an adjective, as in fine food. Its use as an adverb (Im doing fine) is considered dialectal, and here it should be replaced with well. However, youre free to say that you feel fine, because feel is a linking verbone that requires a complement (adjective) rather than an adverb. For more details about feel, see bad vs. badly. Im in love with her and I feel fine. first or last vs. former or latter Use first or last when referring to three or more items, and restrict former and latter to lists of two:

Parents hear much about the dangers of alcohol, marijuana, and ecstasy, but the first poses the greatest risk to children.

Alcohol and tobacco are more dangerous than most illegal drugs; in fact, the latter is the only product advertised that is fatal when used as intended.

Some usage guides prefer using first and second to former and latter. And most agree that all these words should be avoided because they force the reader to look back; two options follow: He uses tobacco and heroin; tobacco is the more dangerous of the two. He uses heroin and, whats more dangerous, tobacco. firstly, secondly Trim these to first and second. flammable, inflammable These words are identical in meaning. Inflammable is the older by about 200 years, but flammable is often used in warnings on containers and vehicles carrying combustibles for fear that some might interpret the prefix in- to mean non- (as in words such as inactive and incapable), instead of realizing that inflammable comes from the word inflame.

Anything labeled flammable or inflammable should be kept away from flames.

flounder vs. founder To founder is to fill with water and sink; to flounder is to stumble or to thrash about awkwardly: Prospero and Miranda watched as passengers from the foundering ship

floundered in the ocean. flout vs. flaunt Flout means defy or ignore; flaunt means show off:

She continued wearing miniskirts after theyd gone out of style, flouting fashion in order to flaunt her legs.

for free Because free (in one sense) is synonymous with for nothing, the phrase for free is redundant. Buy this 200-page magazine and get 300 pages of advertisements free. forceful vs. forcible Forceful means vigorous, strong, or effective; forcible means having or using force: The woman convicted of forcible entry spoke forcefully in her own defense. forecasted This word is acceptable, but forecast (for present and past tense) is preferred. forego vs. forgo To forego is to precede; to forgo is to give up or go without: In one paragraph he writes that he is forgoing all dangerous drugs, but in

the foregoing paragraph he mentioned hed just bought a pack of cigarettes. formulate vs. form People often use formulate when they mean form. Formulate should be used to mean work out as a formula: He felt two ways about it and had trouble forming an opinion. Vegans formulate recipes for cakes and cookies without eggs or butter. fortuitous vs. fortunate Fortuitous means by chance or by fortuneeither good or bad. Fortunate means lucky.

Fortuitously, I ran into an old schoolmate at the drug store; fortunately, he didnt recognize me.

fraction This word should not be used to mean a small portion, as in only a fraction. A fraction can be ninety-nine one hundredths. fulsome Fulsome once meant disgusting, obsequious, nauseating, insincere, repulsive, odious, grossly excessive, and overdone, but more and more it has come to mean abundant, copious, lavish, or enthusiastic. Most grammarians agree that our language is impoverished by the loss of the words true sense. Baby Jane is flattered by Edwins fulsome praise. furthermore Perhaps the only thing wrong with this word is that its so often used when listing complaints. If you need a sentence-linking conjunction and want to avoid sounding haughty or petulant, try in addition or moreover:

Moreover, I gravely doubt how much of the damage was caused by me. got vs. gotten About 300 years ago, the British removed the ancient word gotten from their writing and speech, and now say has got, have got, and had got. In America, gotten is still correct: He hadnt yet gotten up when the doorbell rang. However, got in all its participles is considered informal. Though many usage experts prefer it to the stuffier received, acquired, obtained, and became, even they recommend avoiding it in the most formal writing, and in the sentence above, would substitute awakened or risen or climbed out of bed for gotten up. The sentence I have got a camel is ambiguous; it could mean I just acquired a camel or I own a camel. For the first case, delete have; for the second, delete got: I got a camel for Christmas; now I have a camel. Avoid substituting got for was or were, as in was killed. (Of course, with slang, got is appropriate: got nailed.) But even in formal writing, was doesnt always do the trick. Notice how its meaning differs from got in the following sentence: I knew she was married, but I dont know when she got married. Strict grammarians would say I dont know when she married, but got is gaining wide acceptance. good vs. well Good is an adjective and well nearly always an adverb: Youre a good writer; you write very well. However, well can be an adjective meaning healthy: You look well means You dont look sick. When you want to compliment someones attractiveness, say, You look good. When speaking of your health, say I feel well; if you mean that youre happy, say I feel good. For details about when feel takes a complement (adjective) rather than an adverb, see bad vs. badly. graduate It is incorrect to say, She graduated college. It is acceptable (though rare) to say She was graduated from college, but most acceptable is She graduated from college. grow Trees grow. Flowers grow. Cancers grow. Even businesses growand you can make your business grow. But you cant grow your business, any more than you can thrive it. Guess what?

