writing behavioral objectives and measuring behavior...behavioral objectives, the third step is to...

Writing Behavioral

Objectives and

Measuring

Behavior

June 2019

895.15

The North Dakota Statewide

Developmental Disabilities

Community Staff Training Program

Writing Behavioral Objectives and Measuring Behavior

This training manual was developed by the North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities

and is intended to be used for educational purposes by North Dakota community provider

agencies participating in the Community Staff Training Project through Minot State University.

Suggested citation:

Webster, J. (2019). Writing Behavioral Objective and Measuring Behavior. (Rev. Ed.) Minot,

ND: North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities a University Affiliated Program at

Minot State University.

Requests for use of this publication for any other purpose should be submitted to Minot State

University, NDCPD, Community Staff Training Project, Minot, ND 58707.

Production of this publication was supported by funding from the North Dakota Developmental

Disabilities Division within the Department of Human Services.

This product is available in alternative format upon request.

Acknowledgments:

The North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities wishes to thank all who contributed to the

2019 revisions of this training module. Special thanks to Jennifer Casey, Karla Kalanek, and

Ruth Soderstrom for review and input into this revised edition, and the North Dakota Regional

Staff Trainers. Revisions done in 1997 by Mary Mercer and Shannon Brills.

The North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities is a

member of the Association of University Centers on Disabilities

(AUCD). AUCD is a national network of interdisciplinary centers

advancing policy and practice through research, education and

services for and with individuals with developmental and other

disabilities, their families and communities.

COPYRIGHT 2019

By NORTH DAKOTA CENTER FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

a center of excellence in disability research and education at Minot State University

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction to Writing Behavioral Objectives and Measuring Behavior

Unit I: Describing Behavior

Lesson 1 - Why Use Descriptive Language?.........................................................4

Lesson 2 - Recognizing Language that Describes Behavior ................................14

Lesson 3 - Using Language that Describes Behavior……………………………20

Unit II: Behavioral Objectives

Lesson 1 - An Overview of Behavioral Objectives ..............................................23

Lesson 2 - Understanding the Components of a Behavioral Objective .................35

Lesson 3 - Behavioral Objectives Practice ............................................................44

UNIT III: Measuring Behavior

Lesson 1- Introduction to Behavior Measurement ..............................................51

Lesson 2 - Guidelines for Measuring Behavioral Objectives ...............................75

Lesson 3 - Data Collection to Determine the Function of a Challenging

Behavior ..............................................................................................80

Lesson 4- Data Collection to Teach a New Behavior…………………………..88

UNIT IV: Graphing Behavior

Lesson 1- Graphing Behavior Measurement Data .............................................109

Feedback Exercise Answer Keys…………………………………………………………..135

Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………..153

Appendix A - Sample Event/Frequency Data Recording Form

Appendix B - Sample Duration Data Recording Form

Appendix C - Sample Latency Data Recording Form

Appendix D - Sample Interval Data Recording Form

Appendix E - Sample Continuous Data Recording Form

Appendix F – Sample Scatter Plot Data Recording Form

Appendix G – Sample Behavior Checklist Data Recording Form

Appendix H – Sample Task Analysis Data Recording Form

Appendix I - Blank Graph

Introduction to Writing Behavioral Objectives and Measuring Behavior

Any observable actions are considered behaviors. However, the term behavior often has negative

connotations. You may have heard the expression “He is having a behavior” or “Her behavior is

terrible.” These expressions are not appropriate, and do not reflect people first language. While it

is true that some people with disabilities may exhibit challenging behaviors, behaviors may also

be good in terms of positive actions that a person may take (e.g., greeting co-workers or staying

on task) and learning new skills or activities (e.g., several discrete behaviors chained together to

form a skill or activity). This Module will address both forms of behavior.

The first step in implementing a program for changing a behavior (i.e. increasing positive

actions/teaching new skills or decreasing excessive challenging behaviors) is to use descriptive

language to define the target behavior that needs to be changed. For some individuals, the target

behavior may focus on a deficit (e.g., too few skills to cook a meal or grocery shop; too few

minutes on-task at work). After defining the target behavior, the next step is to write behavioral

objectives to increase the person’s desirable behaviors (e.g., increasing cooking or grocery

shopping skills or increasing time on task at work) or to decrease his or her excessive

challenging behaviors (e.g., too much screaming or too much hitting). Based on the person’s

behavioral objectives, the third step is to identify a data collection system to measure behavior so

that an instructional plan can be developed to teach positive actions/new skills (to address

deficits) or to implement a positive behavior support plan (to decrease excessive behaviors and

teach replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the challenging behaviors). Once the

data is collected, it can be visually represented on a graph (which is the fourth step of the

process).

This Module contains units with lessons in each of these four areas: Describing Behavior,

Writing Behavioral Objectives, Measuring Behavior and Graphing Behavior.

4


Lesson 1: Why Use Descriptive Language?

Instructional Objectives:

• Given two sets of reports about meetings regarding a person with disabilities, and a list of

questions regarding objectives, procedures, and outcomes, staff will identify the reports which

best provide specific information about objectives, procedures, and outcomes.

Introduction to Using Descriptive Language

Whenever a job, like yours, requires working closely with a group of people, clear

communication among the group members is essential. The group you work with may involve

some of all of the following people.

• people with disabilities

• other direct service staff

• professionals who provide periodic services (e.g., related service professionals)

• facility supervisors and administrators

• parents and advocates

Because all of you have a shared responsibility for assisting people to establish and achieve the

goals and objectives which make up their Individualized Plans, a clear definition of the following

is necessary:

• the person’s goals and objectives

• procedures planned for achieving objectives

• outcomes of those procedures

When communicating about these important areas, you should use precise language that leaves

little or no room for interpretation. This unit provides instruction and practice in the writing and

language skills needed for precise and clear communication of objectives, procedures and

outcomes.

Reviewing Reports for Descriptive Language

It is important to remember that information shared with co-workers and others must be specific

in order to be useful. An exercise to demonstrate this requirement follows. On the next two pages

are printed reports of two meetings of a group of staff in a community-based program. They met

to discuss new plans for Mary. Read the two reports and then answer the questions that follow.

You may refer back to the reports as often as you like when answering the questions.

5

March 1, 2019

Person-Centered Planning Meeting with Mary

RE: Setting objectives and planning procedures in adult life domains

OBJECTIVES:

Employment: Mary has shown significant progress, but she still has some challenges.

Because of her cerebral palsy, sometimes it is difficult for her to complete her employment

tasks. Therefore, we all agreed than an important objective for Mary will be improvement in

fine motor skills so that she can complete her work tasks.

Independent Living: Mary has indicated that she would like to learn how to grocery shop and

cook. These skills will make Mary more independent at home and will help her to be able to

share household tasks with her roommate. A major objective for Mary will be knowing how to

grocery shop and cook.

Community: Mary has expressed an interest in getting around town more on her own. She

would like to learn how to take public transportation to work and the YMCA. We think it will

be especially motivating for Mary to learn how to take public transportation to the YMCA

because she is very motivated by swimming. An objective in the community domain is for

Mary to understand how to use public transportation.

Behavior: Mary’s behavior has made it difficult to work with her. Several staff are wondering

if a more restrictive living environment is needed. Before this is considered, however, the

objective is to develop a program that will teach Mary to act in less emotional ways and to

control her outbursts.

PROCEDURES:

Employment: Since fine motor skills are difficult for Mary, we decided to reward her for any

improvements in her performance. We realize that it will be difficult, but the team agreed that

such a procedure is necessary.

Independent Living: Even though Mary indicates she wants to learn how to grocery shop

and cook, she hasn’t done much about it on her own. She needs to spend more time practicing.

Therefore, all staff will try to motivate her to work on this on a regular basis.

Community: Because Mary is motivated to go swimming, the team agreed to help her

understand how to use public transportation to get to the YMCA first. If that goes well, the

team will consider helping Mary use public transportation to go to work.

Behavior: Mary seems to need a more structured environment. In order to provide more

structure, the team decided to consistently respond to her inappropriate behavior. We hope that

consistent responses will help her learn to control her own behavior.

6

June 3, 2019

Team Meeting with Mary G.

RE: Sharing progress from objectives and assessing outcomes from the March Person-

Centered Planning meeting

PROGRESS AND OUTCOMES:

Employment: Some of the steps of the task analysis for Mary’s job are still hard for her. She

gets really frustrated on the difficult steps.

Independent Living: Mary didn’t quite meet her objectives, but she’s much more effective

with them than before and is less reluctant to practice.

Community: Mary likes riding the bus to go to the YMCA because she is very motivated by

swimming. She seems to be understanding how to ride the bus, but she still needs lots of

prompts.

Behavior: Mary doesn’t seem to be having as many emotional outbursts. We think that the

program to change Mary’s behavior is beginning to work.

CONCLUSIONS:

All programs will continue until the team can meet again in three months.

Questions

1. A major change regarding Mary’s behavior is to:

_____a) increase the number of times she smiles at work

_____b) decrease the frequency of her yelling and crying episodes

_____c) decrease her frequency of complaining

_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports

2. Mary’s staff will know when her cooking skills have improved when:

_____a) she can complete the cooking task analysis with 80% independence

_____b) she is able to prepare a three-course meal

_____c) she does not burn herself when draining the pasta


3. Mary’s employment objective is to:

_____a) complete her assigned tasks without complaining

_____b) independently fold and put 100 flyers into envelopes during a two-hour shift

_____c) work without any incidents of crying or yelling

_____d) no specific answer is available in the report

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4. For Mary’s bus riding skill, her support team will:

_____a) teach her how arrive at the bus stop on time, pay for her ride with tokens, and

get off at the correct stop

_____b) give her verbal praise when she gets off at the correct stop

_____c) provide her with appropriate models


5. Mary will meet her objective for grocery shopping when:

_____a) she can find all of the items on her shopping list

_____b) she knows how much to pay the cashier

_____c) she is able to independently complete 80% of the steps of the

task analysis for grocery shopping.


Answer Key

d is the correct answer for each question

It should not have taken long for you to realize that the questions could not be answered with the

information provided in the two reports. There is little or no specific, detailed and useful

information about Mary’s objectives, how the staff worked with her, or the exact outcomes of

instructional programs to teach Mary new skills or behavioral support plans to decrease her

challenging behaviors.

On the next three pages, you will find the same two reports, with some information added to

several of the paragraphs. Read the second version of the reports and then try once more to

answer the questions, which are reprinted following the revised reports.

8

March 1, 2019

Person-Centered Planning Meeting with Mary

RE: Setting objectives and planning procedures in adult life domains

OBJECTIVES:

Employment: Mary has shown significant progress, but she still has some important needs.

Because of her cerebral palsy, Mary has difficulty with fine motor skills (especially with her

left hand). This makes it difficult for Mary to complete tasks at work that require the use of

both hands at the same time. Mary asked the team to assist her to improve her fine motor

skills. The team thinks it would be beneficial to have one of the agency’s occupational

therapists observe Mary at work. The team will consider this objective met when Mary is able

to independently fold and put 100 flyers into envelopes during a two-hour work shift.

Independent Living: Mary enjoys cooking and would like to learn how to shop for

ingredients for simple recipes that she can cook at home with her roommate. The team will

develop a task analysis for grocery shopping and cooking. These objectives will be met when

Mary is able to independently and accurately complete 80% of the steps of each task analysis.

Since Mary shares grocery shopping and cooking responsibilities with her roommate, she will

have opportunities to practice both skills on a weekly basis.

Community: Mary has indicated that she would like to learn how to get around the

community more independently. Since Mary’s apartment is on a bus route that goes to the

YMCA (and Mary is highly motivated to go swimming at the YMCA), an objective in the

community domain is for Mary to complete the steps for arriving at the bus stop on time,

paying with tokens for her ride, and getting off at the correct stop with 100% independence

and accuracy. Once she has mastered this objective, a new objective will be written for

generalizing this skill for using public transportation to get to work.

Behavior:

Mary’s behavior has made it difficult for staff to support her. The possibility of another living

environment has been discussed. However, most of the staff don’t want to give up, and Mary

does not want to move. The objective is to implement positive behavior supports to teach

Mary to decrease the frequency of her yelling and crying episodes from the 25-times-a-week

average she has now, to less than two times a week on average for a 10-week period. Because

most of Mary’s yelling and crying incidents have been related to tasks that are difficult for her

at work, staff believe that the folding adaptation that was designed by the OT will help to

reduce her frustration which will result in fewer episodes of yelling and crying.

9

PROCEDURES:

Employment: Because it is difficult for Mary to use both hands to fold the flyers that need to

be put into envelopes, it may be helpful for the OT to make a folding adaptation so that the

task can be completed with just one hand. To make the task less intimidating, it might be

helpful to break it down into smaller steps (stacks of 10 flyers to fold and put into envelopes at

a time) so that Mary receives more frequent reinforcement for task completion.

Independent Living: The team will develop task analyses for grocery shopping and cooking.

The skills will focus on choosing a simple recipe, locating the ingredients at the store, using

the next-dollar strategy to pay, following the steps for preparing the recipe, and cleaning up

the kitchen after cooking. Staff will provide verbal reinforcement after each step of the task

analysis. Mary will also be motivated by the natural reinforcement of eating the food that she

cooks. She enjoys mealtimes with her roommate and sharing food preparation responsibilities

will be an incentive for learning these skills.

Community: Staff will create a task analysis for key skills for using public transportation such

as following the schedule to arrive at the bus stop on time, paying for her ride with tokens, and

pulling the signal cord at the correct stop for getting off the bus. The team believes Mary will

be motivated to learn how to use public transportation because she loves to go swimming at

the YMCA. Once she knows how to use public transportation to get to the YMCA, training

will be provided for taking the bus to work. This will be slightly more complicated because the

route to Mary’s work requires a transfer to a different bus.

Behavior: Staff will collect data on the frequency of Mary’s yelling and crying episodes. In

addition to the frequency data, staff will complete an ABC analysis of Mary’s behaviors to

determine the function that they are serving for her. They will use this data to implement an

extinction program and to identify a replacement behavior (asking for a quick break instead of

yelling or crying) that they can teach Mary that will serve the same function as her challenging

behaviors.

10

June 3, 2019

Team Meeting with Mary G.

RE: Sharing progress from objectives and assessing outcomes from the March Person-

Centered Planning meeting

PROGRESS AND OUTCOMES:

Employment: Based on recommendations from the occupational therapist, Mary is using a

folding accommodation to fold flyers at work. She is able to fold an average of 80 flyers

during a two-hour shift. For now, one of Mary’s co-workers is putting the flyers that she folds

into envelopes. Once she has mastered folding, she will be responsible for also putting the

flyers into the envelopes. For now, working alongside a co-worker is motivating for Mary and

provides an opportunity for both of the individuals to work on their social skills.

Independent Living: Mary is going to the grocery store once a week and cooking every other

night. On average, Mary is completing 50% of the task analysis independently for grocery

shopping and 70% for cooking. She struggles with the steps for paying at the grocery store and

the steps for draining the pasta when she’s cooking. Her data is steadily increasing toward the

mastery criteria of 80% of the steps of the task analysis.

Community: For the bus riding task analysis, Mary is consistently completing 75% of the task

analysis independently. She still requires prompts for signaling her stop for getting off of the

bus.

Behavior: Based on the frequency data that staff are collecting, Mary is currently averaging

10 episodes of yelling/crying each week. This is down from her baseline average of 25

incidents a week. From the functional behavior analysis that Mary’s team completed on her

yelling/crying behaviors, it appears that these challenging behaviors serve two functions for

Mary: to seek attention from staff and to escape challenging tasks or demands at work. To

decrease these episodes, staff is ignoring Mary’s crying/yelling behaviors so that she no longer

uses them to gain staff attention. At the same time, Mary is being taught a replacement

behavior (verbally asking for staff attention or to take a break) that serves the same function as

her yelling/crying. In addition, the accommodation that the OT implemented to assist Mary

with folding flyers at work has made this task less challenging for Mary and her yelling/crying

behaviors in this setting have decreased.

11

Questions

1. A major change regarding Mary’s behavior is to:

_____a) increase the number of times she smiles at work

_____b) decrease the frequency of her yelling and crying episodes

_____c) decrease her frequency of complaining


2. Mary’s staff will know when her cooking skills have improved when:

_____a) she can complete the cooking task analysis with 80% independence

_____b) she is able to prepare a three-course meal

_____c) she does not burn herself when draining the pasta


3. Mary’s employment objective is to:

_____a) complete her assigned tasks without complaining

_____b) independently fold and put 100 flyers into envelopes during a two-hour shift

_____c) work without any incidents of crying or yelling


4. For Mary’s bus riding skill, her support team will:

_____a) teach her how arrive at the bus stop on time, pay for her ride with tokens, and

get off at the correct stop

_____b) give her verbal praise when she gets off at the correct stop

_____c) provide her with appropriate models


5. Mary will meet her objective for grocery shopping when:

_____a) she can find all of the items on her shopping list

_____b) she knows how much to pay the cashier

_____c) she is able to independently complete 80% of the task analysis


Answer Key

1-b, 2-a, 3-b, 4-a, 5-c

12

After reading the second version of the meeting reports, you found that the answers to the

questions were available to you. Why? Because the sentences added in the second version

contain language which clearly describes behavior of both the staff and the learner.

Compare the phrases in column one below, which were taken from version #1 of the reports,

with the phrases and sentences in column two, which came from version #2.

Column 1

“Mary didn’t quite meet her objectives, but

she’s much more effective with them than

before.”

“We try to reinforce her when her behavior is

good.”

“She seems to be understanding how to ride

the bus.”

“…act in less emotional ways and to control

her outbursts.”

Column 2

“On average, Mary is completing 50% of the

task analysis independently for grocery

shopping and 70% for cooking.”

The staff provides verbal reinforcement and

allows Mary to take a quick break to regroup

(which is the natural reinforcement for using

the appropriate behaviors) when she uses the

replacement behavior instead of the


“Mary is consistently completing 75% of the

task analysis independently for bus riding.”

“decrease the frequency of her yelling and

crying episodes from the 25-times-a-week

average she has now, to less than two times a

week on average for a 10-week period.”

The phrases in column one are ambiguous and general. They do not tell us precisely what will

happen or has happened. Notice that all of the phrases and sentences in column two above

describe behaviors or actions that you could do, or that you could watch for and see happening

when others do them.

Whenever you write or talk about behavior, it is important that you avoid using general

statements such as those included in column one. If you do use a general statement (such as “has

shown significant progress”), be prepared to follow it immediately with a description of specific

behavior which demonstrates the truth of your general statement.

Why is this so important? If communication about a person’s program is not clear, then the

individual may not make progress toward his or her objectives. For example, suppose several

13

staff members at both Mary’s residence and worksite have been instructed to, “Ignore Mary’s

outbursts” as part of her positive behavior support plan. Unless the staff got together and agreed

about what is meant by “outbursts,” each staff person might take an entirely different approach

with Mary. Some might ignore all of her outbursts. Others might ignore crying but not yelling or

might only ignore her outbursts if they are really loud or if they are disturbing others. Because

Mary may receive inconsistent and contradictory treatment, she may make little progress toward

reducing her challenging behaviors (or Mary might actually increase her “outbursts” in hopes of

gaining the same attention that she previously received before staff started ignoring her). In order

to apply positive behavior supports consistently, staff would need to define “outbursts” so that

everyone is addressing the same behavior. Known as operationalizing or pinpointing behavior,

this concept is described in Lesson Two of Unit 1. Individuals receiving supports have a right to

a well-planned, consistently carried out program. Don’t allow faulty communication and

imprecise language to get in the way of individual’s progress.

Unit I: Lesson 1 – Points for Review

In order to provide successful services and supports, effective communication is crucial. When

developing positive support plans and instructional programs to address behavior excesses or

deficits, descriptive language must be used so that everyone knows exactly what is being

targeted.

14

Unit 1 Describing Behavior

Lesson 2: Recognizing Language that Describes Behavior


• Given pairs of sentences about behavior, trainee will discriminate between the descriptive and

the evaluative sentence in each pair.

• Given a group of sentences about behavior, trainee will label the descriptive sentences and the

evaluative sentences.

• In the sentences labeled “descriptive,” trainee will underline the action phrases.

Introduction to Recognizing Language that Describes Behavior

After the behavior to be changed (i.e. increased for behavioral deficits and decreased for

behavioral excesses) has been identified, the next step is to define the behavior. This process is

known as operationally defining or pinpointing the behavior.

Operationally Defining/Pinpointing Behavior

Before goals and objectives can be written, behaviors that cannot be observed or measured (e.g.,

feels, thinks, appreciates, understands, comprehends, etc.) must be clearly defined. This process

is known as operationally defining or pinpointing behaviors and is done by refining broad

generalizations into specific, observable, and measurable behaviors.

• Behavior must be specific. When a behavior is specific, it means that it is defined so that

whoever is observing the behavior will know exactly whether it occurred or not. Any

person who knows the definition of the target behavior could spot it.

• Behavior must be observable. It is what we see or hear, such as a person sitting down,

standing up, speaking, whispering, yelling, or completing a task. In addition, behavior is

not what a person is feeling, but rather how the individual expresses the feeling. For

example, a student may show anger by stomping his feet, yelling, crossing his arms, and

swearing. These observable actions are more descriptive than just stating that the person

looks angry.