This sentence is not a question but a command (albeit a lighthearted one); therefore, it does not take a question mark but a period or an exclamation point. historic vs. historical Historic means figuring in history; historical means pertaining to history: Historical novels would have you believe that romance figured into every

historic event. hoi polloi Perhaps confusing this term with hoity-toity (pretentious; haughty), some people use hoi polloi for the elite, but it means the opposite: the masses. In Greek, hoi means the and polloi means many; its therefore redundant to say the hoi polloi. hopefully Hopefully is an adverb meaning with hope: Claudius poisoned the wine and waited hopefully for Hamlet to drink it. Some object to its use as a modifier of whole sentences: Hopefully, the two sides will reach an agreement. The Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd Edition, and the Merriam-Webster New Collegiate Dictionary argue that this usage has been fully standard since the 1930s, and is parallel with certainly, frankly, curiously, regrettably, presumably, and fortunately. More and more grammarians are coming to agree with this, but be aware that many people still disagree with the use of the word as a sentence modifier. Richard Marius in A Writers Companion, 4th Edition, 1999, has this to add: The main objection to hopefully is that it makes something abstract that is personal. Hope does not float in the air like nitrogen. Hope is an emotion we feel as persons, and we ought to locate its source and identify the people who have it. He prefers that writers and speakers use I hope. When that doesnt work, you can substitute one hopes or it is hopedor, if you want to color your speech, use the German word hoffentlich; it means what so many of us want hopefully to mean. how This adverb means in what way or manner; it should not be used to mean that, as in I told him how Id just seen the movie Rosemarys Babyunless the speaker really means that she explained which chair she had sat in and what she had snacked on during the show. The sentence below is correct, as demonstrated by the sentence following it: Jean Kilbourne explains how the media sells audiences to advertisers.

She points out that a TV program only succeeds if it attracts enough viewers aged 18 to 49 living in or near a city: the group most likely to buy what is advertised in the commercials.

I vs. me I is the subject: Chris and I visited them.

You should technically use I (or he or she) even when the subject comes at the end of the sentence (as in, It is I). However, it is now standard to use me (or him or her) in the following phrases: Its me. (Thats her.) Me, too. Woe is me. But, for the most part, me should only be used as the object:

They visited Chris and me. Thats between him and me. (As to the last sentence, some people argue that Shakespeare wrote in The Merchant of Venice, All debts are cleard between you and I. Theodore Bernstein suggests in The Careful Writer, 1965, that perhaps Shakespeare made the mistake because he was preoccupied, or because he was negligent, or because he had in mind a reason that is obscure to his readers now, or merely because he had a bellyache.) -ics When words such as economics, statistics, and politics are used to refer to a subject, a science, a profession, or a system, give them singular verbs: Economics was his worst subject. Otherwise, treat them as plurals:

Statistics show that second-hand smoke kills more people each year than do all illicit drugs combined.

i.e. vs. e.g. I.e. is short for the Latin id est, meaning that is (or in other words). E.g. is short for the Latin exempli gratia, which means for example. Each abbreviation should normally be preceded and succeeded by a comma.

Government subsidies for big business, i.e., corporate welfare, cost taxpayers far more than does ordinary welfare. Corporate welfare, e.g., the savings and loan bailout, costs taxpayers far more than does government aid to single mothers.

Note: Style guides recommend avoiding abbreviations in formal writing and instead using that is (or in other words), or for example. They also recommend and others for et al., as well as and so on for etc. the idea that This phrase adds wordiness and can often be cut; instead of, Hes open to the idea that we could give up television, try, Hes open to giving up television. if vs. in case

People often say if when they mean in case, as in, If you want dessert, I bought some ice cream. That implies that if you dont want dessert, I didnt buy ice cream. The proper sentence is, I bought ice cream in case you wanted dessert. if vs. though Substituting if for though can cause confusion. The sentence I expect well have a delightful visit, if brief could mean that the visit will be delightful in spite of or on the condition of its brevity. Instead, say one of the following: I expect well have a delightful visit, though brief. I expect well have a delightful visit, as long as its brief. if vs. whether Most usage guides prescribe the use of if to precede a conditional phrase and whether to express an alternative: Cinderella can go to the ball if she gets all her work done. I dont know whether shell find a dress to wear. However, the use of if to mean whether dates at least as early as the King James Bible of 1611:

Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the ground. Genesis 8:8

Use your own discretion, but be careful not to obscure your meaning, as in the following sentence: Let me know if you need a break. That could mean or Let me know when you need break or Let me know whether you need a break now. if not This phrase can have contrary meanings, as in the following sentence: I find her brilliant, if not ingenious. In speech, you can make yourself clear by either emphasizing ingenious or de-emphasizing if not ingenious (and maybe rolling your eyes or shrugging to demonstrate your doubt of her ingenuity). In writing, its best to substitute other words for if not: I find her brilliant, though not ingenious. I find her brilliant, perhaps [or even] ingenious. impact For centuries, impact was used only as a noun. The verb sense is a back formation of the adjective impacted, which means tightly or immovably wedged in (and once meant constipated). As both a noun and a verb, its once-powerful meaning has been diluted by those who substitute it for influence or affect/effect, as in Your consistent tardiness impacts everyone in the carpool. That use is considered by

some to be pretentious and jargonistic. Try to reserve the word for forceful contact; collision:

My hand was throbbing from the impact with his jaw.

imply vs. infer To imply is to indicate or suggest (without explicitly stating); to infer is to gather, derive or conclude: Are you inferring that I dont know the correct usage? No, Im implying it.

important vs. importantly Usage experts are divided about the use of importantly. Some would reserve it to mean in an important matter, as in the following sentence:

Wearing his lab coat and glancing impatiently at his watch, he bustled importantly down the hall.

As a sentence modifier, they would prefer important:

Animals may be unable to reason, but they can feel fear and, more important, pain.

Others prefer more importantly, pain. Knowing that the second use is so controversial, you may wish to substitute whats more important. indicate vs. prove When you want to avoid sounding accusatory (a good idea even when youre sure the other person is wrong), use indicate instead of prove:

The minor scratch on my car indicates how little damage I might have done to his truck.

indefinitely Just as stores use any day now to imply that your special order will arrive tomorrow, when it could just as easily be next month, they boast that a product will last indefinitely as if that meant practically forever. When a publisher declares a book out of stock indefinitely, booksellers know that its more or less out of print. Try to restrict the use of indefinitely to time frames which are merely unknown, not impressively long. interment vs. internment The first is burial (from terra, meaning earth); the second, confinement, as in a prison camp:

There was no ceremony held over the vagrants interment. Three fourths of the 110,000 who suffered internment for three years during World War II were Niseichildren born in the US of Japanese parents and therefore American citizens.

individual This word should be used to refer to a single person as opposed to a group, or to stress uniqueness:

Other cultures value the welfare of the community over that of the individual. Soft drink ads claim that your choice of cola sets you off as an individual.

It should not be used simply to mean person, as in The individual was seen entering the building at 5 P.M. into vs. in In denotes a static state; into denotes action: She had a stun gun in her pocket. She reached into her pocket. into vs. in to Into is a preposition used to describe the attainment of a position inside a thing; the word in followed by to has a different meaning: Reach into the bag, then go take a cookie in to your sister. You can determine when to use in to by seeing whether it works to omit in: Reach into the bag, then go take a cookie to your sister. Roman and Raphaelson, in Writing that Works, 1981, cite a headline which mistook one use for the other: MURDER SUSPECTS TURN THEMSELVES INTO POLICE. intrigue (the verb) Though this word is used as a synonym for interest, its meaning is stronger. Derived from the French to perplex, it means to arouse the curiosity or interest of by unusual, new, or otherwise fascinating or compelling qualities; appeal strongly to; captivate (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd Edition, 1987). Synonyms include mystify, captivate, fascinate, pique, compel, excite, and enchant.