• Behavior must be measurable. When a behavior is measurable, the person who is

observing can tell when the behavior begins, ends, and how often it occurs. For example,

“disrupting her co-workers all the time” is not measurable. Instead, grabbing her co-

workers work supplies 10-20 times during each two-hour shift is measurable. While

disruptive behavior is not measurable, whoever is observing would be able to count

exactly how many times the person grabbed her co-workers supplies.

If the target behavior is not defined in a way that is specific, observable, and measurable, its

occurrence or nonoccurrence will be open to interpretation. For instance, it would be difficult for

someone to decide whether the person had performed the following behaviors:

15

• Beth will understand how to cook.

• Kyle will recognize the value of coins.

• Sara will refrain from aggression.

• Kelsie will remain on-task at work.

When vague terms such as these are used, there is often disagreement about whether a behavior

has occurred or not. Since any behavior can be described in numerous ways, everyone who is

implementing an instructional or intervention program must agree on a common definition of the

target behavior. By clearly stating specific, observable, and measurable characteristics of the

behavior, everyone can agree whether or not the behavior has been performed by the learner.

An operational or pinpointed definition of the target behavior usually includes specific examples

of what the person is doing when he or she exhibits the target behavior. For example, when a

person is having a “melt-down” (which is an ambiguous behavior), she is crying and falling

down on the floor. Because crying and falling down on the floor are specific, observable, and

measurable, it is less likely that they will be interpreted differently by different observers.

Table 1 shows additional examples of behaviors that are not operationally defined/pinpointed in

the first column with a definition of the target behavior in the second column.

Table 1: Examples of Non-Defined and Defined Behaviors

Non-Defined Behaviors Defined Behaviors

Not disturbing co-workers • Not grabbing co-workers’ snack

• Not interrupting a co-worker

Not having an emotional outburst • Not crying

• Not yelling

• Not falling down on the floor

Being more respectful • Not interrupting

• Not rolling eyes after someone makes a

comment

Behaving appropriately • Staying at work station until break

• Not throwing work materials

• Not hitting others

Feeling angry • Not crossing arms on chest

• Not glaring

• Not yelling

16

In each of the following pairs, identify which objective includes specific, observable, and

measurable behaviors.

• Mary will understand how to fold flyers and stuff envelopes, or Mary will fold 100 flyers

and put them in envelopes during her two-hour work shift.

• Mary will shop at the grocery store or Mary will find five items on a picture grocery-

shopping list.

• Mary will know how to ride the bus to the YMCA or Mary will get to the bus stop on

time, pay for her ride with a token, and pull the signal cord at her stop to get off.

• Mary will know how to make something for dinner or Mary will complete the steps in a

recipe to make spaghetti.

• Mary’s emotional outbursts will decrease or Mary’s use of words or gestures to

communicate will increase.

In each of these examples, the behavior that is specific, observable, and measurable is the second

statement in each pair.

Why do you think it is important for behaviors to be written in terms that are specific,

observable, and measurable? Primarily, this is important so that performance can be tracked, and

progress can be recorded and shared. When sharing progress at a meeting, it’s much more

beneficial for team members to hear “Mary knows how to complete 5 out of the 10 steps

required to make spaghetti” versus “Mary is getting better at making dinner or “Mary is using

words or gestures to communicate when she is frustrated at work”, “instead” of “Mary’s

emotional outbursts have decreased.”

Making Language Descriptive

Language that describes behavior tells what someone does or does not do. Language that

describes behavior talks about an observable action that you can see or hear happen. For

instance, Sam throws his clothes on the floor every night. In this example, you could observe

Sam throwing his clothes on the floor.

The behavior should be described so that it could not be mistaken for any other behavior. In this

case, we are only concerned with Sam throwing clothing. The behavior should be described so

that no instance of it could be excluded. In other words, any item of clothing that Sam throws

would count. Additionally, it should be described so that if more than one person was observing

simultaneously, their records of the behavior would look the same.

It is important to avoid stating an opinion about what someone “is” (e.g., lazy, calm, ambitious,

withdrawn, productive, etc.). For example, the statement “Sam is untidy,” is an opinion about

Sam. It describes a characteristic that someone thinks Sam has based on his/her evaluation of

Sam. It does not describe anything Sam actually does. “Sam is untidy” does not describe a

single, observable action that can be discriminated from many other observable actions.

Language that describes an inner state or emotion (e.g., angry, hopeful, depressed, happy, sad,

etc.) should also be avoided. Language that describes what someone apparently feels inside

17

should be replaced with descriptions of what they actually do (e.g., frown, smile, falls asleep,

cries, etc.).

As a rule of thumb, it is important to remember that behavior is what someone does. This is

known as descriptive language because it defines an action that is specific, observable, and

measurable. On the other hand, when a person uses language that describes what he or she thinks

someone “is” (e.g., he is messy, or she is anxious) or what someone is allegedly feeling on the

inside (e.g., she is angry, or he is depressed), the type of language being used is evaluative

because it is based on an opinion.

Feedback Exercise 1

Mark sentences which describe specific, observable, and measurable behavior with a letter D

(for descriptive language). Mark sentences that state an opinion or describe a feeling with a

letter E (for evaluative language).

_______ 1. Jenn stays in her room during her spare time.

_______ 2. Jenn is withdrawn.

_______ 3. Sam is untidy.

_______ 4. Sam throws his clothes on the floor by his bed every night.

_______ 5. Joe frequently smiles.

_______ 6. Joe is happy.

_______ 7. Holly always says “please” and “thank you.”

_______ 8. Holly is a well-mannered person.

_______ 9. Mary does not speak.

_______10. Mary is shy.

See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 1 at the end of the Module.

Action Phrases

In the feedback exercise you just completed, the first sentence in each pair contains an action

phrase. Action phrases describe specific, observable, and measurable actions. You could see or

hear those actions when they happen. An action phrase always includes an action verb. For

example, look at the descriptive sentence “Jenn stays in her room during her spare time.” The

action verb is “stays.” The action phrase is “stays in her room.” You could observe Jenn doing

this. The behavior you could observe Sam doing in the second pair of sentences is described in

the action phrase, “throws his clothes on the floor.”

Sometimes the action verb by itself is enough to describe the behavior. Most often, however, a

few more words are needed to make the behavior specific. In the example, “Jenn stays in her

room during her spare time,” the action verb “stays” would not be sufficient. “Stays in her room”

18

defines the actual behavior you would observe. In the other descriptive sentences, the action

phrases are “frequently smiles,” “chews with her mouth closed,” and “does not speak.”

The other sentences do not refer to a specific, observable, or measurable action or behavior. The

use of verbs such as is, are, was, were, seems, etc., indicates that no action is taking place. They

refer to opinions about inner states, qualities or characteristics that cannot be observed and

measured.

The “Hey Dad” Test

To help you determine whether a sentence or phrase describes behavior, apply the “Hey, Dad

watch me…” test. To do so, put the phrase after the words “Hey, Dad, watch me” and see if it

makes sense. Could Dad watch you and see a specific action? Let’s apply the test to some of the

phrases from the feedback exercise you did earlier:

Hey, Dad, watch me stay in my room…

Hey, Dad, watch me smile…

Hey, Dad, watch me chew with my mouth closed…

You’ll no doubt agree that those sentences make sense. We know Dad can watch these actions.

When you apply the test to phrases from the other sentences, they don’t make as much sense.

You can’t determine just exactly what Dad would be watching you do on the basis of these

sentences:

Hey, Dad, watch me be withdrawn…

Hey, Dad, watch me be happy…

Hey, Dad, watch me be a well-mannered person…

The Mental Image Test

Another useful way to determine whether a phrase describes a specific behavior is to determine

the mental image that you get from the phrase. If you find it hard to visualize a specific action, or

if several different possible images come to mind, then the phrase is either evaluative, or it is too

vague.

Use these tests to help you with Feedback Exercise 2.

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Feedback Exercise 2

In the following group of sentences:

1. Mark sentences which describe behavior with a letter D. Mark sentences that state an

opinion or describe a feeling with a letter O.

2. In the descriptive sentences, underline the action phrase.

_______1. William is lazy.

_______2. Lee arrives at work 10 minutes early each day.

_______3. Josie can read all words on her grocery list.

_______4. Kayla is very dependent on others.

_______5. Tyler is well-adjusted.

_______6. Samantha can tie her shoes without help.

_______7. Nick acts silly when he’s with other teenagers.

_______8. Alexandra always finishes her work assignments.

_______9. Ingrid has poor self-care skills.

______10. John always says “thank you” after he receives his order at the restaurant.



After a target behavior has been identified, it must be described in terms that are specific,

observable, and measurable. This is known as pinpointing or operationally defining the

behavior. The behavior must be described in terms of action phrases that indicate exactly what

the person will be doing it when he or she is performing it. When the target behavior is

operationally defined, the person who is observing and measuring the behavior will know

exactly when it is occurring. To help with this process, the “Hey, Dad” and Mental Image tests

can be applied.

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Lesson 3: Using Language that Describes Behavior


• Given a variety of scenarios, trainees will identify phrases that describe behavior.

• Given vague descriptions of behavior and evaluative sentences, trainee will rewrite the

sentences in specific behavioral terms.

• Trainee will write at least five sentences describing the behavior of individuals with whom

they work.

Introduction to Identifying Descriptive Behavior

As you have learned, when writing or talking about behavior, you should use precise, descriptive

language. This takes practice and requires you to develop the habit of questioning and evaluating

both your own language and language used by others.

Look at the following two paragraphs. Paragraph A and Paragraph B both are intended to

describe the same incident. To evaluate them, read the paragraphs and underline the action

phrases in each.

Paragraph A

This morning, Mary was verbally abusive to

her supervisor. She was frustrated with one of

her assigned tasks and had an episode. Mary

seemed to be unaware of the negative affect

her behavior had on her co-workers in the

same environment.

Paragraph B

This morning, Mary yelled at her supervisor

after he asked Mary to do a task over again.

When she could not complete it successfully,

Mary quit working, cried, and yelled at her

supervisor. The two women who work next to

Mary both stopped working and covered their

ears. They begged Mary to stop, but she

ignored them.

Which paragraph (A or B) provides the most specific and useful information about the incident?

Compare how you underlined the action phrases to the answer key below.

Paragraph A

This morning, Mary was verbally abusive to

her supervisor. She became frustrated with

one of her assigned tasks and had an episode.

Mary seemed to be unaware of the negative

impact her behavior had on her co-workers in

the same environment.

Paragraph B

This morning, Mary yelled at her supervisor

after he asked Mary to redo a task. When she

could not complete it successfully, Mary quit

working, cried, and yelled at her supervisor.

The two women who work next to Mary both

stopped working and covered their ears. They

begged Mary to stop, but she ignored them.

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It is obvious that Paragraph B gives the most descriptive and useful account of the incident. Did

you underline any phrases in Paragraph A? Let’s look at the reasons that some of those phrases

are not acceptable as descriptions of behavior.

…was verbally abusive

…became frustrated

…had an episode

…seemed to be unaware

This is not specific. Does it mean she

shouted? Swore? Called the supervisor nasty

names? Yelled at her supervisor?

What mental image do you get of Mary? Do

all people look the same when they are

frustrated? This doesn’t tell what Mary is

actually doing.

Do all people have identical “episodes”? Did

she hold his breath? Cry? Scream? Kick?

Refuse to talk? An “episode” is not specific

and could mean different things to different

observers.

This is not a specific behavior. What is Mary

doing to show she is “unaware”?

In Feedback Exercise 3, you will have an opportunity to practice defining target behaviors in

terms that are specific, observable, and measurable.

Feedback Exercise 3

Read the five sentences below. Each sentence contains either an opinion, a description that is

ambiguous or vague, or a statement about how someone is allegedly feeling. Rewrite each one

in the space given by using action phrases to make the sentences describe behavior that is

specific, observable, and measurable. Underline each action phrase you use. There is no single

“right answer” for any of these sentences. The behavior you describe will depend on how you

interpret the sentence. Make sure that the behaviors you describe can pass the “Hey, Dad,

watch me…” and visual image test. The first sentence is completed as an example.

Example: Jake is messy.

Jake leaves his wet towel and dirty clothes on the bathroom floor after his shower.

You try rewriting these:

1. Jon is aggressive toward others.

2. Faith is a productive employee.

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3. Hannah communicates poorly.

4. Dominic was unhappy this morning.

5. Liz is a very well-adjusted person.

You will find several possible examples for each of the above sentence. Your sentences may

be different, which is fine. The examples given help to point out just how inexact the language

is in the original sentences.


Exercise for Additional Practice

This time write your own sentences about behaviors you have observed in others. Write at least

five sentences that include action phrases that describe specific, observable, and measurable

behaviors that can pass the “Hey, Dad, watch me…” and visual image test.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.


When defining behavior, precise and descriptive language must be used. Descriptions of

behavior should not include opinions (e.g., he is lazy, she is uncooperative, etc.), vague or

ambiguous terms (e.g., understands, aware of, appreciates, etc.) or statements about how

someone allegedly feels (e.g., depressed, angry, anxious, happy, etc.).

23

UNIT II BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

Lesson 1: An Overview of Behavioral Objectives


• Trainee will identify the purpose and characteristics of goals.

• Trainee will define the term “behavioral objective.”

• Trainee will specify the purpose of behavioral objectives.

• Trainee will name and describe the components of a behavioral objective.

• Given phrases of behavioral objectives, trainee will identify which component that each phrase

represents.

Introduction to Behavioral Objectives

Mary has just moved with a roommate to an apartment in the community. At one of her first

person-centered planning meetings, Mary and the rest of her support team agreed that there were

several things she needed to learn.

For example, Mary needed to learn how to complete some basic household tasks. She also

needed to learn how to use public transportation. In addition, Mary needed to decrease her

emotional outbursts. Specifically, the team decided to focus on increasing Mary’s skills for

grocery shopping, cooking, and riding the bus to the YMCA (and eventually to work), as well as

decreasing her episodes of yelling/crying (especially at work).

To help Mary learn these and other new behaviors, the team and others who support Mary will

have to prepare detailed, step-by-step teaching programs. First, however, they need to agree on

the specific outcomes for which their plans and programs are aimed. They will do this by

working together to write behavioral objectives that will be included in Mary’s Person-Centered

Plan (PCP). In this module, we’ll explore the process used to write behavioral objectives for

Mary. It is important to note that before objectives are written, assessment must be conducted,

and goals must be developed. Goals and objectives stem from assessments that are conducted

prior to the team planning process. Modules that will provide additional information regarding

these areas include: Assessment and Setting Goals, Person Centered Planning, and Achieving

Personal Outcomes.

Goals should correspond to assessed needs and desires that are documented in the person’s PCP.

Goals are written to help individuals with disabilities overcome barriers to full participation in

the community.

Table 2 presents examples of goals in each of the life domains (plus behavior) that were

identified at Mary’s person-centered planning meeting. It is important to remember that not

every person with disabilities will have goals in all of the adult life domains. The number and

type of goals that are included in a PCP must be customized for each person.

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Table 2: Goals Across Life Domains

Domain Goal

Working Mary will get a job doing office work and keep it for six

months.

Living Mary’s will learn to cook five simple meals.

Recreation/Leisure Mary will join the YMCA and use the pool to help manage her

weight at a healthy level.

Behavior Mary will communicate her needs effectively with friends,

family, and co-workers, using words or gestures.

Once goals are written, the person’s support team writes behavioral objectives as clearly defined

steps for accomplishing the goals.

Behavioral Objectives

A behavioral objective “describes the behavior that should result from the instruction or

intervention” (Alberto and Troutman, p. 40). For example, a behavioral objective for an

individual who has deficits in cooking skills would describe the level of cooking performance the

person should reach. For a person who is having episodes of yelling/crying at work, a behavioral

objective would specify what the individual should do instead of the challenging behavior (to

serve the same function). For example, the behavioral objective would indicate the number of

times the person should ask for help during his or her work shift instead of yelling or crying as a

means of communicating that he or she needs assistance. While it will be important to collect

ongoing data on the frequency of the yelling and crying behaviors, the emphasis should be on

increasing the appropriate replacement behaviors to make sure the intervention is working.

Purpose of Behavioral Objectives

Behavioral objectives have several purposes. They are written to clarify the goals of a person’s

behavior-change program. Well-written behavioral objectives facilitate effective instruction.

Because the behavioral objective specifies exactly what is being targeted, the person who is

providing instruction knows precisely which instructional strategies and materials to use.

Behavioral objectives also help with evaluation of progress. By having a clearly written

statement about increasing a behavioral deficit or decreasing a behavioral excess, data can be

collected and progress toward achieving the objective can be monitored. In addition, behavioral

objectives promote communication among those who are involved in the individual’s program

because anyone who reads a behavioral objective should be able to recognize what the person is

working to achieve and whether he or she is making adequate progress.

Writing Behavioral Objectives

A behavioral objective is a breakdown of a goal into its teachable components. Behavioral

objectives are based on the goals that were identified during the person-centered planning

process. Whereas goals are usually broad and long-term, behavioral objectives are more specific

and short-term. Behavioral objectives must include each of the four required components.

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Components of a Behavioral Objective

Behavioral objectives include four components to communicate all of the necessary information

and provide a basis for evaluation. While their order may vary in the written behavioral

objective, the required components are:

1) The learner

2) The target behavior

3) The condition(s)

4) The criteria for acceptable performance

Each of these components is described below.

1. The Learner

Designed to promote individualization of instruction, the specific individual for whom the

objective has been developed must be stated. To focus attention on the individual learner,

behavioral objectives include statements such as:

• Mary…

• The participant in the training program…

• The grocery store employee…

2. The Target Behavior

After the deficient or excessive behavior has been defined, the behavioral objective specifies

exactly what the person will be doing when the desired change has been achieved. The target

behavior spells out the precise response that is expected of the person to demonstrate mastery.

Each behavioral objective should only address one specific target behavior. For example,

washing and drying dishes would be written as two separate behavioral objectives because they

are two distinct skills.

The target behavior serves three main purposes.

1) Ensures that different people are consistently observing and recording occurrence and

nonoccurrence of the same behavior.

2) Allows for confirmation by a third party that the change observed by the person

providing instruction/intervention has actually occurred.

3) Facilitates continuity if more than one person is implementing the

instruction/intervention.

To achieve these three purposes, the behavior must be defined so that it is verifiable (i.e. the

behavior is able to be seen or heard or a direct product of the behavior can be seen or heard).

This is done by making sure that the verb that is used to describe the behavior is specific,

observable, and measurable (as was described in Lesson 2 of Unit 1).

26

In addition to the “Hey Dad” and mental image tests, the following questions can be asked to

determine if a target behavior is specific, observable, and measurable.

a) Can the number of times that a behavior is occurring within a particular time period be

counted? Can you determine how long the person exhibited the behavior during a specific

time period? The answer to both of these questions will be yes if the behavior is

operationally defined.

b) Will a third party know exactly what behavior is being modified? The answer to this

question should also be yes.

c) Can the target behavior be broken down into even more specific and observable target

behaviors? The answer to this question should be no.

3. The Condition(s)

The statement of conditions is the third component of a behavioral objective. It specifies the

antecedent(s) that should set the stage for performance of the target behavior. Conditions may be

natural in the environment (e.g., a stack of flyers sitting on the person’s work table) or delivered

by the person providing instruction (e.g., “It’s time to fold the flyers”). Conditions typically

indicate what supplies, equipment, and assistance will be provided to set the stage for person to

demonstrate the behavior. They also might indicate what is not allowed (e.g., Without assistance,

Mary will pull the cord at her bus stop to signal that she wants to get off.) The condition

statement may tell where (e.g., in the kitchen, at work, etc.) or when the behavior will be

performed (e.g., during the morning routine, before dinner, etc.). As you can see in the examples

below, the condition statement often starts with the word “Given” to describe what will be

provided to signal the learner to demonstrate the target behavior.

The categories of conditions (i.e. antecedent stimuli) are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Categories of Conditions

Conditions Examples

Verbal Requests or Instruction • Given the verbal cue “Go back to your work

station,”

• Given the verbal prompt “It’s time to make

spaghetti,”

• Given the verbal instruction “Put the

envelope in the done pile,”

• Given the verbal cue “Find the items on

your list.”

Written or Picture Instructions • Given a written checklist of work tasks,

• Given a picture recipe,

Demonstration • Following a demonstration of how to fold

the flyers,

• Given a demonstration of how to make

spaghetti,

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Materials • Given the ingredients for making a

spaghetti,

• Given color-coding on the stove,

• Given a stack of papers and stapler,

• Given a picture recipe,

Environmental Setting or Timing • At work,

• In the break room,

• In the kitchen,

• During a two-hour work shift,

• At bedtime,

• At the grocery store,

Manner of Assistance • Independently,

• With the aid of a number line,

• With partial physical assistance,

Sometime the conditions are written at the beginning of the behavioral objective; other times

they are embedded within the objective. The placement of the condition(s) within the behavior

objective depends on the readability of the statement. It may read better if the condition(s) are

placed at the beginning of the objective. This is usually dependent upon personal preference as

either way is correct.

4. The Criteria for Acceptable Performance

The criteria statement specifies the level of performance that the person will be able to

demonstrate as a result of instruction/intervention. As the basis for evaluating progress, the

criteria statement is the standard for minimally acceptable performance. It is the standard against

which the effectiveness of the instruction/intervention selected to meet the behavioral objective

is measured.