The strangers smella combination of alcohol, sweat, and Middle Eastern spicesso intrigued me that I was overwhelmed with joyful sorrow, and a longing for something I couldnt name.

intuitive Only in the computer world could a word be so abused. Intuitive means perceptive when applied to people, or innate when applied to knowledge. The computer industry has created a new meaning for the word, which is something along the lines of easily figured out, as if through your own intuition. Apparently, they were tired of user-friendly. A less jargonistic term than either one would be self-explanatory, or simple. This computer program is simple, even for those who arent very intuitive.

ironic vs. coincidental Ironic means contrary to expectation; coincidental means by chance, and often refers to two events which, surprisingly, occur to the same people, in the same circumstance, or at the same time:

Ironically, using the ironing board as a shield from the crumbling ceiling caused the iron to fall on his head. Coincidentally, the same thing was just then happening to his sister.

irregardless The proper word is regardless. is when, is where Avoid these phrases. Instead of, In television, a jolt is when/is where something interrupts . . . use the following format:

In television, a jolt is something that interrupts the flow of sound or imagesa gunshot, shift in camera angle, or cut to a commercial.

it, that, this, which When using these words, make sure there is no question about the antecedent (what the words are referring to). There is special danger when two or more nouns or ideas have been mentioned and the pronoun could be referring to just one of them or, as in the example of this, below, to everything previously mentioned. The following are examples of potentially confusing sentences followed by clearer versions:

Confusing: The leopard ran through the snow and it was beautiful. Clear: The beautiful leopard ran through the snow. Clear: The leopard ran through the beautiful snow. Clear: The sight of the leopard running through the snow was beautiful. Confusing: Most womens magazines rely on advertisements of diet aids.

Women with eating disorders are steadfast consumers of diet products. That is why these magazines fuel a paradoxical obsession with binging and thinness by juxtaposing dessert recipes and photos of fattening foods with diets and pictures of thin models.

Clear: Most womens magazines rely on advertisements of diet aids. Because women with eating disorders are steadfast consumers of diet products, these magazines fuel a paradoxical obsession with binging and thinness by juxtaposing dessert recipes and photos of fattening foods with diets and pictures of thin models.

Confusing: TV programs are filler for the space between commercials, and

cannot do anything that their sponsors find controversial. This is why CBS canceled Ed Asners series after Vidal Sassoon and Kimberly Clark withdrew their sponsorship because of Asners involvement in Medical Aid for El Salvador.

Clear: That TV programs are fillers for the space between commercials and cannot do anything that their sponsors find controversial became

evident when CBS canceled Ed Asners series after Vidal Sassoon and Kimberly Clark withdrew their sponsorship because of Asners involvement in Medical Aid for El Salvador

Confusing: Many children are a captive audience for the commercials on Channel One, which gives video equipment to desperate schools in exchange for the right to broadcast a news program riddled with ads to students every morning. Clear: Many children are a captive audience for the commercials on Channel One, a marketing program that gives video equipment to desperate . . . Confusing: Many children are a captive audience for the commercials on Channel One, which allows advertisers to manipulate them into craving

soft drinks and revering fashion when they should be studying arts and sciences.

Clear: That many students are a captive audience for the commercials on Channel One allows advertisers to manipulate them into craving . . .

its vs. its Its is a contraction for it is; its is the possessive form of the pronoun it:

Its better to die on your feet than to live on your knees. Each method has its advantages.

iterate Because reiterate means say or do again or repeatedly, some people think that iterate must simply mean say or do. On the contrary, the two words mean the same thing, both dating to around 1530. The shorter word is preferable, and should never be used as a synonym for say. kind of, sort of In formal writing, avoid these phrases in favor of somewhat and rather. For the sense type of, avoid saying What kind of a movie was it? or What kinds of movie do you like? Instead, in both cases, say What kind of movie . . . lack vs. absence Just as you cannot fail unless you try, you cannot lack a thing that is useless. Therefore, its wrong to say, Thousands of readers choose Ms. because of its lack of advertisements. Two correct sentences follow: Thousands of readers choose Ms. because of its absence of advertisements. Magazines with ads lack integrity, and their articles lack credibility. lady vs. woman The word lady is properly used only where you would otherwise say gentleman (or lord). In other words, Ladies and gentlemen is a proper salute to an audience, but the restroom signs Ladies and Men are, as Marilyn French pointed out in The Womens Room, unparallel to say the least. Not only is lady often used as the opposite of what is intended, as in, Hey, lady, learn how to drive! but it implies that all women should be ladies, whereas few people think that all men should be gentlemen. So reserve lady for phrases such as ten lords a-leaping, nine ladies dancing, but otherwise use woman.

leave vs. let As is true of nearly every pair of words in this usage guide, these two are considered interchangeable by dictionaries. However, for precision, use leave alone for abandon or leave in solitude, and let alone for refrain from disturbing: Dont leave me alone with your relativesthey wont let me alone! leery Though gaining wide acceptance, leery is considered by some to be slang. Alternatives are wary, distrustful, and hesitant: Hamlet is not so much indecisive as wary of taking the advice of a ghost. lend vs. loan For impeccable grammar, use loan only as a noun, and lend for the verb: Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. Thats not the kind of loan you can pay back. lie vs. lay Lie is an intransitive verb (one that requires no direct object) meaning recline, and becomes lay or lain only in the past tense:

Are you just going to lie there? I asked him to move, but he simply lay there. For all I knew, he had lain there all day. Lay is a transitive verb (one that requires a direct object) meaning put or place, and becomes laid only in the past tense: Please dont lay that dreadful thing on the table. She ignored me and laid it there anyway. I was just glad she hadnt laid it on the bed. light-year This term is a measure of distance: how far light travels in a year. Some dictionaries condone its use as a measurement of time, as in Its been light-years since Ive seen my childhood friends. Though even the strictest grammarians must admit that languages evolve and that, ultimately, use governs meaning, they could point out that learn is sometimes used to mean teach (My pa learned me to spit when I was a youngun). Most English speakers would call that usage colloquialeven illiteratebut at least learn and teach both refer to education, whereas distance and time are entirely different subjects. With that in mind, feel free to use light-year as an exaggerationof distance. For exaggerations of time, use ages or eons.

Its been years/ages/eons since hes seen the dentist. When I felt my stomach turn, we were light-years away from a restroom.

likes of

This phrase is colloquial and should be avoided in formal writing. Either make it singularlike ofor, if possible, omit it:

Edgar told Gloucester hed seen a huge-eyed fiend with whelked horns and a thousand noses, the like of which hed never seen before.

like vs. as Because its a preposition, like should not be used before a complete clause (a subject and verb); instead use as or as if. Below are examples of the correct uses of these words: He eats like a pig. He eats as a pig eats. He eats as if he were a pig. The rule need not be followed for casual writing; go ahead and say, She walked in like she owned the place and He drinks coffee like its going out of style. like vs. such as Strictly speaking, like should be used to compare two subjects and such as to introduce an example: He ate like a pig. Certain things about him annoyed me, such as his eating habits. Some grammarians still adhere to the rule; others have adopted like for both cases. like so When giving a formal demonstration, avoid saying, Line the bag with tinfoil, like so. Instead, say like this. limited Advertisers want us to think this word means brief, so that when a special offer lasts for a limited time only, well sell our cars to take advantage of the sale. Limited should be used to mean within bounds, no matter how wide those bounds. literally vs. figuratively Literally means actually (by the letter); figuratively means metaphorically (and doesnt usually need to be said):

Using a grapple, the burglar was literally climbing the walls. Waiting for Adam Ants appearance, the crowd was [figuratively] climbing the walls.

live Just as its incorrect to say, This is a good house to live, its also wrong to say, This is a good place to live. Instead, say, This is a good place/house to live in, or This is a good place/house in which to live. livid

This word has acquired so many meanings that no one will know what youre talking about if you say it. You could mean the first definitiondiscolored or grayish-blue, as from bruisingor any one of its newer definitions: enraged; strangled with emotion; reddish or flushed; pale or ashen:

Livid, she choked him until he turned first livid, then livid, and, finally, livid. (By then, he no longer livd.)

loath vs. loathe Loath is an adjective meaning reluctant or unwilling; loathe is a verb meaning to hate, despise, or detest: Im not crazy about him, but Im loath to say that I loathe him. may vs. might Use may for probable contingencies, might for improbable ones: It may rain. It might rain Jgermeister. Also use might for the past tense of may: We thought it might rain. may be vs. maybe May be is a verb and maybe an adverb: You may be right. Maybe youre right. Some consider this word colloquial and, except in conversation, prefer perhaps. media Although the use of media with a singular verb is gaining acceptance, it is technically plural (the singular being medium), and many authorities prefer that it be given a plural verb and pronoun:

Because the media rely on advertising, they are far from impartial. See also data. medium Medium (the adjective) should not be used in a list with small and large; it should be medium-size(d):

Goldilocks ate from the large bowl, the medium-sized bowl, and then the small bowl.