Criterion one describes how well the person must demonstrate the target behavior (i.e. % of

independent steps of a task analysis, accuracy, # of times for a discrete skill, maximum # of

challenging behaviors).

Criterion two describes how long the behavior must be demonstrated to be considered mastered.

The second criterion is a measurement of consistency and reliability. The second criterion

indicates what evidence is required before the support team is satisfied that the person will be

able to consistently and reliably perform the objective without further supervision and assistance.

In establishing the second criterion, it is important to ask, “Is one successful performance of this

behavior sufficient evidence that the person can continue to do it reliably and consistently?” If

the answer is “yes,” then the Part 2 criterion is not needed. If the answer is “no,” then the second

part must be added. Part 1 and Part 2 criterion will be discussed in greater detail in Lesson 2 of

Unit 2.

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As you can see in Table 4, there are many measures by which criteria for acceptable performance

may be set.

Table 4: Measures of Criteria for Acceptable Performance

Measures Criteria

Level of independence and accuracy*

(How well?)

“with 90% accuracy”

“completing 90% of the steps of the TA

Speed (How fast?) “within 15 minutes”

“in less than 5 seconds”

Regularity (How often?) “every morning”

“once a week”

Duration (How long?) “for 10 seconds”

“for 3 weeks”

Latency (How long before initiation

of skill?)

“within 30 seconds of being prompted”

“within 5 minutes after coming back from lunch”

Quantity (How many?) “names 4 of his supervisors” (4 is the criterion)

“peels 5 medium potatoes”

Combination of above “at least 100 flyers folded with no errors during a two-

hour work shift” (accuracy, speed)

When determining the criteria for acceptable performance, it is important to be ambitious but

also realistic. Sometimes members of a person’s support team have difficulty finding this

balance. Here are some practical considerations that can assist team members in setting criteria

for mastery.

1. Type of skill – Different types of behavior lend themselves to different levels of mastery.

How many of us can say that our cooking skills are perfect 100% of the time? For some

behaviors, it is acceptable to set the criteria at 80 or 90 percent because the performance is

not expected to be perfect every time. Other behaviors, however, do require a criterion of

100% accuracy. Street crossing is a good example of a behavior for which the individual

should demonstrate 100% accuracy in order to say that the skill has been mastered.

It is also important to set high expectations for behaviors that are dangerous or harmful to the

person or others. For instance, “Jon will have zero instances of hitting his co-workers per

work shift” is appropriate since hitting others is dangerous and likely to result in Jon losing

his job. It’s important to note that a criterion of 100% accuracy may not be feasible for some

individuals. For example, it may not be possible for a person to inhibit aggression for an

extended period of time or with zero frequency. In these situations, the team would need to

include instructions for intervention in the person’s plan.

Following an assessment of the person’s behavior the team should know the function the

behavior is serving. The objective can then be written to address the replacement behavior.

For example, instead of “Jon will have zero instances of hitting his co-workers per work

shift”, the objective can focus on the positive replacement behavior, such as “Jon will say hi

to his co-workers to gain their attention.”

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2. Expectations similar to peers without disabilities – The mastery criteria should be appropriate

for the age of the person for whom the behavioral objective has been written. For instance,

saying a person will be completing assigned tasks 100% of the time at work is probably not

realistic since most people get distracted at times. Similarly, if a person without disabilities

only greets his co-workers 3 times during his work day, it is not reasonable to expect an

employee with disabilities to do so 20 times/day.

3. Changing conditions versus lowering criteria for mastery – Some individuals with disabilities

may never master a behavior at 75% or higher (assuming that is the reasonable amount that a

person without disabilities would do it). Mastering a behavior at 50% is not really

meaningful because their performance will be too hit or miss. Instead, it is better to change

the conditions under which the person will demonstrate the skill by adding prompts (e.g.,

Given partial physical assistance to fold the flyers or Given adaptive equipment for folding

flyers). Partial participation is another approach that could be used (i.e., having the person

learn a subset of the steps such as only putting the flyers in the envelopes after a co-worker

folds them) instead of lessening the level of mastery.

4. Practicality – It is important to write behavioral objectives that are practical to measure. For

example, if a person is working on walking independently, it is more practical to measure

whether Ryan is able to walk to the bathroom from his work area independently than it is to

collect data on if Ryan can ambulate independently for 25 feet.

The actual criteria that is set in behavioral objectives will depend on the target behavior and on

the planners’ knowledge of the learner’s abilities and circumstances. If the behavior involves

potential risk to the person or to the staff, criteria for acceptable performance should be set

conservatively.

Furthermore, at the beginning of a teaching program, the criterion may be set lower than will be

expected in the person’s final performance of the particular behavior. Both the conditions and the

criteria can be changed as the person progresses toward meeting the objective. As in many other

situations, “success” may be defined differently at the onset of the instructional program or

behavior intervention and modified as the person becomes more advanced.

Sample Behavioral Objectives

Going back to Mary’s cooking goal (Mary’s will learn to cook five simple meals) as an example,

Mary’s support team discussed her needs, strengths, and preferences, and agreed that Mary could

probably quickly learn how to cook spaghetti using a task analysis and least-to-most system of

prompts. Mary and the team also believed that she would benefit from using a picture recipe.

Two team members designed such a teaching program and provided a clear statement of the

intended outcome of instruction in the form of the following behavioral objective.

Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for making spaghetti, Mary will follow the recipe to

make spaghetti, completing 90% of the steps of the task analysis independently for three

consecutive trials.

30

While this looks like a simple statement, it actually contains important information for all of the

people who are supporting Mary. The behavioral objective answers four questions.

1. Who is receiving instruction?

Answer: Mary is the learner in this behavioral objective.

2. What specific, measurable, and observable behavior will the person be doing to

demonstrate achievement of the objective?

Answer: Mary will follow the recipe to make spaghetti

3. What are the conditions under which the target behavior will occur?

Answer: Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for making spaghetti

4. What are the criteria for acceptable performance?

Answer: 90% of the steps of the task analysis independently (how well – Part 1

Criterion) for three consecutive trials (how long –Part 2 Criterion) The team did not

believe that Mary should be expected to cook spaghetti with 100% independence.

Because of her cerebral palsy, Mary may always need help on the steps related to safety

(i.e. using the stove to brown hamburger and draining the spaghetti noodles). For this

situation, partial participation would need to be indicated on the task analysis. The team

also believed that Mary needed to demonstrate the behavior for at least three consecutive

trials in order to say that she had achieved mastery. It is not enough to say that Mary only

has to demonstrate the behavior one time because she might just have been lucky.

Perhaps the next time she will not do quite as well. Before withdrawing Mary’s

supervision, she needs to be able to demonstrate the she can cook safely. Once Mary is

able to do so at 90% independence for three times in a row, staff believe they will feel

comfortable with Mary cooking on her own (with the exception of needing assistance

from her roommate with browning the hamburger and draining the pasta).

As you can see, this behavioral objective would give Mary and her support team a clear idea of

what she is working toward (the behavior), what special conditions will set the stage for Mary to

demonstrate the behavior, and how they will know that Mary has mastered the behavior (the

criteria for how well and how long).

As a result of this objective, Mary will learn a valuable independent behavior from people who

have a common goal in mind and a consistent instructional program from which to work. She

will not be expected to perform this behavior without supervision until she has demonstrated that

she is indeed capable of it. The degree of risk is, therefore, minimized.

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A breakdown of Mary’s behavioral objective for making spaghetti is shown in Table 5.

Table 5: Sample Behavioral Objective

Goal: Mary will learn to cook five simple meals.

Behavioral Objective: Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for making spaghetti

(conditions), Mary (learner) will follow the recipe to make spaghetti (behavior), completing

90% of the steps of the task analysis independently (Part 1 criteria for how well) for three

consecutive trials (Part 2 criteria for how long).

Component Example

Condition under which behavior will occur

(e.g., antecedent stimuli in the presence of

which the target behavior is expected to

occur)

Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for

making spaghetti;

Name of the Learner for whom the objective

was written

Mary

Target skill (e.g., observable behavior which

will be demonstrated by the student)

will follow the recipe to make spaghetti

Criteria for acceptable performance and

evaluation of learner performance (e.g.,

statement which sets the standard for

acceptable performance: indicates how well

and how long the learner must perform the

behavior/skill/activity for it to be considered

mastered)

with 90% independence according to the steps

in the task analysis for three consecutive

trials.

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As additional examples, Table 6 provides learning objectives (with the required components) for

each of the goals that were developed for Mary.

Table 6: Learning Objectives by Goal for Mary

Domain Goal Objective

Vocational Mary will get a job doing

office work and keep if for

six months.

• Given a pile of 100 flyers to stuff

in envelopes (condition), Mary

(learner) will fold the flyers

(behavior) with 100% accuracy for

three consecutive two-hour work

shifts (how well and how long

criteria for acceptable

performance).

Home and Daily

Living

Mary will learn to cook five

simple meals.

Other examples could

include:

Mary’s grocery shopping

skills will increase; Mary’s

bus riding skills will

increase.

• Given a picture recipe and the

ingredients for making spaghetti

(conditions), Mary will follow the

recipe to make spaghetti

(behavior), completing 90% of the

steps of the task analysis

independently for three consecutive

trials (how well and how long


performance).

Using a picture grocery list

(condition), Mary (learner) will locate

five items (behavior) with 80%

accuracy for five consecutive times

(how well and how long criteria for

acceptable performance).

Using the next dollar strategy

(condition), Mary (learner) will pay

the correct amount to the cashier at the

grocery store (behavior), completing

100% of the steps of the task analysis

independently for five consecutive

times (how well and how long criteria

for acceptable performance).

Recreation/Leisure Mary will join the YMCA

and use the pool to help

manage her weight at a

healthy level.

• At the YMCA pool (condition),

Mary will swim laps for 15 minutes

(behavior), completing 100% of the

steps of the task analysis

independently for three times each

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week (how well and how long


performance).

Behavior Mary will communicate her

needs effectively with

friends, family, and co-

workers, using words or

gestures.

• During her work shift (condition),

Mary (learner) will use words or

gestures to request assistance

during 100% of her work shifts for

four out of five work shifts (how

well and how long criteria for


In Feedback Exercise 4, you will have an opportunity to identify the required components of a

behavioral objective.

Feedback Exercise 4

Each of the following statements is one of the required components of a behavioral objective.

In the blank next to each, write the letter of the component that is represented in the statement.

L = Learner, B = Behavior, C = Condition, CR = Criteria

_____ 1. Will pay for her items at the grocery store

_____ 2. The employee at the grocery store

_____ 3. Using her assistive communication device

_____ 4. Following a demonstration of how to drain pasta

_____ 5. Without an error

_____ 6. With 95 percent accuracy

_____ 7. Will set the oven temperature

_____ 8. Mary

_____ 9. During a two-hour work shift

_____10. With partial physical assistance

_____11. Will signal to get off the bus at the correct stop

_____12. Five consecutive sessions

_____13. Will stuff 25 envelopes

_____14. In the kitchen

_____15. For 10 minutes

_____16. When arriving at work

_____17. 80% independence/accuracy on the task analysis

_____18. Sara

_____19. Given four possible dinner choices

_____20. Without assistance


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Unit II: Lesson 1 – Points for Review

Many adults with disabilities have a Person-Centered Plan (PCP) that includes goals and

behavioral objectives in important life domains. While goals are usually written in general

terms, behavioral objectives are specific, observable, and measurable.

Behavioral objectives include four required components: the learner, the target behavior,

the condition(s), and the criterion (Part 1 and 2).

The Learner – The person for whom the objective has been developed.

The Behavior – What the person will be doing to demonstrate achievement of the objective

(described in terms that are specific, observable, and measurable).

The Condition(s) – Special conditions under which the person must perform the behavior;

the antecedents (stimuli) that set the stage for the person to demonstrate the behavior.

Criteria – How well and how long that the person must perform the behavior before it is

considered to be mastered. The criteria have two parts: Cr-1 and Cr-2.

35

UNIT II BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

Lesson 2: Understanding the Components of a Behavioral Objective


• Given the behavior component of objectives, the trainee will be able to identify which are

descriptive and which are evaluative.

• Given behavioral objectives, the trainee will identify the condition(s) for performance.

• Given behavioral objectives, the trainee will select the part one and part two criterion of

acceptable performance.

• Given behavioral objectives, the trainee will identify the conditions and criteria for

acceptable performance (part one and two criterion).

In this lesson we will take a closer look at the components of a behavioral objective.

Reviewing the Target Behavior

In Feedback Exercise 5, you will have an opportunity to review the target behavior in the


Feedback Exercise 5

Look at the list of phrases below and mark an X next to those which are descriptive enough to

be used as the behavior component. Remember to apply the rules you learned for descriptive

writing to the target behavior in the sentences below.

_____ 1. Mary will recognize her stop for getting off the bus.

_____ 2. Mary will not have an emotional outburst.

_____ 3. Mary will understand how to use the Internet to find a recipe.

_____ 4. Mary will swim 10 laps at the YMCA.

_____ 5. Mary will pay the correct amount for her groceries.

_____ 6. Mary will appreciate how to cook a three-course meal.

_____ 7. Mary will be aware of the weather.

_____ 8. Mary will use her communication device to order at a restaurant.

_____ 9. Mary will behave herself.

_____10. Mary will put her dirty lunch dishes in the dishwasher.

Please check the answer key for Feedback Exercise 5 at the end of the Module.

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How did you do? Did you check any phrases which are not marked with an X in the answer

key? If so, read the material in the box which follows. If not, go on to the next practice

exercise.

The phrases which do not describe behavior in specific, observable, and measurable terms are

numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 9. Notice that the verbs used in those phrases are not good action

words that describe something you could see or hear happening. Here are how the phrases look

in the “Hey, Dad” test you learned in Unit 1.

1. Hey, Dad, watch me recognize my stop for getting off the bus.

2. Hey, Dad watch me not have an emotional outburst.

3. Hey, Dad watch me understand how to find a recipe on the Internet.

6. Hey Dad, watch me appreciate how to cook a three-course meal.

7. Hey Dad, watch me be aware of the weather.

9. Hey, Dad, watch me behave myself.

When you apply the “Hey, Dad” test, if you still have some question, try to visualize yourself

“showing” Dad the target behavior. Is there one specific behavior you see yourself doing? A

good description of behavior should bring a single act to mind.

In Feedback Exercise 6, you will have another opportunity to identify observable behaviors

that are described in specific, observable, and measurable terms.

Feedback Exercise 6

Below are four behavioral objectives. Read each of them and underline the words which

describe the target behavior that Mary is expected to perform to demonstrate achievement of

the objective.

1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct

spots of the silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.

2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six consecutive

weeks.

3. After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn the dial to the

correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.

4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting

all four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five

consecutive trials.


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Did you find yourself underlining too much in these objectives? Remember that you were

only looking for the behavior component in this exercise, not conditions or criteria. If you

made any mistakes, you may want to review the material in Lesson 1 of this unit that covers

the behavior component of a behavioral objective.

Establishing the Criteria

In Lesson 1 of this unit, you learned that the criteria for acceptable performance has two parts.

In this lesson, we will refer to those two parts as Cr-1 (part one criterion) and Cr-2 (part two

criterion).

The part one criterion, Cr-1,measures one or more of the important characteristics of the

behavior itself, such as speed, independence, rate, quantity, duration, etc. to describe how well

the person must demonstrate the behavior.

The part two criterion, Cr-2, measures how long the person must perform the behavior

consistently and reliably in order to say with certainty that the behavior has been mastered.

That is, in addition to considering the number or percentage of independent steps that the

person must complete (Cr-1), the writer of the objective also needs to indicate the number of

times the person must meet the part one criterion to demonstrate mastery (Cr-2). The Cr-2 is

included in any objective in which a single acceptable performance of the aimed-for behavior

is not sufficient to say that the person can or will continue to perform that behavior. By

specifying the number of times that the target behavior needs to be demonstrated in order to

consider it mastered, the part two criterion provides closure to the teaching process (Alberto

& Troutman, 2013).

When both the Cr-1 and Cr-2 have been met, a new learning objective can be introduced. If

appropriate, the new learning objective may increase the Cr-1 to a higher level of

performance. For example, the Cr-1 could move from 75% independence to 90%

independence.

If you have difficulty telling where the part one criterion (Cr-1) ends and the part two

criterion (Cr-2) begins, remember the following rule:

You should be able to remove the part two criterion without changing the intended outcome of

the behavioral objective.

Let’s examine the first of our sample objectives to identify part one and part two of the

criteria. Answer the questions below concerning the following objective that was written for

one of Mary’s household tasks.

Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct spots of the

silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.

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Suppose it is Mary’s responsibility to put away the clean silverware after emptying the

dishwasher. What does Mary have to do to meet the part one criterion? Put an X on the line

next to the correct answer.

_____a. Put the silverware away within 20 minutes of emptying the dishwasher.

_____b. Put away 8 of the 10 pieces of silverware.

_____c. Put the silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray.

_____d. Put the silverware in a drawer.

Which answer did you choose?

You should have chosen c, because that is the Cr-1 stated in the objective for the performance

of the behavior. If Mary puts the clean silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray,

you can say that she has met the part one criterion of the behavioral objective.

Once Mary has put the clean silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray, when can it

be said that she has met the part two criterion of the behavioral objective? Put an X on the line

next to the correct answer.

_____a. When she has put the silverware in the correct spots 3 times in a row.

_____b. When she has put the silverware in the correct spots 9 out of 10 trials

_____c. When she has put the silverware in the correct spots when asked to do so.

_____d. Not until she has put the silverware in the correct spots 10 times in a row.

You should have selected answer b, because that is the criterion set for reliability and

consistency. The team who wrote this objective apparently felt that nine correct responses out

of 10 possible trials would be sufficient evidence that Mary had learned how to put the clean

silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray. In other words, Mary had mastered this


The Feedback Exercise which follows will give you an opportunity to practice identifying part

one and part two criterion in a set of behavioral objectives.

FEEDBACK EXERCISE 7

Below are three sample objectives with the target behavior underlined. In the designated

blanks below, write the part one criterion and the part two criterion for each objective.

1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct

spots of the silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.

Cr-1 In the correct spots of the silverware tray

Cr-2 In 9 out of 10 trials

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2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six

consecutive weeks.

Cr-1 ______________________________________________________

Cr-2 ____________________________________________________________



Cr-1 ______________________________________________________

Cr-2 ____________________________________________________________

4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting all

four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five consecutive

trials.

Cr-1 ______________________________________________________

Cr-2 _______________________________________________________


How did you do? On the next page, there is a discussion of several common errors that might be

made on this practice exercise. Even if you did not make all of these mistakes, you should read

through that material to become thoroughly familiar with part one and part two criteria.

Review of Common Errors

Behavioral Objective #1: Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in

the correct spots of the silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.

Did you include “in the correct spots” as the part one criterion. Sometimes people think that

“in the correct spots” is part of the behavior and do not recognize it as the part one criterion.

Behavioral Objective #2: Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair properly every

third day for six consecutive weeks.

Did you make the error of including “every third day” in the part two criterion instead of part

one? Remember the rule which states: “You should be able to remove the part two criterion

without changing the intended outcome of the behavioral objective.” In this example, if you

remove “every third day for six consecutive weeks,” the objective’s meaning changes to

“without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair properly.” However, this objective is

concerned with the regularity of Mary’s hair washing. By regular we mean “every third day.”

When “every third day for six consecutive weeks” is removed, the intention and meaning of

the objective is lost. “Every third day” is an important part of the part one criterion.

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“Six consecutive weeks” is added as the part two criterion to indicate how long Mary has to

demonstrate this behavior before it is considered to be mastered. Once Mary has demonstrated

regular, proper hair washing without being reminded for six weeks, her staff will still want her

to continue demonstrating the skill. A part two criterion is a way of saying, “this is the point

at which we believe that Mary is not only able to demonstrate the skill, but that she can

independently continue to demonstrate it, consistently and reliably.”

Behavioral Objective #3: After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn

the dial to the correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.

Did you leave out any of the criterion that belonged in part one? Using the rule, we applied in

Example #2, we can see that “correctly on the first try for at least six of the 10 numbers” must

all stay together as the part one criterion.

Behavioral Objective #4: Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet

on the bed, fitting all four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for

five consecutive trials.

You may have had some difficulty determining the part one criterion for this behavioral

objective since it is different than the other examples. This behavioral objective includes an

accuracy criterion to answer the question, “How well must the behavior be performed?” How

well does Mary have to put the sheet on the bed? She has to put all four corners on correctly.

So far, we have looked at identifying the target behaviors and part one criterion and part two

criterion of four behavioral objectives. Next, we will practice identifying the condition

statements. By a process of elimination, it should be easy to spot the phrases that are

conditions. The first two are completed as a sample.

1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the pieces in the correct spots of the


In this behavioral objective, “Given 10 pieces of clean silverware” is the condition. In this

example, the condition statement describes the materials that will be provided to set the

stage for Mary to put the pieces in the silverware tray.

2. Mary will wash her hair properly without being reminded every third day for six

consecutive weeks.

“Without being reminded” is the condition in this behavioral objective. It

specifies what will not be provided when Mary is expected to demonstrate the

behavior. It also indicates that Mary is required to demonstrate this behavior

independently.

Now it’s your turn. Underline the condition statement in the last two behavioral objectives.

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trials.

You should have underlined “After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine” in

example #3 and “Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet” in example #4.

In Feedback Exercise 8, you will have the opportunity to identify and write components of

several behavioral objectives.

FEEDBACK EXERCISE 8

In the following set of examples, read each behavioral objective. On the blanks following the

behavioral objective, write each component. The first one is completed as an example.

EXAMPLE: For 15 consecutive working days, Mary will punch in on the time clock correctly

at the beginning of every shift without any prompts.

Condition(s): without any prompts

Behavior: punch in on the time clock

Cr-1: correctly at the beginning of every shift

Cr-2: for 15 consecutive working days

(In regard to the use of the word “correctly,” see the note on page 38)

1. Mary will staple five stacks of papers, using an electric stapler, during the first 15

minutes of her work shift for 10 consecutive trials.

Condition(s): ____________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________

2. Given a cell phone with pre-programmed phone numbers, Mary will find the telephone

number for her employer, within three minutes of being asked in five consecutive tests.

Condition(s): ____________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________

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3. Before dinner, Mary will set the table with plates, cups, and silverware in the proper

spots within five seconds of being asked, 8 out of 10 times.

Condition(s): ____________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________

4. When shown 5 articles of clothing including three that are appropriate for cold

weather, Mary will point to all three of the winter clothing items within 30 seconds of

being asked in four out of five trials.

Condition(s): ____________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________

5. In the morning, Mary will brush her teeth on the top and bottom fronts and sides

for 60 seconds for 14 consecutive mornings.

Condition(s): ______________________________________________________

Behavior: ________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ____________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ____________________________________________________________

6. At the end of each work shift, Mary will give her completed work to her supervisor

for five consecutive working days without being told.

Condition(s): _______________________________________________________

Behavior: ________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ____________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ____________________________________________________________


How well did you do on this practice exercise? Did you have difficulty telling the difference

between the part 1 criterion and the part 2 criterion? It is not unusual if you did. If you missed

any parts of this exercise, you might want to review this lesson and Unit II, Lesson 1 before

going on to Lesson 3.

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The criteria component of a behavioral objective includes two parts: part one criterion

(Cr-1) and part two criterion (Cr-2).

• Cr-1: A statement of the minimal acceptable standard for the person’s performance

of the behavior; how well the person must perform the behavior for it to be

considered mastered.

• Cr-2: A measurement of the person’s ability to consistently and reliably meet the

part one criterion over time; how long and regularly the person must perform the

behavior for it to be considered mastered.

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UNIT II BEHAVIORAL OBEJCTIVES

Lesson 3: Behavioral Objectives Practice


• Given poorly written or incomplete behavioral objectives, trainee will identify faulty or

missing components.

• Trainee will use information from a narrative to write behavioral objectives.

• Trainee will write at least three behavioral objectives with all of the required components

for individuals with disabilities where he/she works.

Introduction to Behavioral Objectives Practice

You need to be able to tell the difference between a well-written, useful behavioral objective,

and a faulty one. The most frequently made error is a lack of precision in describing one or

more of the components of the objective. If the behavioral objective does not adequately

specify the desired behavior, the criteria, and the necessary conditions, a number of mistakes

can follow.

Look at the following behavioral objective and then read the list of possible outcomes that

follow it.

After the dishes have been washed following the evening meal, Mary will put the dishes

away on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for six consecutive weeks.

Decide which of these outcomes meets the behavioral objective as it is stated.

a) On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday evenings for six consecutive weeks, Mary put away

the clean dishes. But it took her more than an hour to do so. The average time for most

others to do this task is 10 minutes. Was the behavioral objective accomplished?

YES NO

b) On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday evenings for six consecutive weeks, Mary put away

the dishes. But she mixed the dinner plates with the salad plates, put the cups where bowls

belong, mixed the silverware and placed the glasses out of reach. They never did find the

spaghetti strainer. Was the behavioral objective accomplished?

YES NO

c) On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for six consecutive weeks, Mary put away the clean

dishes. But by the end of the six weeks there were very few dishes left that she had not

dropped and either cracked or broken. (She cut her hand fairly seriously on a broken

glass.) Was the behavioral objective accomplished? YES NO

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In all three (a, b, and c) above, Mary did meet the criteria stated in her objective and therefore

the objective was accomplished. However, it is obviously not appropriate for her to work in

the kitchen for an hour or more to complete a 10-minute task, break dishes, or lose items.

Where did the writers of this behavioral objective go wrong?

Cr-1, or the part one criterion, is the part of the behavioral objective that gives the standard for

judging how well the person performs the behavior. What is the Cr-1 in this objective? Let’s

break it down into its component parts and find out.

Answer Key

Conditions: After the dishes have been washed, following the evening meal

Behavior: Will put away the dishes

Criterion, part one: On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday

Criterion, part two: For six consecutive weeks

As you can see, the part one criterion is solely based on regularity – “on Monday, Wednesday,

and Friday.” There is no standard given to judge how well the actual behavior must be

performed.

It is almost never sufficient to use regularity alone as the part one criterion. Usually, a

regularity measurement will be combined with some measurement for the behavior itself. In

this case, if the planning team has a well-thought-out, shared definition for acceptable

performance of this behavior (perhaps from an earlier objective or teaching plan), they could

have simply added the word “correctly” or “properly” to the part one criterion. Otherwise, an

additional phrase or two defining what is acceptable for putting dishes away should be added

to the part one criterion. An alternative way to express the objective is shown below.

After the evening meal dishes are washed, on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday Mary will put

the clean dishes in their designated places in 15 minutes or less, with no more than 2

placement errors per evening and no more than one broken dish per week, for six consecutive

weeks.

You can see that the Cr-1, or part one criterion, provides four different standards which Mary

must meet:

1. On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday

2. In 15 minutes or less

3. no more than 2 placement errors per evening

4. no more than one broken dish per week

There are multiple measures of progress in this objective (speed, accuracy, and agility), which

makes it very complicated. This is NOT a good example of an objective. The team should

assess what Mary can do now and determine which skill to work on first.

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Try evaluating the following behavioral objective:

Without assistance, Mary will load the washing machine with the appropriate amount of

clothing.

Condition(s): ________________________________________________________________

Behavior: __________________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________________

Is anything missing or wrong?

Answer Key

Condition(s): without assistance

Behavior: will load the washing machine

Criterion, part one: with the appropriate amount of clothing

Criterion, part two: none

Obviously, a part two criterion is needed to assess whether Mary loads the washing machine

consistently and reliably. The use of the word “appropriate” is acceptable only as long as the

team has a shared definition the appropriate amount of clothing for the washer.

Did you note any other problems with the behavioral objective? Did you feel that the part one

criterion could have been more complete? Mary could meet the part one criterion and still do

the following things:

1. put in clothing that is not washable

2. mix colored and white clothing

3. put clean clothing in the machine

An alternative, part one criterion might be, “with the correct amount of laundry.” A part two

criterion, such as “in 8 out of 10 trials” or “on six consecutive laundry days” would complete

the behavioral objective.

From both of the examples, you can see the importance of being specific and descriptive so

that unwanted behaviors will be excluded. When you are writing behavioral objectives,

remember that the more explicit and specific you make them, the more useful they will be for

all of the members of a person’s support team.

As a precautionary note, four different Cr-1 for a single objective are rarely used. Four

different standards can make data collection cumbersome and may make it very difficult for

the individual and staff to see progress. Typically, the individual and the team will identify the

most critical standard to achieve and use that for the first objective and use remaining

standards in objectives which will be implemented after the individual meets the criteria on

the first.

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Feedback Exercise 9

Read the following behavioral objectives. On the lines below, break each objective down into

its component parts. For each component, mark it OK if you think it is adequate; if it is not

adequate, explain what you think is wrong and if possible provide suggestions to correct it.

1. While eating, Tom will use silverware, for foods which should not be eaten with his

fingers, for 12 consecutive meals.

Condition(s): ________________________________________________________

Behavior: __________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________

Cr-2 _______________________________________________________________

2. Linda will hang up her coat every day after work for 10 working days in a row.

Condition(s): ________________________________________________________

Behavior: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________

3. When asked to do so, Lucas will put on his pullover shirt within six seconds in six

consecutive trials.

Condition(s): ________________________________________________________

Behavior: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________

4. Brynn will wash and peel the carrots for the vegetable snack bowl every Thursday

afternoon for three consecutive weeks.

Condition(s): ________________________________________________________

Behavior: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________

5. Jack will enjoy his food without being messy at the majority of his meals.

Condition(s): ________________________________________________________

Behavior: ___________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________


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It is important to note that an alternative method of stating objectives may be used for some

individuals with disabilities (especially those who are monitoring their own behavior). Rather

than stating the objective as if it were about another person, the objectives may be written as

if the individual were stating a personal goal. For example:

Without assistance, I will ride the bus from my home to my job, getting on and

off at the correct locations, for 15 consecutive working days.

Writing Behavioral Objectives

Now it’s your turn to write your own behavioral objectives. Read the following scenarios and

then write a behavioral objective for each, as instructed in the paragraph.

1. Elliott is a young adult who wants to get around more independently in his community. He

would like to gain independence by learning how to use the city bus that goes past his

home to get to work each day. Elliott and his PCP team want to initiate a teaching program

that will teach Elliott how to do this.

Write a behavioral objective that describes a possible outcome of this teaching program.

Then, in the blanks provided, break your objective down into its component parts.

Condition(s): ____________________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________________

2. Sarah is working at an office in her community. However, if she is not supervised, she

leaves her work area and disrupts other workers. She and her PCP team decide to write a

positive behavior support plan to help Sarah develop better working habits.

Write one behavioral objective to improve Sarah’s work habits and break it down into its

component parts.

Condition(s): ____________________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________________

Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________________

3. Seth does not participate in many household tasks at his home. He uses a wheelchair to get

around his home. He has indicated he would like to learn to do tasks such as setting the

table for meals, dusting the furniture that is within his reach, preparing food, and sorting

laundry.

Write one behavioral objective to teach Seth a household task and break it down into its

component parts.

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Condition(s): ____________________________________________________________

Behavior: _______________________________________________________________

Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________________

Cr-2: __________________________________________________________________

There are several possible correct answers for this practice exercise. To determine if your

behavioral objectives are written correctly, it is helpful to ask the following questions about

each of the behavioral objectives that you wrote. Following these questions, there is a sample

objective for each scenario (to which you can compare the behavioral objectives that you

wrote).

Questions

1. Does your behavioral objective describe a specific, observable, measurable target behavior

that the person will be doing when the objective is achieved? Can the action pass the “Hey,

Dad” test?

2. Does the part one criterion provide a way to measure the behavior itself such as how well,

how accurately, or by what method it should be performed?

3. Is there a part two criterion that clearly describes when the objective “ends”, and you can

expect the person to perform the behavior reliably and consistently?

4. Have the important conditions, such as what the person will be allowed (or not allowed),

what will be provided to set the stage for the person to demonstrate the target behavior,

where the behavior will occur, etc. been clearly specified?

Sample Correct Answers

1. Without assistance, Elliott will ride the bus from his home to his job, getting on and off at

the correct locations, for 15 consecutive working days.

Condition(s): without assistance

Behavior: will ride the bus from his home to his job

CR-1: getting on and off at the correct locations

CR-2: for 15 consecutive working days

2. When given a new task to complete, Sarah will remain on-task* for at least 15 minutes

without being prompted for at least five consecutive new task presentations.

Condition(s): when given a new task, without being prompted

Behavior: remain on-task

Cr-1: for at least 15 minutes

Cr-2: for a at least five consecutive new task presentations

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*In this scenario, Sarah’s support team would need to have a shared definition of “on-task”

to make sure that everyone is observing the same target behavior.

3. In the morning when prompted, Seth will set the table for breakfast, making no more than

three placement errors, in less than 20 minutes for six consecutive mornings.

Condition(s): in the morning, when prompted

Behavior: set the table for breakfast

Cr-1: making no more than three placement errors, in less than 20 minutes

Cr-2: six consecutive mornings

The specifics of your objectives may have been quite different. This does not mean that they

are incorrect.

Additional Practice Exercise

Write three behavioral objectives for individuals whom you assist/support. Follow the rules

you have been given for writing descriptively and being specific about the target behavior,

criterion, and conditions. To evaluate your objectives, break them down into their component

parts and apply the four questions on page 47. Your instructor may ask you to submit this

practice exercise for evaluation and feedback.

1.

2.

3.


When one or more of the required components of a behavioral objective is not written

precisely, it is difficult to implement the objective as intended. To avoid this, in addition to

the “Hey, Dad” and Mental Image test, there are four questions that can be asked to make

sure that behavioral objectives are written correctly.

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UNIT III

Lesson 1: Introduction to Behavior Measurement


• Trainee will state at least one reason why it is important to systematically and accurately

observe and report behavior.

• Trainee will name the dimensions of behavior that are observed and measured.

• Trainee will describe the seven major strategies for measuring behavior which are taught in

this module.

• Trainee will match a described behavior with an appropriate measurement strategy.

• Trainee will measure behavior using each of the seven measurement strategies.

Introduction to Data Collection

Once a behavior has been defined, it is necessary to collect data in order to effectively assess the

level at which the behavior is occurring. Such assessment is achieved by using a variety of data

collection strategies. This section describes several common data collection systems and how

they can be implemented to measure progress on behavioral objectives.

Data about a person’s target behavior should be done before (baseline trials), during

(instructional trials), and after (probe trials) a positive behavior support plan (to decrease

challenging behaviors) or instructional program (to increase skills) is implemented. Baseline

assessment of the behavior is used to evaluate the learner’s performance prior to instruction or

intervention. It provides a basis of comparison to determine whether the program is acceptable in

modifying the target behavior. Measuring the behavior while an instructional program or

intervention plan is being implemented provides day-to-day feedback to evaluate the effects of

the procedure and to make necessary modifications. Behavior measurement after the

instructional program or intervention plan is no longer being implemented allows the support

team to determine if the behavior change is being maintained and generalized.

Rationale for Collecting Behavior Data

While data collection may not be an enjoyable task for some direct support professionals, there

are excellent reasons for collecting data. Behavior data is the product of measuring and recording

behavior. It can serve many purposes. These include:

• Establishing a baseline of the target behavior that needs to increase or decrease

• Providing information about when and where the target behavior is most likely to occur

• Identifying how often, how long, how much, and how intense the target behavior is

• Indicating what and who is likely to trigger the target behavior

• Sharing objective information with the learner, families, staff, and administrators

• Determining whether interventions are effective

• Guiding data-based decisions

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Choosing a Data Collection System

Choosing a data collection system is the first step in observing and measuring behavior. The data

collection system that is selected must be appropriate for the behavior that is being observed and

for the kind of behavior change that is desired.

Table 7 shows several dimensions on which behaviors may be observed and measured. Please

note that while continuous recording and task analysis data collection systems are included on

this Table, they will not be described until Lesson 4 of Unit 3.

Table 7: Dimensions of Behavior

Dimension Description of What is Observed and Measured

Event Recording/

Frequency Count

The number of times the person engages in the behavior

Rate The frequency of the behavior within a specified time period

Duration The length of time that the person engages in the behavior

Latency Length of time between the instructions to perform it and the

occurrence of the behavior

Interval Whether the behavior occurred at the exact end of the interval

(momentary time sampling), during at least part of the interval

(partial interval recording), or during the entire interval (whole

interval recording)

Accuracy The degree to which a behavior is correct or incorrect

Permanent Product The number of artifacts that resulted from the target behavior

Continuous Recording The antecedents that trigger the challenging behavior and the

consequences that reinforce it

Task Analysis The percentage of steps that the person completes independently

and accurately

The most commonly used procedures for collecting and recording behavior data are frequency

count/event, duration, latency, interval/time sampling, accuracy, and permanent product.

Continuous recording and scatter plots are often used to determine the function that a challenging

behavior is serving for the person who is exhibiting it. Task analyses are also frequently used

with individuals with disabilities as part of an instructional program to teach a new skill. The

questions shown in Table 8 provide guidance in selecting a data collection system.

53

Table 8: Guiding Questions for Choosing a Data Collection System

Question Data Collection System

Can you easily count each occurrence of the behavior? Does the

behavior have a distinct beginning and end? (e.g., How many

times Mary yells/cries at work during a two-hour shift?)

Event Recording/

Frequency Count

Did the length of the observation periods vary? If so, event

recording/frequency count data must be converted into rate.

Rate

Do you want to know how long a behavior lasts? (e.g., How long

does Mary work before having an episode of yelling/crying?)

Duration Recording

Do you want to know when a particular behavior begins

following a prompt? (e.g., How long it takes Mary to start

cooking after the verbal prompt “It’s time to start cooking.”)

Latency Recording

Does the behavior occur so frequently that it is difficult to

accurately count (e.g., How many times is Mary off-task{i.e.

staring off into space}during her two-hour work shift?)

Interval Recording

(Whole or Partial)

Momentary Time

Sampling

Can the behavior be checked to see if it is right or wrong? Accuracy

Does the behavior result in an artifact that can be counted? (e.g.,

How many flyers does Mary fold during a two-hour work shift?)

Permanent Product

Do you want to determine the function/purpose that a challenging

behavior is serving for an individual? (e.g., What is the purpose

of Mary’s yelling/crying behaviors during her work shifts?)

Continuous Recording

(Anecdotal Recording/

ABC Analysis)

Scatter Plot

Do you want to measure progress on a task that has multiple

steps? (How many steps of the task analysis for grocery shopping

or cooking can Mary independently and accurately complete?)

Task Analysis

Regardless of the data collection system that is being used, there are some general guidelines to

keep in mind. These are:

• Define (i.e., pinpoint) the behavior to be observed. The definition must be specific,

observable, and measurable so that no matter who is collecting data, it will be clear

whether the target behavior occurred.

• Decide which type of data collection system is most appropriate for recording the

behavior.

• Determine when the behavior will be observed (e.g., during just one time period or

multiple; in one activity or several; with the same person or with more than one person).

• Decide how long each observation will last. While 10 to 20-minute observation periods

are usually adequate, the results from longer sessions will be more accurate.

• Conduct observations at least three times to provide a more accurate representation of the

challenging behavior(s).

Each of the most common types of data collection systems are described in detail in the sections

below. These strategies can be used to measure positive as well as challenging behaviors. Lesson

1 of Unit IV will also describe how to graph each of these data collection systems.

54

Data Collection Systems

Event Recording/Frequency Count

Event recording (also known as frequency count) is used when it is important to know how many

times a target behavior happens. Event recording/frequency count is simply a count of the

number of times the behavior occurs within a certain period of time. Each time the individual

engages in the target behavior, it is counted and recorded by the observer. There are several ways

to easily and discreetly record the number of behavior occurrences. These include:

• Recording tally or check mark each time the behavior occurs on a data collection form

• Using a hand counter (i.e. pressing a button each time the target behavior occurs)

• Making marks on a piece of masking tape that’s adhered to a table, desk, piece of

clothing, or wrist

• Using an object to count the number of events (e.g., transferring a small object like a

coin, paper clip, or button from one pocket to the other)

Event recording/frequency count should be used for behaviors that have a discrete beginning

and end and occur for short time frames rather than for extended periods. Sometimes

behaviors that have clear beginnings and endings occur in bursts, which may make it difficult

to record individual responses. Some examples are self-injurious behavior, swearing, and foot

stomping which all occur without pauses. In these cases, you could record one incident of the

target behavior as defined by the cessation of the response burst for a specified time period,

(e.g., one response burst of swearing might be many words in a row followed by a 10-second

period of time in which no swearing occurred). Other behaviors do not have clear beginnings

and endings. Such behaviors often cease for a moment and then start again right away, as in

yelling or crying. One would not know whether to record that one or two crying instances had

occurred. For behaviors with unclear beginnings and endings, different recording procedures

are required.

The period of time during which you record a behavior is called the observation period. If the

behavior to be recorded occurs during dinner, then your observation period would be the half

hour to one-hour period during which the person eats dinner. If the behavior occurs only a

couple of times a day, then you may want to record every twenty-four hours. If the behavior

occurs frequently and you cannot record all day because of practical problems, then a shorter

period of time (i.e., one hour) may be more appropriate. A general rule to follow is that the

greater the frequency of the behavior, the shorter the observation period needs to be if you

cannot record all the time.

Collecting Event Recording/Frequency Count Data

To collect event recording/frequency count data, the person who is observing should complete

the following steps:

1) Record the name of the person and observer.

2) Record the target behavior.

55

3) Indicate the date, activity, and time when the observation begins.

4) Make a tally each time the person exhibits the target behavior (in the tally column).

5) Note the time when the observation ends.

6) Record the length of the observation.

7) Add the number of times that the target behavior occurred and record in the frequency

column.

8) If the length of the observation periods varied, calculate the rate of the target behavior by

adding the total number of times the target behavior occurred and dividing by the length of

the observation.

A completed example of event recording/frequency count data is shown in Table 9.