For the informal example above, middle-sized would also work. minuscule

This word is so often misspelled that miniscule has made it into dictionaries, but minuscule is still preferred. It derives from the word minus. misanthrope, misogynist, misandrist Most people know that a misanthrope hates humankind and a misogynist hates women, but few people knowand even my Spell Check doesnt knowthat a misandrist hates men. militate vs. mitigate Militate comes from the Latin militare, meaning to serve as a soldier, and means to have a substantial effect or weigh heavily; it is normally followed by against. Mitigate comes from the Latin mitis meaning soft, gentle, mild, and means to soften, moderate, make less severe: Her felony charge militated against her, and there was no way to mitigate it. moot This word is most often used to mean irrelevant, hypothetical, or academic, and it has recently acquired those synonyms in dictionaries, but the first definition is to the contrary: doubtful, arguable; open to debate. Whether to vote for the candidate most likely to beat Bush or to split the

vote by exercising your true democratic rights and going with the best possible candidate is a moot question.

more than one Though technically plural, more than one requires a singular verb when it modifies a singular noun: More than one necklace was stolen. When it modifies a plural noun, its verb is plural: More than one of the necklaces were stolen. More necklaces than one were stolen. multiply vs. times It is wrong to say, Times the number by five; the word needed is multiply. Six times five equals thirty. Multiply six by five to get thirty. mutual vs. common This word refers to simultaneous reciprocal feelings, as in mutual respect. It can also be used for words exchanged, as in mutual criticism, but not for actions or concrete things; you would not say mutual punches. In 1658 the English writer George Starkey referred to our mutual friend, and much later Charles Dickens published his novel with that title. The word is still acceptably used for shared friends and acquaintances, but is more correctly used as in Shakespeares Measure for Measure, when Claudio speaks of sex as our most mutual entertainment. Two

people who like Big Band do not have a mutual interest; they have a shared or common interest. Our marriage is based on mutual love and on common concerns. myriad This word originally meant ten thousand but now means numerous. Avoid a myriad of:

Wealthy children will receive myriad gifts this Christmas while other children starve.

nature This word can often be cut; instead of Elephants are gentle in nature, try, Elephants are gentle. nauseous vs. nauseated Though the two definitions of nauseouscausing nausea and affected with nauseaappeared almost simultaneously in the early 17th century, many prefer that the word be used only in the first sense. (However, for that sense nauseating has become more common.) So while its acceptable to say The fumes made me nauseous, you may need a dictionary close-by to defend yourself from sticklers.

He had the nauseating habit of correcting people for saying they felt nauseous when, in his opinion, they really meant nauseated.

noisome This word means offensive or disgusting, especially in regard to smells. Unrelated to the word noisy, it is a variation of annoy:

I asked my noisome neighbors to empty their trash. nominal Nominal does not mean small; it means in name only. As Bergan Evans says in Comfortable Words, 1962, a nominal fee is not merely a low fee, but one so low . . . that it can be regarded merely as a token payment. If a charge, however small, is a reasonable charge for what is done or given, it is not nominal.

She never writes to me personally, but includes me on her mass e-mailings of office humor, dire warnings, and Bushisms. Shes a nominal friend.

nowhere near This phrase is colloquial and therefore inappropriate in formal writing; substitute not nearly or far from:

Television features arent nearly as important to broadcasters as commercials, for which the programs are merely filler.

number of In formal writing, avoid using a number of, a large number of, and a small number of; instead use some, many, several, few, or the actual number. Also, instead of twice the number of layoffs try twice the layoffs.

observance vs. observation An observance is a taking note or a celebration according to custom; an observation is a viewing, regarding, or perceiving:

We found a good vantage point high on a hill for observation of the fireworks in observance of Independence Day.

occur vs. take place Occur should be used for things that happen spontaneously or accidentally, take place for prearranged events: The solar eclipse occurred when his execution was set to take place. See also transpire. off of Avoid using off of; instead say off or from: Make the cat get off the table. She jumped from the train to the back of the running horse. OK vs. O.K. vs. okay All three spellings are correct (although this word is colloquial and should be avoided in formal writing); however, the original spelling is O.K. Though it had been used before this, it was popularized in 1840 when supporters of the Democratic candidate Martin Van Buren named their organization the O.K. Club, referring to the initials of his nickname Old Kinderhook, derived from his birthplace, Kinderhook, New York. on vs. upon Upon is considered by some to be stuffy; unless you need a formal effect, use on. on account of This phrase should only be followed by a noun or noun phrase, not a verb phrase. Therefore, its wrong to say, She died on account of she was exposed to second-hand smoke. The following is correct: In the US, over a thousand people die every day on account of cigarette-

related diseases. one of In phrases such as one of the chickens, the verb is plural, not singular, because the subject is not one but is the prepositional phrase of the chickens. Therefore, its incorrect to say, One of the chickens who lives; it should instead be as follows: Kathleen is one of the chickens who live at my aunts house. You can test this by reversing the order of the sentence: Of the chickens who live at my aunts house, Kathleen is one.

onto vs. on to Onto is a preposition used to describe the attainment of a position on top of a thing; on followed by to has a different meaning: Climb up onto the horse, then hold on to the reins! You can tell when to use on to by whether it works to leave off the indirect object: Climb up onto the horse, then hold on! optimistic Because this word describes a general tendency to view things in a positive light, it is inaccurate to use it for single instances, as in, Were optimistic about the results of the surgery. The following sentences are correct: Were hopeful about the results of the surgery. Susans optimistic attitude is hastening her recovery. or, nor When parts of a subject are joined by or or nor, the verb and any corresponding nouns or pronouns agree with the closer part. This is simple when both are plural or both are singular:

Is Hector or Achilles the better fighter? Either Paris or Menelaus has to give up his claim to Helen. Neither the Greeks nor the Trojans care about Helen any longer. When one part is plural and one is singular, keeping the verb in agreement with the closer part can sound awkward in the following example: Neither the Trojans nor Helen thinks Paris is a good fighter. To avoid this awkwardness, place the plural part closer so that the verb is plural: Neither Helen nor the Trojans think Paris is a good fighter. Another awkwardness arises when I is used in conjunction with you or they, or with she or he. When using the rule stated abovethat the verb should correspond with the closer partwe come up with sentences such as the following: Either you or I am responsible. Either they or he is responsible. These sentences are correct, but sound strange, so you can reword them as follows: Either you are responsible or I am. Either they are responsible or he is.

Another problem follows. Some authorities believe the first sentence is correct, others, the second sentence: It all happened before you or I was born. It all happened before you or I were born. This example is a little different in that here, or does not serve to separate the subjects but rather to join them (before I was born and before you were born). This is why some authorities favor the plural verb, and, because it sounds so much more natural, I agree. oral, spoken, verbal, written Although verbal is commonly used to mean spoken, it also includes written words; therefore, a verbal agreement may be either voiced or notarized. To avoid confusion, use oral or spoken for spoken and written for written. Undoubtedly there are uses for the word verbal, but most of them may be in the negative, as in non-verbal communication, meaning gestures, facial expressions, or fisticuffs. orientate, disorientate The proper words are orient and disorient. overly As an adverb, the correct word is over. It is often a part of the word it modifies, as in overdone and overwrought. Some people think that adverbs must always end in -ly, but those who write overly careful are being overcareful. party A party is a group and should not be used in reference to individuals except in legal documents. A table is now available for the Wilde party. patron So many businesses have insisted on calling their customers patrons that some dictionaries now give customer as the words first definition. However, in the hearts of strict grammarians a patron will always be one who supports an artist, event, institution, or charity with money, gifts, efforts, or endorsements. The use of patron for customer was once considered snooty, but is now scarcely noticed. per Though some stylists recommend reserving per for technical writing and, elsewhere, using an English equivalent ($10 an hour, twenty miles to the gallon, three acres for each person) others find the word acceptable in general writing. However, all seem to seem to agree that its no substitute for according to, as in per your request (or, more awkwardly, as per your request). That use is considered business jargon, and often comes off as stiff and impersonal. The following is preferred: Ive enclosed my pay stubs according to your request. percent vs. per cent vs. %

All are correct, but in formal writing the words are preferred to the symbol, and percent (one word) is preferred to per cent:

The Oscar ceremony commands one million dollars for a thirty-second commercial because it delivers over sixty percent of the nations women to advertisers.

When comparing percentages, use numerals followed by %:

Because 10% of drinkers consume over 60% of alcohol sold, advertisers spend millions on psychological research to learn how to best take advantage of alcoholics.

personally Personally, like no offense, is often used just before an offensive statement. (A similar phrase is but thats just my opinion.) At best, these words sound apologetic; at worst, they add annoyance to injury. If you sincerely wish not to offend (and not to be redundant), you need to go further than starting a sentence with Personally, I think:

I hope I dont sound rude when I say that television insults the intellect. Otherwise, say what you mean without apology:

Television insults the intellect.

playwright A playwright engages in playwriting. The suffix wright is not another spelling for write; it designates someone who fashions or constructs something, as a wheelwright or shipwright. pleaded vs. pled Both are correct, but pleaded is preferred: She pleaded guilty. pls. Some people consider this abbreviation rude, as if the writer didnt want to take the time to write out please. Of course, on a Post-It, there may not be room for the three extra lettersbut thats no excuse for the word thanx. See also ASAP. possible A common mistake in speeches is to thank a benefactor for making this affair possible. The affair was always possible; the benefactor helped to make it happen. practicable vs. practical What is practicable can be done; what is practical can be done to good end.