56

Table 9: Sample Event Recording/Frequency Count Data

Person’s Name: Mary Observer’s Name: Jenna

Target Behavior(s): Yelling, crying, hitting

Date Activity/Time Tally of Times Target

Behavior Occurred

Length of

Observation

Frequency

5/17 Work

9-11am

Yelling 2 hours 2

//

Crying 1

/

Hitting 0

5/17 Work

1-3pm

Yelling 2 hours 8

//// ///

Crying 2

//

Hitting 4

////

5/18 Work

9-11am

Yelling 2 hours 11

//// //// /

Crying 2

//

Hitting 3

///

5/18 Work

1-2:00 pm

Yelling 1 hour 9

//// ////

Crying 3

///

Hitting 1

/

Date Comments

5/17 Mary did well at work this morning.

5/17 New task in the afternoon that was difficult for Mary.

5/18 Mary wasn’t feeling well at work this afternoon; complained of a

headache.

5/18 Mary wasn’t feeling well at work this afternoon; complained of a

headache; left early.

Please note the length of the observation periods. Since the final observation period in this

example was shorter than the others, the event recording/frequency count data would need to be

converted to rate (as described below).

If the observer wanted a visual representation of these data, the frequency of each of the target

behaviors could be plotted on a graph for each of the four days that the data were collected.

57

Advantages and Disadvantages of Event Recording/Frequency Count

Event recording/frequency count has several advantages. These include:

• Works well for recording behaviors that occur too frequently or not frequently enough

• Data can be easily and inconspicuously recorded

• Data collection does not interfere with instruction

• Data can be recorded for short periods of time across multiple days to determine a

behavior pattern

Disadvantages of event/frequency recording are that it does not provide information about

antecedents and consequences of the behavior, whether response occur one after another or

far apart, or the duration of the response. If you want this kind of information, a different

recording procedure is required.

A blank event/frequency recording data collection form is provided in Appendix A.

Calculating Rate from Event Recording/Frequency Count Data

When collecting event recording/frequency count data, it is important to keep the observation

period constant throughout the program. This is important because the frequency of the

behavior may change only because you are recording for longer or shorter periods of time. If

observation periods vary in length, the event recording/frequency count data must be

calculated as rate data.

Rate measures are similar to event/frequency measures except that you use the length of the

observation period to compute rate. For example, suppose you observed Mary initiate a

conversation three times in one hour on Tuesday and three times in one-half hour on

Wednesday. If you were only using event/frequency recording, your data would show that

Mary initiated a conversation three times on both Tuesday and Wednesday.

This type of data collection does not consider that Mary initiated more conversations per unit of

time on Wednesday than Tuesday. When using event/frequency recording and your observation

time varies, it is best to use a measure of rate to express your data.

To compute rate, the observer counts the total number of behavior occurrences within a specified

time frame and divides by the length of the period. This calculation is reported as rate of

occurrence (e.g., the number of behaviors per minute or hour).

The formula for calculating rate is:

Total number of responses

Length of observation period

The quotient is expressed as a number per unit of time. In the above example, Mary’s rate of

initiating conversations on Tuesday is calculated as:

58

3 = .05 conversation initiations per minute

60 min.

On Wednesday, Mary’s rate of initiating conversations is calculated as:

3 = .10 conversation initiations per minute

30 min.

It is often difficult to understand a figure such as .10 responses per minute. It is often better to

explain the data as an average of one response in every ten minutes. Therefore, Mary’s rate of

initiating conversations on Tuesday (.05 responses per minute) would be expressed as an

average of one response every 20 minutes.

Since rate measures are so similar to event/frequency measures, they have the same

advantages and disadvantages. A rate measure is as easy to take as an event/frequency count,

and it also tells you how often a behavior occurs. However, rate does not tell you about the

antecedents and consequences of the behavior, whether responses occur together or are

separated by time, or the duration of the response.

In Feedback Exercise 10 (on the following page), you will have the opportunity to review

some frequency data and answer a series of questions based on the information presented on

the form.

Feedback Exercise 10

Part A

Person’s Name: Gary Observer’s Name: Adam

Target Behavior: Asking Unnecessary Questions

Date Activity/Time Frequency Length of Observation Frequency

5/17 Work

9am – 3pm

Asking Unnecessary

Questions

5 hours (did not include a

one-hour lunch break

from 12-1pm)

14

//// //// ////

5/18 Work

9am – 3pm

Asking Unnecessary

Questions



from 12-1pm)

15

//// //// ////

5/19 Work

9am – 3pm

Asking Unnecessary

Questions



from 12-1pm)

11

//// //// /

5/20 Work

9am – 3pm

Asking Unnecessary

Questions



from 12-1pm)

39

//// //// //// //// //// //// //// ////

Review Gary’s frequency data and answer the questions below.

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1. What was the target behavior?

__________________________________________________________________

2. For how many days did the observer collect data on the target behavior?

___________________________________________________________________

3. On what day(s) did Gary ask the most unnecessary questions?

__________________________________________________________________

4. On what day(s) did Gary ask the fewest unnecessary questions?

___________________________________________________________________

See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 10 Part A at the end of the Module.

It is important to note that the length of the observation periods was the same each time that

Gary was observed. If the length of the observation periods had varied, it would have been

necessary to convert the event recording/frequency count into rate data. In addition, after

reviewing Gary’s frequency data, his support team should probably determine what was

happening on May 20th that resulted in a significant increase in the number of unnecessary

questions that Gary asked. For instance, was a new task introduced? Was Gary needing extra

reassurance during that work shift? Was Gary asking unnecessary questions to gain additional

attention from his coach? In doing so, Gary’s support team might be able to figure out the

purpose that asking unnecessary questions is serving for Gary.

Part B

Fill out the blank frequency record using the information presented below.

David frequently hits other people. Your task is to count and record the number of times

David hits other people over a period of eight days. You started collecting data on 5/3.

On the first day you counted four hits; on the second day the number of hits rose to five. He

hit six times on the next day. On the fourth day the behavior occurred four times; on the fifth

day five times. You counted five hits on the sixth day, six hits on the seventh day, and seven

on the last day of data collection.

Name: Dates:

Observer:

Behavior Recorded:

60

Date Frequency of Behavior

(Tallies)

Total

See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 10 Part B at the end of the Module.

Duration Recording

When an observer records how long a target behavior occurs from beginning to end, the data

collection system that is being used is duration recording. This system is useful when it is

necessary to know how long a target behavior is occurring so that it can be increased (if it is a

desirable behavior such as being on task or remaining in one’s seat) or decreased (if it is a

challenging behavior such as screaming or having a tantrum).

Using a stopwatch or other timing device, the observer times the person’s target behavior from

the moment it begins until the moment it stops. The duration of the target behavior is recorded on

a data sheet. Duration recording measures the total time that a behavior occurs.

Duration recording requires a precise definition of the target behavior. If behavior outbursts

(behaviors occurring in quick succession such as screaming, kicking, hitting, biting, or hair

pulling) are being recorded, the observer would need to know what constituted one incident of a

behavior outburst and how long the behaviors would have to stop before recording the next

episode.

Collecting Duration Data

To collect event recording/frequency count data, the person who is observing should complete

the following steps:

1) Record the name of the person and observer.

2) Record the target behavior.

3) Indicate the date, activity, and time of the observation.

4) Record the target behavior’s start and stop time.

5) Calculate the duration of each incident of challenging behavior.

6) Add the total duration of the challenging behavior for each observation period.

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7) Calculate the average duration of the challenging behavior for each observation period by

dividing the total duration of the challenging behavior by the total number of incidents of

challenging behavior.

A completed sample of a duration data collection form is shown in Table 10.

Table 10: Sample Duration Data

Student’s Name: Mary Observer’s Name: Jenna A.

Target Behavior: Tantrum (screaming and kicking while lying on the floor)

Date Activity/Time of

Observation

Time when

behavior begins

Time when

behavior stops

Duration of

behavior

Comments

5/17 Stuffing

Envelopes

9-11am

9:11am 9:24am 13 minutes Behavior started

after cue to start

working


during transition

back to work after

bathroom break

Observation Summary Total

Duration

Average Duration

30 minutes 15 minutes

5/17 Stapling collated

papers

9-11am


after cue to start

working


after timer went

off to signal

returning to work

after bathroom

break


Duration

Average Duration


If the observer wanted to visually represent Mary’s duration data, they could be plotted on a bar

graph to show the number of minutes that Mary engaged in the challenging behavior.

Summarizing Duration Recording

Duration data is usually reported as the total length of time that the target behavior occurred

during an observation period. To calculate the average duration of the target behavior, the

observer adds the duration of each incident and divides by the total number of incidents. In the

example above, Mary exhibited the target behavior for a total of 30 minutes during the first

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observation period. Because there were two incidents of challenging behavior during that time

(for a total of 30 minutes), the average duration is calculated by dividing 30 by 2.

30

2 = 15

During the second observation period, the total duration of Mary’s challenging behavior was 20

minutes. Like the first observation period, there were two incidents of challenging behavior.

Therefore, the average duration of Mary’s challenging behavior during the second observation

period was 10. This is computed by dividing 20 by 2.

20

2 = 10

If the observer continued to collect duration for the remainder of the week, the average weekly

duration of Mary’s challenging behavior could be calculated by adding the total duration of each

incident and dividing by the total number of incidents for the entire week.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Duration Recording

Duration recording has several advantages. It is more precise than interval recording. Duration

data shows gradual improvements in duration which often occur before changes in frequency of

the target behavior (although this data collection system provides both types of data). Duration

recording is most useful for measuring behaviors that occur frequently (e.g., talking to co-

workers), as well as for those that are harder to count because they do not have a distinct

beginning or end (e.g., finger flicking, pencil tapping).

Unless a staff member’s only responsibility is to observe during a specified time period, it may

be difficult to get an accurate measurement of how long a target behavior lasts. This is one

disadvantage of the duration recording method of data collection.

A blank duration data collection form is provided in Appendix B.

Latency recording

When an observer measures the length of time that elapses between the onset of a stimulus (e.g.,

a prompt or event demand that introduces the opportunity to respond) and the occurrence of the

target behavior, the data collection system being used is latency recording. Latency recording is a

form of duration data collection and is usually used when the desired behavior is to decrease the

amount of time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus. For example, to record latency

for a compliance program, the time between a request and the occurrence of the requested

behavior would be measured. Another example of a latency is the time before one starts to wash

the dishes. In this case, you would measure the time from the end of the meal to the occurrence

of dishwashing. Other examples of behaviors that could be measured using this data collection

method are the amount of time it takes a person to start working after her supervisor gives her an

assignment or the amount of time it takes someone to respond to his co-worker after she says

“hi” or asks him a question.

63

Latency recording is used when the behavior has a clear beginning so that the observer can tell

exactly when the behavior begins. It is also important to know the specific signal that triggers the

individual to exhibit the target behavior. Signals to start a behavior include verbal prompts (e.g.,

“It’s time to get up”), an event (e.g., watching your roommate get up), or an antecedent that is

natural for starting the task (e.g., a phone alarm going off).

To measure latency, a timing device such as a stopwatch is required so that the observer can start

the timer when the stimulus is provided (e.g., the end of dinner or the prompt “It’s time to wash

the dishes”) and stopped when the target behavior begins (e.g., Sarah starts washing the dishes).

Summarizing Latency Recording

To summarize latency data, the observer calculates the average latency. This is done by adding

all of the latency data together and dividing by the number of opportunities that were measured.

For example, when observing Mary at work, it was noted that it took her 60 seconds, 90 seconds,

50 seconds, and 35 seconds to start her four assigned tasks once her supervisor gave the

instructions. By adding 60 + 90 + 50 + 35 = 235 (total latency) and dividing by four (the number

of assignments), Mary’s average latency for starting her assignments is 58.75 seconds.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Latency Recording

Latency is especially useful when it is important to know the amount of time that elapses

between a signal to start work and the occurrence of the target behavior (i.e. starting work).

Signals to start work may include a verbal prompt (e.g., “It’s time to start working”), an event

(e.g., a timer that goes off at the beginning of the shift), or a natural antecedent for a task (e.g., a

pile of papers that need to be shredded). One advantage of a latency system of data collection is

that it shows if the individual is getting better at starting to work following one of the signals to

begin working. In this situation, the behavior that would be targeted for change would be to

decrease the amount of time it takes for the person to begin working following a signal that it’s

time to work.

Latency recording is also useful for preventing challenging behaviors. By knowing how much

time elapses in between the person starting to work and exhibiting a challenging behavior, the

person can be supported to start a new activity before reaching the point that he or she will

display the challenging behavior. For example, if latency recording shows that an individual

reaches her threshold after working on the same task for 35 minutes, the observer can engage the

person in a new task after approximately 30 minutes have passed. This will bypass the

occurrence of the challenging behavior at the 35-minute mark.

The greatest disadvantage of latency recording is the amount of time that it takes to monitor a

person’s behavior while not being able to complete other responsibilities at the same time.

A blank form for latency data collection is provided in the Appendix .

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Interval Recording

Interval recording (also known as time sampling) is a data collection system that involves

observing whether the target behavior occurs during a specified time frame. Once the length of

the observation period is determined (e.g., a three-hour work shift, a 30-minute dinner, a 15-

minute bedtime routine, etc.), the time frame is broken down into smaller increments that are the

same length. The increments may be short (seconds) or long (minutes). For example, an hour-

long observation period could be split into six 10-minute intervals or sixty 1-minute intervals,

etc. Choosing the appropriate length depends mainly upon the frequency at which the target

behavior occurs. As a general rule to follow, intervals should be longer for behaviors that occur

at a low frequency.

The observer uses a timer, watch, stopwatch, phone, or other device to track intervals. A data

sheet (divided into intervals) on which occurrences of behavior are recorded must also be

available. Once the observation period is completed, the observer calculates the percentage of

intervals in which the behavior occurred.

There are three main types of interval recording (time sampling) data recording systems:

momentary, partial, and whole.

1. Momentary Time Sampling

To use a momentary time sampling data collection system, the observer records if the behavior is

being exhibited immediately following each interval within a specified time period. A timing

device (e.g., timer, watch, stopwatch, cell phone) is necessary to track the interval lengths.

For example, if a person’s target behavior is to increase on-task behavior during 60 minutes of a

work shift, the time frame may be broken into one-minute intervals. At the end of each one-

minute increment, the observer looks up and records whether the target behavior is occurring or

not. If the person is on task at the end of each set interval, the observer records a plus. If the

target behavior is not occurring, a minus is recorded.

The momentary time sampling data collection system provides an estimate of behavior rather

than a frequency count of the behavior. One of the greatest advantages of this system is that the

observer does not need to be watching the person’s behavior the entire time. Because observation

times are shorter, momentary time sampling can be implemented within the daily schedule. This

data collection system is especially useful when it is difficult to determine when a behavior

begins and ends or when a target behavior’s frequency is too high to count. Because the target

behavior may occur during the interval but stop right before the moment of observation at the

end of the interval, the occurrence of the behavior may be underestimated. This is one

disadvantage of the momentary time sampling method of data collection.

2. Partial Interval Recording

When a partial interval recording data collection system is used, the observer records a plus (+) if

the behavior is exhibited at any time during the interval. A minus (-) is recorded if the behavior

does not occur during the interval. Partial interval recording does not count or tally exactly how

65

many times the behavior occurred during the specified time period. Because it is likely that

partial interval recording will produce a slight overestimate of the occurrence of the target

behavior, it should be used when the goal is to decrease the target behavior.

3. Whole Interval Recording

Using a whole interval recording data collection system, the observer records a plus only if the

target behavior is present for the entire interval. Even if the target behavior occurred at some

point during the interval, a minus is recorded if the target behavior was not displayed for the

entire time frame. Whole interval recording tends to underestimate the occurrence of behavior

and therefore should be used when the goal is to increase the target behavior.

Collecting Interval Data

To collect interval data, the person who is observing should complete the following steps:

• Record the name of the person and observer.

• Record the target behavior.

• Indicate the date, activity, and time of the observation.

• Record data:

• Momentary Time Sampling – Record a plus (+) if the behavior occurred at the exact

moment when the interval ended or a minus (-) if the behavior was not occurring at the

exact moment when the interval ended.

• Partial Interval Recording – Record a plus (+) if the behavior occurred at least once in the

interval or a minus (-) if the behavior did not occur at least once in the interval.

• Whole Interval Recording – Record a plus (+) if the behavior was continuous during the

entire interval or a minus (-) if the behavior was not continuous during the entire interval.

• Count the total number of intervals in which the behavior occurred.

• Divide the total number of intervals in which the behavior occurred (those in which a + was

recorded) by the total number of intervals (those in which a + was recorded plus those in

which a – was recorded).

• Record the percentage of intervals in which the target behavior occurred.

A completed example is shown for whole interval data in Table 11.

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Table 11: Sample Whole Interval Recording Data

Person’s Name: Samantha Observer’s Name: Jenna

Activity/Time: Work 8:00am-12:00pm Date: May 17, 2019

Target Behavior: Working on assigned task Type of Interval Recording: Whole Interval

Instructions for Interval Recording

Momentary Time Sampling = Whole = Record a (+) if Partial = Record a (+) if

Record a (+) only if behavior behavior is continuous in behavior occurs at least

occurs at moment when entire interval once in interval

interval ends

Time + or - Comments Time + or - Comments

8:00-

8:09

+ 10:00-

10:09

- Refused to get back

to work after prompt

8:10-

8:29

+ 10:10-

10:29



8:30-

8:39

+ 10:30-

10:39

+

8:40-

8:49

+ 10:40-

10:49

+

8:50-

8:59

- Was off-task waiting for

bathroom break

10:50-

10:59

+

9:00-

9:09

NA Bathroom break 11:00-

11:09

+

9:10-

9:29

+ 11:10-

11:29

+

9:30-

9:39

+ 11:30-

11:39

- Complaining about

being hungry

9:40-

9:49

+ 11:40-

11:49

- Complaining about

being hungry

9:50-

9:59

- Distracted by loud noise 11:50-

11:59

- Complaining about

being hungry

Total number of intervals in which a + was recorded 12

Total number of intervals 19

% of intervals in which the behavior occurred 63%

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The formula for calculating interval data is:

# of intervals in which behavior occurred

Total number of intervals

In the example above, a target behavior occurred in 12 of the 19 possible intervals.

12

19 = 63%

Mary exhibited the target behavior 63% of the time during a four-hour interval period.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Interval Recording

Interval recording is a good method to use if:

1. You are recording a behavior that does not have an easily defined beginning and ending.

2. You are recording more than one person’s behavior at the same time.

3. You are recording more than one behavior of one person.

4. You are recording more than one behavior of more than one person at the same time and it

is difficult to record frequency.

5. You are reinforcing someone after a certain length of time in which no inappropriate

behavior has occurred.

6. The behavior being observed is subtle (not obvious).

Table 12 illustrates advantages 1 & 2 of interval recording data.

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Table 12: Interval Recording for Advantages 1 & 2

Advantages Scenario

• Useful when the target behavior does

not have an easily defined beginning or

end

• Convenient when more than one

person’s behavior is being recorded

There are three roommates who argue a lot

in the supported apartment complex where

Kate works. Kate found it difficult to

adequately define the beginning and

ending of an argument, so she could not

take frequency data. She could define

when an argument was occurring, though,

because there was always shouting.

She decided to use interval recording. All

three individuals were home and awake

from 7 p.m. to 10 p.m. so she chose that as

the observation period. Kate divided the

three hours into 15-minute intervals, so

there were 12 intervals per night. If she

heard shouting at any time during the

interval, she put a plus “+” in the interval

corresponding to the person who was

shouting. If she heard no shouting a minus

“-” was recorded.

This is an example of partial interval

recording because the behavior is recorded

if it occurred at least once during the

interval. It does not have to last for the

entire interval or be occurring at the exact

end of the interval.

Interval 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Clare + + - + + + - - - + + - 7

Kelli + + - - + + - - - + - - 5

Becca - - - - - - + - - - - + 2

In this example, Claire was shouting during seven out of 12 intervals (58%). Gus was

shouting during five intervals (42%) and Becca was shouting during two intervals (17%).

Table 13 shows how interval recording can be used to record more than one behavior of one

person. It also shows how data can be collected on both challenging and positive behaviors at

the same time.

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Table 13: Interval Recording for Advantage 3

Advantage Scenario

• Applicable when recording more than

one behavior of one person.

Seth was working with Michael who

kicked, hit and swore at other people. He

also rarely said “hello” or “please” to

anyone. Seth decided to use interval

recording to record Michael’s multiple

behaviors during the same observation

period.

Key:

H = Hits S = Swearing K = Kicks

P = Please HI = Hello

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

H

H H H H H H H H H

K K K K K K K K K K

S S S S S S S S S S

HI HI HI HI HI HI HI HI HI HI

P

P P P P P P P P P

Each interval is 10 minutes in length. If any of the behaviors occurred during an interval, the

symbol for the behavior was underlined. There were eight intervals in which hitting occurred,

four intervals in which kicking occurred, five intervals in which swearing occurred, and no

intervals in which saying “hello” or “please” occurred.

Table 14 shows how interval data can be used to record more than one behavior of more than

one person at a time.


Advantage Scenario

• Valuable for recording more than one

behavior of more than one person at a

time.

Jack is a staff member who assists

five people, all of whom have

positive behavior support plans.

The programs consist of increasing

appropriate behaviors (saying

“please” and “thank you”) and

decreasing inappropriate behaviors

(throwing objects and standing on

the furniture). There are so many

people and behaviors to record that

Jack found it difficult to use

frequency recording. He decided to

try interval recording. The

individuals were home and awake

70

from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. This was

Jack’s observation period. It was

five hours (300 minutes) in length.