It would be practicable to dig up our floor and convert it into a garden, but it wouldnt be practical.

precede vs. proceed Precede means come before; proceed means move on: She allowed him to precede her as they proceeded into her office. preceding vs. previous Previous means coming before; preceding means coming immediately before:

Chips in the paint revealed all the different colors the walls had been painted by previous tenants. Were still getting mail addressed to the preceding tenant.

presently This word has two meanings: the first is soon and the second is now. The second is 100 years older (dating to the 15th century), but is the one more objected to in usage guides. Although the tense of the verb makes clear which sense is meant I am presently unemployed. Presently Ill be living in my car. this word is characteristic of official jargon. Its best to substitute soon or now. preventative This word is not incorrect, but preventive is preferred:

No moisturizer in the world can erase wrinkles; instead, use sunscreen as a preventive.

principal vs. principle Most of us remember the proper spelling for chief official because our teachers insisted that the principal was our pal. However, its less commonly known that this word is short for principal official; principal is an adjective meaning foremost (the noun being principle). Principal is also the spelling for capital sum (as distinguished from interest or profit).

The principal said that her principal reason for quitting was simply a matter of principle.

promise Reserve promises for the future; you can promise not to jump on the bed, but you cant promise that you werent jumping on the bed. For that sense, use assure. proportions The word proportions expresses a relationship of one part to another, or of parts to the whole. Rather than saying a building of huge proportions, say a building of huge dimensions/size, or a huge building. protagonist This word comes from the Greek protos, for first, and agonistes, for actor. In any play, film, or novel, there can be only one protagonist. Perhaps unfortunately for the protagonist, there may be any number of antagonists.

(My husband is doubtful that there can be only one protagonist. He says, What about the Magnificent Seven, or the Three Musketeers? Thats an excellent question. With this in mind, I think perhaps there can be a single group of protagonists.) providing vs. provided The use of providing in place of provided was once frowned upon but is now widely accepted. Just be sure that your meaning is clear; if you say, Ill go, providing that she come, too, youre inadvertently saying that your going will allow for her coming. Instead say, Ill go, provided that she come, too. psychological terms Psychologists and psychoanalysts use, as a sort of shorthand, certain terms by themselves that should be followed by a preposition and an object or by a reflexive pronoun (myself, herself, etc.). This is jargon and should be avoided in popular writing and speech. Below are some examples, along with the words that should follow them: adapt (oneself to) adjust (to) belong (in or to) communicate (with) cope (with) identify (with) relate (to) purposely vs. purposefully Purposely means on purpose; intentionally. Purposefully means with purpose; with a goal in mind:

She strode purposefully from the house, purposely leaving the door wide open.

quality This word, as an adjective, is too often used to mean high quality. In that way, its like the word luck, which when used alone nearly always means good luck rather than bad. Say what kind of quality you meanand, in doing so, you may be able to drop quality altogether: instead of, We give professional-quality service, say, We give professional service. quotation vs. quote Quote is the verb, quotation the noun:

I always want to quote Thoreau but never remember the exact quotation.

If quotation is too cumbersome for your sentence, you can replace it with passage, excerpt, or remark. Note: writers, editors, and printers often substitute the word quotes for quotation marks, just as espresso vendors substitute whip for whipped cream. As long as they dont start substituting foam for whipped cream, I wont complain.

quotation marks In America, punctuation normally goes inside quotation marks rather than outside: The woman said, Who is it? The parrot said, Its the plumber. Hes come to fix the sink. The exception is with question marks and exclamation points. If they are part of the quotation, they go inside; if not, they go outside:

Did Mona Simpson write Red Ant House? Nothat was Ann Cummins! Mona Simpson wrote Lawns! Colons and semicolons go outside as well: Robert Butler wrote Jealous Husband Returns in Form of Parrot; I just read it. I know the author of Little, Little Big Man: its Heidi Julavits. rack vs. wrack Racked means tortured, strained, or punished (as if on the medieval torture device). Wracked means destroyed, and is related to wrecked. The proper spellings for common phrases using these words are wrack and ruin, nerve-racking, racked with guilt, and rack your brains.

The Turkish ships were wracked in the surge