Since the behaviors did not occur

very frequently, Jack chose 20-

minute intervals. This meant that

there were 15 intervals per night

(300 minutes divided by 20

minutes = 15). Jack devised a data

sheet that enabled him to record

behaviors of five individuals at the

same time in 20-minute intervals.

A part of the data sheet that Jack

used is shown below.

Key:

F = Standing on Furniture TO = Throwing Objects

P = Please TY = Thank You

Name 5:00 5:20 5:40 6:00 6:20

Matthew P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

Nick

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

Jake

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

Mike

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

Zach

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

P TO

F TY

The final example in Table 15 shows how interval recording can be used to reinforce

nonoccurrence of a target behavior.

71


Advantage Scenario

• Useful for reinforcing nonoccurrence

of a target behavior.

Mary’s team wanted to help her to refrain

from yelling during her work shifts but

they wanted to use a positive method to do

so. Because Mary usually worked for an

hour before taking a break, the observation

period was 60 minutes (divided into 10-

minute intervals). Every time an interval

passed when there was no occurrence of

yelling, Mary’s job coach verbally praised

her. A part of the data sheet for Mary is

shown below.

Time 1 2 3 4 5 6

8-9 + + + + + -

9-10 - - - - - -

10-11 + + + + + +

A minus (–) was recorded for intervals in which yelling had occurred and a plus (+) was

recorded for intervals in which Mary had not yelled. During the first hour of Mary’s work

shift, yelling only occurred during the sixth interval. Yelling occurred during all of the

intervals of Mary’s second hour at work. No yelling occurred during the third hour of Mary’s

shift. During the three-hour observation period before Mary’s lunch break, there were seven

instances of yelling out of 18 total intervals. In other words, Mary yelled 39% of the time

during her morning work shift. It would be interesting for Mary’s staff to determine what was

happening during the second hour of her work shift to identify what was triggering more

instances of her yelling behavior.

Even though there are several advantages of using interval recording, there are also

disadvantages.

1. Data collected by interval recording does not indicate precisely how often a behavior

occurs. It simply tells you whether a behavior occurred at least once during an

interval.

2. Like event recording/frequency measures, interval recording does not give information

concerning the form of the behavior or its antecedents and consequences. Depending

on the type of interval recording system that is used (whole, partial, or momentary

time sampling), however, it does give a general idea of when the behavior occurred in

a particular observation period (whereas event recording/frequency count does not).

Summarizing Interval Recording Data

Interval data is typically presented as the percentage of intervals during which the target

behavior occurred. Since the number of marks recorded during observation sessions do not

72

represent the exact frequency or duration of the response, the data are reported and charted as

the percentage of intervals in which the response occurred.

A blank interval data collection form is included in Appendix D.

Accuracy Measures

Accuracy measures indicate the degree to which a response is correct or incorrect. They are

typically used in a situation when the response being observed can be compared to some

criteria and evaluated as being either right or wrong. They are especially useful when there is

a permanent product that someone can check related to the person’s behavior. For example,

some academic behaviors have a permanent product (e.g., math worksheet, spelling test) that

someone checks for right and wrong answers. Also, some discrete skills, such as coin

identification for instance, can be measured in this way.

In their simplest form, accuracy data are recorded as either the number of right responses or

the number of wrong ones. However, accuracy measures leave two questions unanswered: (1)

How many opportunities did the person have to be correct? and (2) How long did it take to get

that many correct? The measures that will answer those questions are: (1) percent correct and

(2) rate correct, respectively.

The formula for calculating the percentage of correct responses is:

Number of correct responses

Number of Trials X 100

The formula for calculating the rate of correct responding is:

Number of correct responses

Observation Time X 100

It simply may not be enough to know that John got five answers correct on Monday and four

correct on Tuesday. You may also be interested in knowing that on Monday there were a total

of ten questions, and on Tuesday there were only six. The percent correct was higher on

Tuesday (67%) than on Monday (50%) even though the actual number correct was lower.

You may also want to know that on Monday it took John 40 minutes to do those ten questions

but on Tuesday, it took only 10 minutes to do six questions. The rate at which he answered

the questions Tuesday was much faster than on Monday. Monday’s rate of correct responding

was .125/minute (one every eight minutes), and on Tuesday, it was .4/minute (one every 2.5

minutes).

73

Permanent Product

The final type of recording procedure is one in which you record a result of the behavior

(rather than the actual behavior). Permanent product refers to a lasting, tangible result of the

behavior to be modified. Examples of behaviors that have a permanent product include bed

making, dishwashing, items set on the table, homework assignments, papers thrown on the

floor, and a variety of work tasks (e.g., envelopes labeled, papers stapled, silverware rolled,

etc.). Each of these behaviors results in some tangible product which can be evaluated.

The fact that you do no need to observe the behavior itself can also be a disadvantage.

Permanent product data do not tell you anything about the behavior except that it occurred.

You cannot tell how long the task took or whether it was completed easily or with difficulty.

These data do not even demonstrate that the person involved was the one who completed the

task. How long a behavior took or whether the person had help are often important for a staff

member to know, especially when first teaching the behavior. In cases when it is unnecessary

or impossible to observe the behavior, permanent product may be sufficient.

Permanent product data are typically taken an interval basis. The recorder will simply note

whether or not the task has been completed, (or how much has been completed) at the end of

the specified intervals. These intervals may be fixed (e.g., once a day) or variable (e.g.,

random checks throughout the day).

Unit III: Lesson 1 – Points for Review

Behaviors may be targeted because they represent a deficit (i.e., too few skills or positive

actions) or an excess (i.e., too much of a challenging behavior). In order to systematically

develop an instructional program to teach new skills or a positive support plan to address

challenging behaviors, the target behavior must be observed and measured. Based on the

dimension of the target behavior that needs to be observed and measured, there are a variety

of procedures that can be used for collecting and recording behavior data. Guidelines for

selecting an appropriate measurement system, as well as advantages and disadvantages of

each, are described in this Module.

74

UNIT III

Lesson 2: Guidelines for Measuring Behavioral Objectives


• Given characteristics of a target behavior, conditions, and criterion, trainee will identify an

appropriate measurement system.

• Given a behavioral objective within a scenario, trainee will specify reasons why the

proposed measurement system is incorrect for the behavior being measured.

Introduction to Guidelines for Measuring Behavioral Objectives

The first lesson of this unit described a variety of approaches that can be used to measure

behavior. This lesson presents several guidelines for choosing the most appropriate data

collection system for measuring behavior related to specific behavioral objectives.

1) Look at the Behavior

Compare the proposed measurement strategy with the characteristics of the behavior to be

measured. Table 16 shows appropriate measurement systems based on the characteristics of

the target behavior that need to be observed and recorded.

Table 16: Measurement Systems Based on Behavior Characteristics

Characteristics of the Behavior Appropriate Measurement System

Used for fairly obvious behaviors (asking

questions, fighting, crying, incontinence)

that have a discrete beginning and end.

No typical pattern of occurrence.

May occur many times a day, at many

different times.

Event Recording/Frequency Count

Used for behaviors identified for frequency

records when the observation periods vary

in length.

Rate

Used to determine how long a particular

behavior lasts. (e.g., On task, eye contact,

or maladaptive behaviors)

Duration Recording

Used to measure length of time from the

introduction of the opportunity to respond

to the occurrence of the behavior. (e.g.,

compliance to requests, following

directions, presentation of task materials)

Response Latency

Used for behaviors that do not have an

easily defined beginning and ending, as

well as subtle (not obvious) behaviors.

Interval Recording

75

Used for behaviors that can be compared

to some criteria and evaluated as being

either right or wrong (e.g., academic

behaviors, coin identification).

Accuracy Measures

Used for behaviors that result in some

tangible product which can be evaluated.

(e.g. bed making, written assignments,

table setting, papers stapled, envelopes

stuffed). Does not tell how long the task

took or whether it was completed

independently.

Permanent Product

2) Look at the Conditions

The measurement strategy should be compared with the conditions that are specified. The

strategy and conditions must be consistent. This means that the behavior must be measured at

the time and place and with any special equipment and/or assistance that is specified in the

statement of conditions.

3) Look at the Criteria

The measurement strategy should be compared with the criteria. If the criteria require a

certain number of responses, the actual number should be specified. If the criteria require a

certain percentage of performance, a measurement strategy that allows percentages to be

calculated should be used.

Common Mistakes in Choosing an Appropriate Measurement Strategy

In the next section, some examples of common mistakes that occur if observers do not make

sure that the measurement strategy they select is appropriate for the behavior and/or consistent

with the objective, will be reviewed.

Example A

Lee engages in a lot of disruptive (yelling) behavior when he’s at work. He also wanders

around work or talks to others when he should be working. He and his PCP team agreed that

an objective should be written related to Lee increasing his on-task behavior. They wrote the

following objective:

Behavioral Objective:

“Lee will increase the amount of time he spends “on-task” (defined as doing his work) by

20%. He will maintain this criterion for at least one week.”

76

Measurement Strategy:

The job coaches at Lee’s work agreed to observe him 10 times each work day for at least a

week. They agreed to make the observation periods at different times each day. They agreed

to record whether Lee was sitting at his work station when observed.

What is wrong with this measurement strategy?

Answer: The behavior specified in the objective is “on-task” (doing his work). The behavior

measured was “sitting at the work station.” Lee could easily sit at his work station without

being “on-task.”

The staff should either change the objective or change the behavior to be observed to “on-

task” (i.e. doing his work).

Example B

Chelsea works at Sylvia’s Salsa Shoppe. She works with a machine that fills jars of salsa. She

is presently filling only an average of 10 jars per hour. The PCP team wrote the following

behavioral objective:


“Chelsea will increase the number of jars she fills from an average of 10 to an average of 20

per hour. She will fill at least 20 jars per hour each work day for two weeks.”


The staff decided to observe Chelsea four times a day to assess whether she was filling the

jars. They agreed to observe Chelsea at 9:00, 11:00, 2:00 and 4:00 and to mark whether she

was filling jars at the times she was observed.


Answer: The measurement strategy is not consistent with the behavioral objective.

Chelsea’s job coaches had agreed to measure the average number of jars being filled per hour,

not whether or not she was filling jars when observed.

The staff should either change the objective or change the measurement strategy to one that

requires them to observe and record the average number of jars that Chelsea fills during each

one-hour observation period.

77

Example C

Jeremy lives in an apartment with a roommate. He and his roommate share household tasks.

Jeremy would like to learn how to complete some tasks in the kitchen. He would like to start

by learning how to set the table before mealtimes.


Before each mealtime, when asked, Jeremy will set the plates, cups, and silverware in the

correct plate on the table within 10 minutes of being asked with 100% accuracy/independence

for at least one week.


The staff at Jeremy’s apartment observed him for one week before breakfast and recorded

each time he set the table with the items in the correct place.


Answer: The measurement strategy is not consistent with the conditions specified in the

objective. The objective requires Jeremy to set the table before all of the meals. The staff

should be recording the number of times Jeremy sets the table when asked and during all

meals, not just at breakfast. If the staff want to measure the behavior only at breakfast, they

will have to change the conditions of the objective.

Example D

Grace works at an insurance agency in her community. She kicks and screams an average of

10 times per working day. Each episode lasts an average of 15 seconds.


“At the job site, between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m., Grace will kick and scream less often and for

shorter episodes. She will decrease the number of episodes from 10 per work day to no more

than 5 per work day. She will decrease the average length of each episode from 15 seconds to

no more than 5 seconds. She will maintain this criterion for at least two weeks.


Grace’s job coach set up a simple frequency record sheet and made a mark each time Grace

kicked and/or screamed. He kept a record at the job site for two weeks between 8 a.m. and 5

p.m.


78

Answer: It is inconsistent with the objective. The objective’s criteria involve both the

frequency and length of each episode. The measurement strategy only involves recording the

number of episodes. It should also involve timing the episodes and recording the duration.

Example E

Susan lives in an apartment with two other women. She tends to avoid interacting with others.

When at home, she spends most of her time alone in her room or watching television. On

average, she interacts only about three times per night.


“Susan will increase the number of times she talks to others. While at home, she will talk to

others at least 6 times between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. for 14 consecutive days.”


Susan’s support team decided to record every time Susan interacted with someone (talks to

someone) between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. for 14 consecutive days.


Answer: The measurement strategy is consistent with the behavioral objective. However, it is

not the most appropriate for the behavior being measured. The behavior “talks to others,” is

one that can be done anywhere within the residence at any time between 5 and 9 p.m. It is a

common, “non-obvious” behavior that unless a staff person were assigned to watch Susan

every minute between 5 and 9 p.m., the behavior could occur, but go unnoticed. Therefore, it

would probably be best to change the measurement strategy to a time sample record. A time

sample would require that a staff person check to see if Susan is interacting during certain

times (e.g., at 5:15 p.m.; 6:00 p.m.; 6:10 p.m.; 7:05 p.m.; 7:40 p.m.; 8:10 p.m.; 8:50 p.m.)

rather than every single minute between 5 and 9 p.m.

We often make the mistake of setting up a measurement strategy that tells us more about the

behavior of the observer than that of the person being observed. For example, a behavior such

as smiling at others in non-obvious and unpredictable as to time and place of occurrence.

Therefore, to record every time it occurs would require second-by-second observation. This is

so tedious and impractical that you often end up with a record of the number of times the staff

person was looking at the person rather than the actual number of times the individual smiled.

A time sample record would be a much more appropriate measurement strategy.


There are several data collection methods that can be used for observing and recording

behavior data. It is important to select an appropriate measurement system by making sure that

it matches the target behavior, aligns with the conditions, and applies to the criteria.

79

Unit III

Lesson 3: Data Collection to Determine the Function of a Challenging Behavior


• Trainee will identify continuous recording and scatter plot data collection systems that can

be used to determine the function/purpose of challenging behaviors.

• Trainee will specify common functions that behaviors serve for the individual who is

displaying it.

Introduction to Data Collection to Determine the Function of a Challenging Behavior

In some cases, it is not enough to simply have a measure of a particular dimension of a behavior.

Sometimes it is also important to know the purpose/function that a challenging behavior is

serving for the individual who is exhibiting it.

In order to hypothesize about the function/purpose, the first step is to define the challenging

behavior in terms that are specific, measurable, and observable (i.e. pinpointing the behavior).

After the challenging behavior is operationally defined, a variety of data collection systems can

be used to determine the function/purpose that the challenging behavior is serving. Indirect

methods (including checklists, surveys, and interviews) can be completed by those who are

familiar with the person’s challenging behavior(s). Two direct data collection systems can also

be used. These include continuous recording (i.e. anecdotal record or ABC analysis) and scatter

plots. Both methods provide the same information (i.e. the antecedent, challenging behavior(s),

and consequences), however, one records data using a narrative format and the other uses tallies

to record instances of the challenging behavior(s).

Completed in conjunction with person-centered planning (and oftentimes to supplement

checklists, surveys, and interviews), continuous recording (also known as an anecdotal record or

ABC analysis) and scatter plots are designed to help a person’s support team understand what is

triggering (antecedents) and reinforcing (consequences) his/her challenging behaviors. By

understanding the antecedents and consequences for challenging behaviors, a hypothesis about

the function of the behaviors can be developed, behavioral objectives can be written, antecedents

and consequences can be changed, and appropriate interventions to teach replacement behaviors

can be implemented as part of positive behavior supports.

Continuous Recording (Anecdotal Recording or ABC Analysis)

As part of a functional behavioral assessment, continuous recording (also known as anecdotal

recording or ABC analysis) involves observing the variables (antecedents and consequences) that

are related to the challenging behavior. Each time that an instance of the challenging behavior

(the behavior or B) occurs, the person who is observing records what happened immediately

preceding the challenging behavior (the antecedent or A) and what happened immediately

following the challenging behavior (the consequence or C). Continuous recording assists the

observer in identifying the possible function of the challenging behavior.

80

For example, during an observation at Mary’s workplace, she has four incidents of

challenging behavior (as shown in Table 17 ). In the first column of the chart (A), the

observer records the antecedents that occurred immediately before each incident of the target

behavior. Antecedents can include environmental factors or the behavior of others. In this

example, environmental factors (i.e., Mary’s work materials and a timer) were the antecedents

for two of Mary’s challenging behavior episodes. The other two were triggered by the

behavior of another person (i.e., verbal prompts from the job coach).

In the second column of the chart (B), the observer records the target behavior(s) that Mary

exhibited. For each incident, the target behavior(s) is recoded in the same row as the

antecedent that triggered it. In three of the incidents that were observed, Mary’s challenging

behaviors were crying and yelling. One incident involved hitting her job coach.

In the third column, the observer records the consequences which immediately follow a

specific instance of behavior. Consequences are recorded in the same horizontal row as the

antecedent(s) and target behavior(s) for that particular episode. Like antecedents,

consequences can include physical environmental factors or the actions of others. In this

example, actions of others (excusing her from work, yelling at her, placing her in time out,

ignoring her, and begging her to stop) were the consequences that followed Mary’s


Table 17: Continuous Recording Example

Name:______________________ Date:_______________________________

Setting:_____________________ Observation Time Frame:_______________

Observer:___________________

Antecedent (A) Behavior (B) Consequence (C)

A pile of envelopes to stuff at

work

Mary cries and yells at her

supervisor

Mary is excused from

stuffing the envelopes

Job coach gives Mary the

verbal cue “It’s time to start

working”

Mary hits the job coach Mary’s job coach yells at her

A timer signals that it’s time

to go back to work after lunch


supervisor

Mary is placed in time out

Job coach tells Mary that it’s

time to go back to work


job coach

Mary is ignored; Mary’s co-

workers cover their ears and

beg her to stop

A blank chart for continuous recording is provided in Appendix E.

Continuous recording is important because it assists a person’s support team to identify the

conditions under which a certain behavior occurs and also them to analyze the consequent

events that might be maintaining (i.e. reinforcing) the behavior.

81

Continuous recording is not a simple recording technique. It is often difficult to write down

everything that is occurring in a situation. The following are some helpful hints to aid you in

becoming a skilled recorder:

1. Focus your attention on the individual whose behavior you are observing. When the person

engages in a challenging behavior, write this behavior in the behavior (B) column of the

chart.

2. Next, remember the event that occurred immediately prior to the behavior and write this

event in the antecedent column of the chart, while continuing to observe the individual so

you can write down the consequences of his behavior. In this sense, continuous recording

may be more appropriately called BAC recording, since you first record the individual’s

behavior and then record the antecedents and consequences of that behavior.

3. Often an event which follows a behavior (i.e., the behavior’s consequence) is the

antecedent for another behavior. It is often helpful to abbreviate your notes in order to have

more time to observe.

ABC recording can be used to assess many behaviors of an individual and the antecedents and

consequences which control them. Typically, however, it is used to record only one behavior

of interest along with its antecedents and consequences. You may only be interested in a

person’s yelling, and therefore only record yelling in the behavior column and the antecedents

and consequences of yelling in their appropriate columns. If the antecedent prompting the

behavior to occur or the consequence reinforcing the behavior can be determined, a program

can be written to change the behavior by changing the consequence or changing the

antecedent.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Continuous Recording

The greatest advantage of continuous recording is that the contextual information that it provides

can be useful in hypothesizing the function of the challenging behavior. A disadvantage of this

method is that it requires more time and effort by the person who is observing and only

establishes correlation not causation.

Determining the Function of Challenging Behaviors

Using the information that is recorded in the narrative, the person who is observing is able to

review the antecedents and consequences to determine what is triggering (antecedent) and

reinforcing the challenging behavior (consequence) that is being displayed by the learner. From

this information, the observer is able to formulate a hypothesis about the purpose or function that

the challenging behavior is serving for the learner.

Challenging behaviors typically serve for individuals with disabilities. These include obtaining

something that is desirable (i.e., attention, an object, a food item, etc.) or avoiding/escaping

something that is undesirable (i.e., a difficult task, a particular person, attention, etc.).

82

It is important to note that some challenging behaviors may serve more than one

purpose/function. For example, a person may want to escape from one person but obtain

attention from another person.

After analyzing Mary’s ABC chart, it is apparent that she is displaying the challenging behavior

when it is time to work (antecedent). Because she often gets out of work (consequence) when she

displays the challenging behavior, a likely hypothesis is that the purpose or function that the

challenging behavior is serving for Mary is avoidance/escape for a variety of reasons (e.g., she

does not like the task or job coach, the task is difficult, he doesn’t like to go back to work after

lunch, the sound of the timer is aversive, etc.). This information is important because it is the

foundation for developing behavioral objectives to decrease the challenging behavior, changing

the antecedents or consequences, extinguishing the challenging behavior, and teaching an

appropriate replacement behavior that serves the same function as the challenging behavior.

Scatter Plots

Scatter plots are another direct method that can be used to observe individuals who are

displaying challenging behaviors. A scatter plot is an interval recording method in which the

observer numerically tallies instances of the challenging behavior as well as the antecedents and

consequences surrounding it. It enables the observer to identify the variables that may be

contributing to the challenging behavior by discovering patterns related to antecedents and

consequences as well as specific time periods.

Instructions for Completing a Scatter Plot

A scatter plot involves breaking the observation period into a number of smaller intervals.

During each interval, the person who is recording the data observes to see if the challenging

behavior(s) is occurring. Each time a challenging behavior(s) occurs, the observer notes the

antecedents (what occurred right before the challenging behaviors that triggered them), the

challenging behavior(s) that were displayed, and the consequences (what immediately followed

the challenging behaviors). The number that is recorded is the instance number and continues

horizontally across the chart. For example, instance number 1 of challenging behaviors occurred

during the person’s arrival at work. Instance number 1 was triggered by a request/prompt. The

challenging behaviors that were displayed during instance number 1 included hitting and

kicking. The consequence following instance number 1 was that staff yelled at the person. The

second and third instances of the challenging behaviors also occurred when the person arrived at

work. The antecedent for instances 2 and 3 were a request/prompt. The challenging behaviors

that were displayed during the second instance were hitting, yelling, and running away. Yelling

and running away were the challenging behaviors that were exhibited during instance 3. The

consequence that followed instances 2 and 3 was staff yelling. Instances 4, 5, and 6 occurred

while the person was working in the morning. The antecedents for instances 4, 5, and 6 were a

request/prompt and a hard task. Yelling and running away were the most prevalent challenging

behaviors associated with instances 4, 5, and 6. Getting out of the task was the consequence that

followed instances 4, 5, and 6.

83

Instance numbers are recorded in the same way for the remainder of the observation period.

Summarizing scatter plot data results in a frequency count (the total number of times the

challenging behavior occurred during the observation period). After the instances of challenging

behavior are recorded, the observer calculates the number for each category (in the far right and

bottom columns of the form). In calculating the numbers for each column, the number of

incidents is counted (versus adding all of the numbers together).

The scatterplot data is summarized by visually scanning the data for patterns over days/weeks.

Once the number of incidents is calculated, they can be used by the observer to answer the

questions at the end of the form and to make data-based decisions about behavioral objectives

that could be written to support the person.

A blank scatter plot is provided in the Appendix..

A sample scatter plot is shown in Table 18.

Table 18: Sample Completed Scatter Plot

Activity/

Start & End

Time

Antecedents Behavior Consequences Total

Req

ues

t/P

rom

pt

Bei

ng I

gnore

d

Tra

nsi

tion

Har

d T

ask

Oth

er

Hit

s

Cri

es

Yel

ls

Runs

away

Oth

er

Att

enti

on

Tim

e out

Get

s out

of

task

Sta

ff y

ells

Oth

er

# o

f i

nci

den

ts o

f

chal

lengin

g

beh

avio

rs b

y

acti

vit

y

Arrival at

Work

8:00 – 8:15

1

2

3

1

2

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

3

3

Job

8:15-10:00

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

3

Bathroom

Break/Snack

10:00-10:15

7 7 7 7 7 1

Job

10:15-

12:00pm

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

5

Lunch

11:30-12:00

0

Total # of

incidents

per category

11 0 6 8 0 2 0 7 12 0 0 0 8 4 1

84

Like the ABC analysis, the scatter plot enables the observer to review behavior patterns and to

formulate a hypothesis regarding the function that the challenging behavior is serving for the

learner. In this example, the most frequent challenging behavior is running away. The most

frequent antecedent for the learner’s challenging behaviors is a request or prompt and the most

frequent consequence for the learner’s challenging behaviors is that he or she gets out of a task.

In this case, a probable hypothesis for the function of the learner’s challenging behaviors is

escape. It would be important to identify why the person exhibits the challenging behavior as

soon as he arrives at work and right after a request/prompt is delivered to start working. Does the

person dislike his job? Is the task that the person is being prompted to complete too difficult?

Does the person dislike the direct support professional who is delivering the prompt?

Using information from the scatter plot, the person’s support team could write behavioral

objectives that addresses decreasing the challenging behavior, modifying the antecedent (e.g.,

breaking down the task if it is too difficult or changing the person who delivers the prompt), not

allowing the person to escape from the difficult task (because that is the function that the

challenging behavior is serving for the individual) and teaching and reinforcing a replacement

behavior (using an appropriate behavior to request a break) that serves the same function as the

challenging behavior. Together, behavior objectives, antecedent strategies (modifying what

comes right before the challenging behavior), and consequence strategies (i.e. reinforcement of

an appropriate alternative behavior that serves the same function as the challenging behavior)

combine to form positive behavior supports.

In Feedback Exercise 11, you will have the opportunity to calculate data related to a person’s

challenging behavior in order to hypothesize about the function that the behavior is serving for

the individual.


Review the data on the scatter plot below for a young adult who is enrolled in a post-secondary

program on a college campus. For Part A of Feedback Exercise 11, complete the scatter plot by

recording the total number of incidents in the column on the right and in the row on the bottom

of the data collection form. You will be recording numbers in the highlighted boxes of the data

collection form. Remember that you are not adding the numbers together. Rather, you are

recording number of incidents of challenging behavior. The first entry in the column on the right

and row on the bottom are completed as a sample.

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Part A

Activity/

Start & End

Time


Req

ues

t/P

rom

pt

Bei

ng I

gnore

d

Tra

nsi

tio

n

Har

d T

ask

Oth

er

Hit

ting

Kic

kin

g

Scr

eam

ing

Runs

away

Oth

er

Att

enti

on

Tim

e out

Get

s out

of

task

Tea

cher

/aid

e y

ells

Oth

er

# o

f i

nci

den

ts o

f

chal

lengin

g

beh

avio

rs b

y

acti

vit

y

Arrival at

Campus

8:00 – 8:05

1

2

3

1

2

1

2

3 1

2

3

3

Independent

Living

8:05-9:00

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

Bathroom

Break/Snack

9:00-9:30

7 7 7 7

Job

9:30-11:30

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

10

11

12

9

Lunch

11:30-12:00

Total # of

incidents

per category

8


For Part B of Feedback Exercise 11, use the numbers that you recorded to answer the following

questions.

Part B

1) What is the most frequent antecedent(s) for this learner’s challenging behavior(s)?

2) What is the most frequent challenging behavior(s) that this learner exhibits?

3) What is the most frequent consequence(s) for this learner’s challenging behaviors?

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4) Based on the data, what do you believe is the function/purpose that the challenging

behavior(s) is serving for this learner?

5) What is one antecedent intervention that you could implement to support this learner?

6) What is one consequence intervention that you could implement to support this learner? The

consequence intervention must always include a replacement behavior that serves the same

function as the challenging behavior.



Sometimes it is not enough to know how many times or how long a target behavior is

occurring. It some cases, it is also important to know the function that a challenging

behavior(s) is serving for the individual who is exhibiting it. To do this, data about the

antecedents and consequences surrounding a challenging behavior must be collected.

Continuous recording and scatter plots are the two most common approaches for gathering

information about a challenging behavior’s function. Once this data has been collected, it can

be analyzed to determine the purpose of the challenging behavior(s). By identifying one (or

more) of these functions (e.g., obtaining something that is desirable or avoiding/escaping

something that is undesirable) a positive support plan can be developed to decrease the

challenging behavior(s) and teach a replacement behavior that serves the same function.

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Unit III

Lesson 4: Data Collection to Teach a New Behavior


• Trainee will state how behavior checklists are used to measure task completion.

• Trainee will specify how task analytic instruction is used to teach a new skill.

• Trainee will differentiate between discontinuous and continuous baseline data collection

approaches.

• Trainee will identify response prompts and how they are delivered and recorded.

Introduction to Data Collection to Teach a New Behavior

Sometimes data needs to be collected in conjunction with teaching a person a new skill. Behavior

checklists are one approach that can be used to identify skills on which instruction needs to be

provided. Once skills are targeted for instruction, a task analysis may be developed in order to

break down a complicated skill into its component steps.

Behavior Checklists

A common strategy for measuring task completion – especially tasks which have a predictable

time or place of occurrence – is to use a behavior checklist. For example, a behavior checklist

might be used to document the completion of self-care tasks. The basic measurement goal in

this case is to determine, out of a list of all the self-care tasks required, how many the person

successfully finishes.

Examples of other behaviors for which a checklist approach is useful include:

• Completing household tasks

• Arriving at work or home on time

• Taking medications

• Finishing work assignments

To record such behaviors, you will complete the following steps:

1. Define or describe the behavior.

2. Determine when and where the behavior is supposed to occur.

3. Check to see whether the behavior occurred.

4. Record your observations, using a behavior checklist.

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How to Use a Behavior Checklist

A behavior checklist can be used to track whether a person is completing a variety of tasks as

part of his/her PCP. There are several steps for recording data on a behavior checklist.

1. On the top part of the sheet, write the person’s name and the name(s) of the staff. Who is

involved in observing and recording occurrences of the behavior? Also, write the dates

which mark the beginning and the end of the observation period.

2. On the far-left side of the sheet, under the column labeled date, enter the date of each

recording. You can see that there are a number of columns under the label behavior which

you can use to list the specific behaviors you are recording.

In Table 19 below, you will see an example of how the checklist strategy for measuring

behavior was used to record the completion of daily grooming tasks.

Table 19: Behavior Checklist

Learner’s Name: John Observer’s Name(s): Joe C and Bob T.

Target Behavior: Grooming Tasks Dates: 6/6 to 6/11

Key:

+ = behavior did occur

o = behavior did not

occur

/ = not applicable

Date Dressing Combing Hair

Bathing Brushing Teeth

Shaving Totals

+ - / %

6/6 + + + - + 4 1 0 80%

6/7 + - + - - 2 3 0 40%

6/8 + + - + - 3 2 0 60%

6/9 + - - - + 2 3 0 40%

6/10 + + + - - 3 2 0 60%

6/11 + - - - - 1 4 0 20

Totals

+ 6 3 3 1 2

- 0 3 3 5 4

/ 0 0 0 0 0

% 100% 50% 50% 17% 33%

This checklist provides a daily record of John’s performance related to five different

grooming skills over a six-day period.

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The observers (Joe C. and Bob T.) first defined or described each of the grooming tasks by

listing what John had to do in order to complete each of the tasks. They then decided where

and when to observe John to check for the completion tasks. If John successfully completed

the task, they recorded a plus (+) in the appropriate column; if John did not complete the task,

they recorded a minus (-); and if for some reason John did not have a chance to complete the

task, they recorded a slash mark (/).

You can see, for example, that on 6/10, John successfully completed the dressing, combing

and bathing tasks, but did not brush his teeth or shave. The total columns on the right-hand

side of the checklist provide a daily summary of the person’s performance. Again, for 6/10,

the total columns show that John successfully completed three tasks (a 3 is entered under the

+ total column) and did not complete two tasks ( a 2 is entered under the - total column).

The far-right column, labeled % is used to record the percentage of all the possible tasks that

the person completed successfully. For example, on 6/10, there were five possible grooming

tasks, and John successfully completed three of them. The percentage figure is obtained by

dividing the total number successfully completed (3) by the total number possible (5) and

multiplying by 100. As you can see, the result is 60% on 6/10. As John learns to complete

more of the tasks, this percentage will increase.

The total rows at the bottom of the page provide a six-day summary of the person’s

performance with respect to each of the grooming skills. Looking at the checklist, you can see

that John dressed himself each day (6 is entered in the + total row), but only shaved two of the

six days. One hundred percent was recorded for dressing, since John dressed himself each

day. However, since he only shaved two of the six days, 33% (2 ÷ 6 x 100 = 33%) was

recorded for shaving.

The percentage figures in this bottom row allow you to quickly determine which of the

grooming skills on which the person needs to focus. In the example above, it would be

important for John’s support team to determine why he is not shaving. Does John lack the

skills that are required for shaving? Is shaving a task that is not motivating for John? Does he

prefer to have facial hair? Is the shaving task too difficult for John? If the task is too difficult,

it might be helpful to break down the target behavior into smaller steps. This is known as a

task analysis and will be described in a subsequent section of this Module.

A blank behavior checklist is provided in Appendix G.

In Feedback Exercise 12, you will have an opportunity to analyze a behavior checklist on

which data was collected on four tasks that are part of a person’s morning routine.

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Look at the behavior checklist below and answer the questions which follow it.

Learner’s Name: Alexis Observer’s Name(s): Tessa O.

Target Behavior: Grooming Tasks Dates: 6/10 to 6/14

Key:



occur

/ = not applicable

Date Dressing Combing

Hair

Bathing Brushing

Teeth

Totals

+ - / %

6/10 + + - + 3 1 0 75%

6/11 + + + - 3 1 0 75%

6/12 + - - + 2 2 0 50%

6/13 + / - + 2 1 1 66%

6/14 + + + + 4 0 0 100%

Totals

+ 5 3 2 4

- 0 1 3 1

/ 0 1 0 0

% 100% 75% 40% 80%

Part A

1. List the four behaviors which were observed and recorded.

a._________________________

b._________________________

c._________________________

d._________________________

2. Who was the observer? ______________________________

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3. Did Alexis bathe on 6/10?

Circle YES or NO

4. Did Alexis brush her teeth on 6/12?

Circle YES or NO

5. On which day did Alexis complete the most grooming tasks? ________

6. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete most often?

________________________________________________________

7. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete least often?

________________________________________________________

8. On 6/13, a hash mark (/) is recorded for brushed teeth. What does this mean?

_____________________________________________________________

9. On which task did Alexis score 100%? ________________________________

10. On what day did Alexis score 50% for tasks completed? __________________


In this example, it would be important for Alexis’ support team to question why she isn’t bathing

every day. Is bathing difficult for Alexis? Does she prefer to shower? Does Alexis have the

required skills that she needs for bathing? Is she unmotivated to bathe on a daily basis? Would

Alexis prefer to bathe in the morning rather than in the evening? Depending on the answers to

these questions, Alexis’ team could develop an instructional program or positive behavior

support plan to assist her in gaining the skills that are required for bathing (or support her to

switch to showering if that is preferable).

Part B

You have been given the assignment of observing and recording several morning tasks of

Braden T., for a three-day period. The tasks are making his bed, dressing himself, and arriving at

breakfast on time.

You began recording on August 4 and observed and recorded these behaviors each morning for

three days. The first morning, Braden completed each of the tasks. The next morning, he did not

make his bed or dress himself. He did, however, make it to breakfast on time. The third morning

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he made his bed, dressed himself, but was late for breakfast. Use that information to fill in the

following checklist.

Learner’s Name:__________ Observer’s Name(s):___________

Target Behavior:__________ Dates:__________

Key:



occur

/ = not applicable

Date Totals

+ - / %

Totals

+

-

/

%


Based on the data from Braden’s behavior checklist, it would be important for his support

team to figure out what is happening during his morning routine. For instance, the team

should determine what was different on the first day that enabled Braden to both make his bed

and dress himself and still arrive at breakfast on time. Did he start his morning routine earlier

on the first day? Had he picked out his clothes the night before? Was breakfast later that

morning? By answering these questions, the support team might determine that Braden’s

morning routine needs to be modified so that he can complete his tasks in time for breakfast.

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Practicum: Using a Behavior Checklist

The purpose of this exercise is to give you practice in using a behavior checklist.

Instructions for Practicum Behavior Checklist

Choose at least three behaviors displayed by one individual to whom you provide support

(there is space for recording up to five behaviors). The behaviors you choose should be

either activities of daily living or the completion of simple tasks. These behaviors should

occur at a relatively predictable time or place. Behaviors such as talking to others or

inappropriate verbal behavior would not be good choices because these behaviors could

occur anytime during the day and in a variety of places.

It would be best if you chose behaviors that the person does not always perform. You may

want to teach the person to perform one or several of these behaviors at a later date. The

data you collect will provide a pre-training record (baseline) of the person’s performance.

The following is a list of possible behaviors to record on your behavior checklist:

1. making a bed

2. brushing teeth

3. being on time for meals

4. getting to work on time

5. dressing independently

6. bathing properly

7. washing hands before meals

8. setting the table

9. loading the dishwasher

10. completing a task at work

Before recording, be sure to 1) define each behavior in descriptive terms (i.e., specific,

observable, and measurable), and 2) determine when and where the behavior is supposed to

occur.

Fill out the name of the person and observer (yourself) and the behaviors you propose to

observe. Show your form to your instructor. He or she will tell you: 1) whether the

behaviors you have selected are appropriate, 2) how many days you should record these

behaviors.

When you have recorded the behaviors for the specified time period, meet with your

instructor and show him/her the results.

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Behavior Checklist for Practicum

Learner’s Name:_____ Observer’s Name:__________

Target Behaviors:_______________ Dates:__________

Key:



occur

/ = not applicable

Date Totals

+ - / %

Totals

+

-

/

%

Task Analysis

After completing a behavior checklist, it may become apparent that some people with disabilities

will need instruction to learn new skills. Others may need to have a difficult skill broken down

into smaller steps so that it is easier to learn. Some of the skills that individuals with disabilities

need to learn are discrete behaviors (e.g., one-step such as pushing a switch to operate an

appliance). Other skills that people with disabilities need to learn are combined to form a chained

activity (e.g., multiple steps to complete an activity such as tooth brushing, following a recipe to

prepare a meal, or loading the dishwasher). One of the most effective ways to teach skills that are

part of a chained activity is through a method known as task analysis.

Definition of a Task Analysis

A task analysis is defined as the process of breaking a chained activity into smaller, more

manageable steps so that each step can be systematically taught to individuals with

intellectual/developmental disabilities. The term “task analysis” can be used as either a noun or a

verb. The actual sheets of paper containing the steps of the activity (noun), as well as the act of

breaking down a chained activity into its component steps (verb) are both considered a task

analysis.

As an evidence-based best practice, a task analysis can be used for any activity that can be

broken down into smaller steps including daily living, employment, and recreation/leisure skills

as well as functional academics, positive behaviors, communication, and social skills. Rather

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than requiring the person to master an entire chained activity all at once (which can be

overwhelming for some people with intellectual/developmental disabilities), a task analysis

allows the individual to learn the activity one-step at a time. Used in conjunction with other

systematic instructional practices (e.g., prompting, chaining, and reinforcing), a task analysis

procedure can be used to effectively teach individuals with disabilities regardless of cognitive

level and communication abilities.

A task analysis is the process of breaking down a chained activity into a series

of discrete responses (step-by-step) that are linked sequentially.

Task analytic data collection allows the person providing instruction to track progress made on

multi-step tasks. The observer analyzes the activity in order to break a complicated skill (e.g.,

preparing a food item, tooth brushing, stuffing envelopes at work) into its smaller component

steps. The data allows the person providing instruction to see small progress being made on skills

that are more difficult and pinpoints where individuals may need more instruction or support to

successfully complete the entire activity. Results will show increase in percentage of steps

completed independently and accurately. In addition, results will show consistency of steps being

performed across time (maintenance) and in a variety of scenarios (generalization).

An advantage of this measurement is that the person learning the skill (as well as the person

providing instruction) notes small steps of success that can keep motivation levels higher for

continued effort. It allows the person who is providing training to examine more complicated

skills to offer more support (e.g., breaking down the skill into smaller steps or utilizing partial

participation) where data indicates that person may be struggling. It is also an effective way to

monitor the level of independence in performance of the task. A disadvantage of the task analysis

method of data collection is that the person is required to closely monitor the person engaged in

the activity to score each individualized step.

Differentiating Between Discrete Behaviors and Chained Activities

When a skill is a discrete behavior, only a single response is required. Discrete behaviors have a

clear beginning or end. Examples of skills that are discrete behaviors include: pointing to an item

to order on a picture menu, saying “hi” to a co-worker at a job site, pushing a button on a

communication device to request a snack, and signing “yes” or “no” when asked a question.

In contrast, a chained activity is a series of discrete behaviors that are chained or sequenced

together to form a more complex skill. Chained activities require multiple responses to complete.

Examples of chained activities include handwashing, meal preparation, grocery shopping, bus

riding, and rolling silverware at work.

Each chained behavior includes:

• An antecedent (discriminative stimulus or SD) followed by

• A behavior (response or R) followed by

• A consequence (or CR which then becomes the new antecedent to trigger the next

behavior and so on)

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The following diagram shows the sequence of a chained activity.

SD R1 CR SD R2 CR

SD = Discriminative Stimulus

R = Response

CR = Consequence (reinforcer)

Prior to implementing systematic instruction, it is important to determine if the skill that is being

targeted is a discrete behavior or chained activity. This is important because a task analysis is an

effective strategy for teaching chained activities.

Rationale for Using a Task Analytic Approach to Instruction

For most people without disabilities, completing complex tasks is second nature. However, for

individuals with disabilities who have traits that make learning difficult, completion of complex

tasks is often very difficult. For example, it may not be as easy as we think to simply tell a

person who has intellectual/developmental disabilities to put her coat on to go home at the end of

her work shift. While it may seem self-explanatory, there are actually several steps involved.

First, where is the coat? If the person is not already holding it, she has to go to a location to get

it. Once she has the coat, how does she put it on? She could just stick her arms in, but then it

would be backwards. She could lay it on a table, stick both arms in upside down and then flip it

over her head, but that is three separate steps. She could put one arm in and then send the coat

around her back until she finds the other sleeve into which she puts her arm. Again, that is three

more steps. Finally, should she fasten the coat or leave it open? Does the coat have a zipper,

snaps, or buttons? Each of these fasteners requires several different processes. Therefore, the

simple instruction of putting on a coat to go home at the end of the workday may not be as easy

as it seemed initially.

When instructors understand all of the steps involved for a particular task, they will be able to

teach the task in a logical sequence. They will also be able to identify any steps that may need

extra instruction, adaptations, or support. In addition, a task analysis serves several other

functions as shown in Table 20.

Table 20: Functions of a Task Analysis

• Means of identifying teachable component parts of a chained activity

• Steps determine the way the task is taught (application of chaining procedures)

• Functions as a basis for data collection and system of measurement to evaluate skill

mastery

• Links curriculum and teaching methods

• Saves teaching times

• Allows more than one person to work with learners

• Serves as a communication tool between professionals and parents/guardians

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Developing a Task Analysis for Chained Activities

Chained activities that require a task analysis usually include multiple steps that comprise a

larger skill. Once a chained activity has been targeted for instruction (using one of the

approaches described in Module 3), it needs to be broken down into smaller steps so that the

learner can successfully demonstrate the skill be completing each step. There are three main

ways for professionals to break down the targeted activity into more manageable steps. These

include:

1) Completing the activity themselves and recording each step

2) Observing another person (in real time or via video) completing the activity and

recording the steps

3) Asking a support person to help the individual with intellectual/developmental disabilities

perform the chain and recording the steps

A blank task analysis is provided in Appendix H.

Determining the Number of Steps in a Chained Activity

A task analysis should be individualized for each specific person. This means that the number of

steps for completing the same activity must be individualized and may vary depending on the

person for whom it is developed. For example, while one individual may only need three or four

steps in a task analysis to complete the skill of handwashing, another person may need the task

broken down into 10 or more steps to be able to successfully complete the same skill. As a

general guideline, individuals who have disabilities that are characterized by more severe

intellectual and/or physical disabilities will probably need task analyses that include more steps

than for those individuals whose disabilities are less severe. Once the person tries the task

analysis, it may need to be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the number of steps.

Determining the Sequence of Steps in a Chained Activity

When identifying the steps in a task analysis, there are some skills for which the sequence of the

steps is important; for others, the order of steps is immaterial. For example, street crossing is an

activity for which the order of the steps is important. Setting the table, however, is a skill for

which the sequence of steps is irrelevant. It does not matter if the person places the cup on the

table before the silverware or the other way around.

Operationally Defining the Steps in a Chained Activity

Each step in the task analysis should be operationally defined (i.e., pinpointed) as a discrete

behavior or response. This will enable the person providing instruction to know whether or not

the individual has successfully completed the step. Furthermore, when the person completes one-

step of the task analysis (and is reinforced for the correct response), the completed step becomes

the natural antecedent/stimulus (also known as the Discriminative Stimulus or SD) for the

individual to move on to the next step. Each completed step sets the occasion for completion of

the next step. For example, folding a flyer should prompt the person to put the flyer in the

98

envelope which is the next step of the task analysis. Ultimately, when each discrete behavior or

response has been chained together, the person will have mastered the skill/activity.

An example of a chaining sequence (using the formula of antecedents/discriminative stimuli,

behaviors/responses, and reinforcement) is provided in Table 21.

Table 21: Example of a Chaining Sequence: Using a Fork

“It’s time to eat.” Food and fork are placed in front of learner – SD

1. Person picks up the fork – Correct Response 1

• Fork is in hand – Reinforcement is delivered

• Fork is in hand – Antecedent for Response 2 (SD)

2. Person stabs food with fork – Correct Response 2

• Food is on fork – Reinforcement is delivered

• Food is on fork – Antecedent for Response 3 (SD)

3. Person lifts up fork with food – Correct Response 3

• Fork with food is moved from plate to air – Reinforcement is delivered

• Fork with food is in air – Antecedent for Response 4

4. Person brings fork to mouth – Correct Response 4

• Fork is in mouth – Reinforcement is delivered

• Fork is in mouth – Antecedent for Response 5 (SD)

This sequence would continue until each step of the task analysis was completed and the

learner had eaten all of his food.

Baseline Data

Baseline data is information about a person’s level of performance prior to the beginning of

instruction. By collecting baseline data, the individual who is teaching the skill will be able to

identify which steps of the task analysis that the person already knows how to perform without

prompts, error correction, or reinforcement. Following instruction, baseline data is compared to

instructional data so that the person’s mastery of a particular skill or activity can be measured.

Rationale for Collecting Baseline Data

The rationale for collecting baseline data is to know if an instructional strategy is effective. If the

person who is teaching the skill does not know which steps of the task analysis the person

already knows how to perform prior to instruction (prompts, error correction, and

reinforcement), they will not know if their instructional strategies are effective or if the person

already knew the steps of the task analysis. Baseline data is a means for comparing progress

during the baseline and instructional phases of learning so that data-based decisions can be made

related to when a skill/activity has been mastered or whether instructional modifications are

necessary (if the person is not making any progress or performance has plateaued).

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Strategies for Collecting Baseline Data

There are two main strategies for collecting baseline data. These include:

• Single opportunity (also known as discontinuous) baseline

• Multiple opportunity (also known as continuous) baseline

The steps for implementing the single opportunity baseline system are provided in Table 22.

Table 22: Steps for Single Opportunity (Discontinuous) Baseline

Steps

1. Provide an initial verbal cue to begin the task analysis (e.g.,

“It’s time to stuff the envelopes”).

2. Without providing any additional prompts or reinforcement,

record a plus (+) for each step of the task analysis that the

person completes independently and correctly.

3. Record a minus (-) for the first step of the task analysis that

the person is unable to complete independently or correctly.

4. Discontinue the baseline as soon as the person receives his or

her first minus.

5. Record a minus for the remaining steps of the task analysis.

6. Thank the person for trying the skill.

The steps for implementing the multiple opportunity baseline system are provided in Table 23.

Table 23: Steps for Multiple Opportunity (Continuous) Baseline

Steps

1. Provide an initial verbal cue to begin the task analysis (e.g.,

“It’s time to stuff the envelopes”).

2. Without providing any additional prompts or reinforcement,

record a plus (+) for each step of the task analysis that the

person completes independently and correctly.

3. When the person makes his or her first error or does not

respond, the observer completes that step and positions the

person to complete the next step of the task analysis.

4. The observer records a minus (-) for each step of the task

analysis that the person is unable to complete independently

or correctly.

5. The baseline continues until each step of the task analysis has

been completed (either independently/correctly by the person

or by the observer).

6. Thank the person for trying the skill.

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The advantage of using the single opportunity system of baseline data collection is that it is faster

to implement. As soon as the person does not initiate a response or responds incorrectly, the

baseline trial/session is discontinued. A disadvantage of collecting baseline data using the single

opportunity system is that it does not provide information about the person’s true performance.

Even though the person is not able to complete the second step of the task analysis, it does not

mean that he or she cannot independently complete the remaining steps. The person conducting

the baseline data collection would not know this, however, because the baseline would be

discontinued after the person’s first error (i.e., after the second step in this example).

On the flip side, data collection for multiple opportunity baseline takes longer but it also provides

more accurate information about performance. Since the person has the opportunity to complete

every step of the task analysis during continuous baseline, the observer will know exactly which

steps the person is already able to perform prior to instruction.

Collecting Baseline Data on a Task Analysis

During baseline trials, the observer simply records a “+” for each step of the task analysis that

the person completes independently and correctly during baseline. For each step of the task

analysis that the person does not initiate or does not complete it correctly, a “-” is recorded.

Regardless of which whether a continuous or discontinuous is used, several guidelines should be

followed to ensure that baseline data is being collected effectively and reliably.

These include:

• Provide a generic verbal prompt to signal the beginning of the skill/activity (e.g., “It’s

time to X.”)

• Wait at least 3-5 seconds for the person to initiate the response.

• Based on the system being used (discontinuous or continuous), follow the steps outlined

in Tables 22 and 23 to complete baseline data collection. Record a + or – for each step of

the task analysis.

• With the exception of the initial generic verbal prompt at the beginning of the baseline

trial, do not provide any additional prompts. Similarly, no error correction or

reinforcement should be provided as the person progresses through the steps of the task

analysis.

• Complete a minimum of three baseline trials/sessions. This will help to ensure stable

data. If data is still variable after three trials/sessions, additional baseline data must be

collected.

A sample data collection sheet for continuous baseline is shown in Table 24.

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Table 24: Sample Continuous Baseline Data Collection

Learner: Mary Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store, (condition), Mary

(learner) will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior) completing

100% of the steps of the task analysis independently for five

consecutive times (how well and how long criteria for acceptable

performance).

Phase Baseline Instruction

Steps/Trials 1 2 3

10 Leave + + +

9 Get items - + +

8 Pay - - -

7 Count money - - +

6 Go to check

out

- - -

5 Check off

items

- + -

4 Put items in

cart

- - -

3 Find items - - -

2 Get cart + - -

1 Go in store + + -

Total # of

independent/correct

steps (+’s)

% of

independent/correct

steps (# of +’s

divided by # of

steps)

To get a true representation of how many steps of the task analysis that a person can already

complete prior to instruction, baseline trials should be conducted until the data pattern is stable.

This usually occurs after three to five trials. If fewer trials are conducted and baseline is

discontinued prior to the data being stable, it is difficult to determine exactly how many steps

that the person can already complete prior to initiating instructional trials.

Calculating Baseline Data

The total number of steps on which the individual received a “+” is calculated and reported as a

percentage (by dividing the total number of steps that the person completed

independently/correctly by the total number of steps in the task analysis) as shown in Table 25.

For a visual representation, these percentages can be plotted on a line graph (as described in the

Graphing Section of this Module).

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Table 25: Sample Baseline Data Collection

Learner: Mary

Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store (condition), Mary (learner)

will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior) completing 100% of

the steps of the task analysis independently for five consecutive times

(how well and how long criteria for acceptable performance).


Steps/Trials 1 2 3

10 Leave + + +

9 Get items - + +

8 Pay - - -

7 Count money - - +

6 Go to check

out

- - -

5 Check off

items

- + -

4 Put items in

cart

- - -

3 Find items - - -

2 Get cart + - -

1 Go in store + + -

Total # of

independent/correct

steps (+’s)

3 4 3

% of

independent/correct

steps (# of +’s

divided by # of

steps)

30 40 30

Collecting Instructional Data on a Task Analysis

When providing instruction on a new skill, sometimes people with disabilities require extra cues

or assistance from the person providing instruction to elicit a desired response. These are known

as response prompts. Provided in conjunction with natural antecedents (stimuli), response

prompts assist the individual in responding correctly so that errors are eliminated.

While entering the grocery store would prompt most adults who do not have disabilities to

complete the steps of grocery shopping, this may not be the case for people with disabilities.

Sometimes individuals with disabilities need the person who is teaching the new skill to provide

extra prompts or cues to signal the response that is desired. These are known as response

prompts.

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Types of Response Prompts

There are six main types of response prompts as shown in Table 26 .

Table 26: Prompting Hierarchy from Least to Most Intrusive

Prompting Hierarchy Description

Natural Cue/ Independence Learner completes the behavior without a

prompt

Visual Prompt A picture of the step to be completed

Verbal Prompt A spoken cue that tells the person what to do

Gestural Prompt

The use of body language (e.g., point, nod in

the direction of what to do, etc.) that signals

what to do

Modeling

Demonstrating or showing the person what to

do (e.g., “This is how you get a cart. Now you

do it.”)

Partial Physical Prompt

Partially assisting the person to complete the

step (e.g., nudge to elbow, guiding person’s

wrist, etc.)

Full Physical Prompt Fully assisting the person to complete the step

(e.g., hand-over-hand)

In a least-to-most prompting hierarchy, prompts progress from least to most intrusive. At the

beginning of instruction, the teacher provides a generic prompt to begin the task analysis. An

example of a generic prompt to begin grocery shopping would be “It’s time to shop for

groceries.” This prompt, combined with the natural antecedent of the entering the grocery store,

may be enough for the person to go through the steps of the task analysis to shop for groceries.

For some individuals with disabilities, the natural antecedents may not be strong enough to

prompt the individual to initiate the skill of grocery shopping. In such cases, the person

providing instruction would use the following prompts (in order from least to most intrusive) as

shown in Table 27.

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Table 27: Least-to-Most Prompting Hierarchy for Grocery Shopping

Prompt Learner Response Instructor Response

Natural antecedent (entering

the store) and generic prompt

(It’s time to go grocery

shopping)

Learner initiates steps of the

task analysis for grocery

shopping

Instructor delivers skill-

specific reinforcement (e.g.,

“Good job getting a cart.”)

Learner does not initiate the

step or begins to make an

error

Instructor moves to a visual

prompt (e.g., shows the

person a picture of a cart)

Visual Prompt Learner initiates steps of task

analysis


specific reinforcement

Learner does not initiate or

begins to make an error

Instructor moves to a verbal

prompt (“Get a cart”)

Verbal Prompt Learner initiates steps of task

analysis





Instructor moves to a gestural

prompt (Points at cart while

saying, “Get a cart.”)

Gestural Prompt Learner initiates steps of task

analysis





Instructor moves to modeling

Modeling Learner initiates steps of task

analysis





Instructor moves to partial

physical assistance

Partial Physical Assistance Learner initiates steps of task

analysis





Instructor moves to full

physical assistance

Full Physical Assistance Learner initiates steps of task

analysis

Instructor provides skill-

specific and the

reinforcement that is natural

for the skill (items purchased

at grocery store)

The least-to-most intrusive prompting strategy is beneficial because error correction is naturally

built in. When the person does not respond or makes an error, the instructor immediately

provides the next level of prompt in the hierarchy. The intent of the least-to-most intrusive

prompting strategy is to provide opportunities for errorless learning. Because the instructor

interrupts errors or corrects them by providing the next level of prompt in the hierarchy, the

person ultimately completes each step of the task analysis correctly.

105

Recording Response Prompt Data

During instructional phases, the person providing instruction records the prompt level that is

needed to elicit the correct response on each step of the task analysis. A code can be used to

record each prompt level as shown in Table 28.

Table 28: Codes for Instructional Data

Prompt Level Code

Independent/Correct I

Visual V

Verbal VP

Gestural G

Model M

Partial Physical PP

Full Physical FP

A sample of a completed data sheet with instructional prompts recorded is shown in Table 29.

Table 29: Sample Instructional Data Collection

Learner: Mary Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store (condition), Mary

(learner) will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior)

completing 100% of the steps of the task analysis independently

for five consecutive times (how well and how long criteria for



Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6

10 Leave + + + I I I I I I

9 Take items - + + I I I I I I

8 Pay - - - PP PP PP PP PP PP

7 Count money - - + G I I I I I

6 Go to check out - - - I V I I I I

5 Check off items - + - FP FP FP FP FP FP

4 Put items in cart - - - M I V I I I

3 Find items - - - I G I I I I

2 Get cart + - - G I I I I I

1 Go in store + + - V I I I I I

# of independent/correct

steps (# of +’s or I’s)

% of independent/correct

steps (# of +’s or I’s

divided by # of steps)

Using a self-graphing task analysis sheet for both baseline and instruction (as shown in Table

30), the number that corresponds to the number of independent/correct steps that Mary received

for each trial (there will be one circled number for each trial) is circled. For example, Mary

completed 3 out of 10 steps correctly and independently for the first trial of baseline so the third

106

step would be circled for that trial (regardless of whether that step received a + or -). The

percentage of independent/correct steps for each trial is also calculated and recorded at the

bottom of the data sheet. These percentages can be transferred to plots on a line graph for a

visual representation of the data.

Table 30: Sample Self-Graphing Data Sheet with Calculated Data

Learner: Mary Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store (condition), Mary

(learner) will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior)

completing 100% of the steps of the task analysis independently

for five consecutive times (how well and how long criteria for



Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6

10 Leave + + + I I I I I I

9 Take items - + + I I I I I I

8 Pay - - - PP PP PP PP PP PP

7 Count money - - + G I I I I I

6 Go to check out - - - I V I I I I

5 Check off items - + - FP FP FP FP FP FP

4 Put items in cart - - - M I V I I I

3 Find items - - - I G I I I I

2 Get cart + - - G I I I I I

1 Go in store + + - V I I I I I

# of independent/correct

steps (# of +’s or I’s)

3 2 3 4 6 7 8 8 8




30

40

30

40

60

70

80

80

80

Feedback Exercise 13 – Calculating Baseline/Instructional Data

Given the data for baseline and instruction on the data collection form below, calculate and

record the total number of independent/correct steps that the learner completed on each trial. For

each trial, circle the number that represents how many independent/correct steps that the learner

completed for that trial. There will be one number circled/trial. Use that number to calculate the

percentage of independent/correct steps that the learner completed on the task analysis for each

phase of baseline and instruction (number of steps that were completed independently/correctly

divided by the total number of steps). The boxes that you need to fill in on the data sheet below

are highlighted. In the next lesson, you will graph this data as part of Feedback Exercise 16.

107


Learner’s Name: Baseline Instruction

Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

10 Leave - + + I I I I I

9 Say good-bye to coworkers - - - V V V V I

8 Clock out - - - PP PP PP PP PP

7 Take boxes to compactor - - - G G G G G

6 Remove empty boxes - - - G V V V I

5 Stock items - - - M M G V I

4 Get items to stock - - - G I I I I

3 Greet co-workers - - - V V I I I

2 Clock in - - - FP PP PP G G

1 Enter store - + + I I I I I

Total # of independent/correct steps (#

of +’s or I’s)

% of independent/correct steps (total

number of +’s divided by total number

of steps)



Some individuals with disabilities may need to learn new skills. To identify skills for

instruction, a behavior checklist can be used. Once a behavior is targeted, it can be broken

down into smaller steps. This is known as a task analysis. By collecting baseline on each step

of the task analysis, the observer can determine how many steps the learner can independently

and correctly complete prior to instruction. Using response prompts as part of a systematic

program that also includes error correction and reinforcement, task analytic instruction is an

effective strategy for teaching new skills. Data on the steps of the task analysis can be

collected, converted into percentages, and graphed to provide a visual representation of the

learner’s performance.

108

Unit IV

Lesson 1: Graphing Behavior Measurement Data

• Trainee will state required components of a line graph.

• Given data collected from a variety of measurement strategies, trainee will correctly graph

data.

• Trainee will describe data patterns and instructional modifications.

Introduction to Graphing

In the previous lessons you learned several methods for observing and recording behavior.

The next step is to learn how to show the results of these measurement procedures by using

graphs. Graphing the results of your measurement procedures usually provides a better picture

of what the person is doing. Following a brief review of graphing, several examples of

graphed behavioral data (based on a variety of data collection approaches) are provided.

Graphing Baseline and Instructional Data

Information on a data sheet provides important details about performance during baseline and

instructional trials (e.g., steps performed independently and correctly or missed on a task

analysis). If data are left in raw form, however, the usefulness of the data is limited. It is difficult

to analyze information from a data sheet alone, especially if data have been collected for several

weeks. Data can be most effectively interpreted and analyzed when they are graphed (Snell,

2011). If data is graphed soon after the baseline or instructional session, the person who is

collecting the data will have immediate feedback about the learner’s performance rather than

waiting and missing opportunities to make modifications if needed. Graphs provide a visual

means for detecting trends in a person’s progress and lead to more effective program decisions.

When trends are positive, graphs can be very reinforcing to the learner and the person providing

instruction because they are a source of ongoing feedback. Although some disability support

professionals may feel intimidated by graphs, they usually discover that graphs are actually

simple to create and easy to read.

Graphs provide a way for baseline and instructional data to be presented in a way that can be

easily visualized and interpreted. Line graphs are the most common way to present data and have

four main purposes. They allow whomever is providing instruction to organize data, complete

formative and summative evaluations, make data-based decisions, and to share progress with

others.

Line Graphs

As one of the most common way to display data, line graphs allow for ongoing monitoring of

learner progress and evaluation of the effectiveness of instruction. Data can be plotted using

graph paper or a commercial computer program.

109

Components of Line Graphs

Line graphs include an X (horizontal) axis and a Y (vertical) axis. Each data point on a graph

represents progress on the target behavior or skill during a specific time period.

The X axis (shown in Figure 1) is the measure of time during which instruction was provided. It

can be labeled by date, session, observation period, or trial.

Figure 1: Sample X Axis of a Line Graph

The Y axis (presented in Figure 2) is the measure of learner performance on the target behavior.

It should be labeled based on the measure on which data was collected (e.g., % of

independent/correct steps, frequency, duration, etc.)

Figure 2: Sample Y Axis of a Line Graph

110

Figure 3 shows the data points that were plotted at the intersection of the X and Y axes.

Figure 3: Sample Data Points at Intersection of X and Y Axes

Phase Change Lines

Phase Change Lines

Phase Change Lines

A title should be included at the top of the graph that specifies the skill and name of the learner.

Labels for the phase represented by the data (i.e. baseline or instruction) should also be included

at the top of the graph.

To indicate whether the learner is in the baseline or instructional stage of learning, phase change

lines are used. By drawing a vertical line between phases of data points in the graph, the stage of

learning is readily apparent. Phase change lines are also used to indicate when instructional

revisions are made and/or adaptations/accommodations are added.

Graphs for Data Collected Using a Variety of Measurement Systems

This section provides examples of graphs for data that was collected using a variety of recording

methods.

Graphing Frequency Data

When Mary is frustrated at work, she frequently yells at her job coach or supervisor. To address

this behavior, Mary and her team developed a positive behavior support plan. Before initiating

their plan, they measured the frequency of her yelling behavior for five days using a simple

frequency record. Once they determined that the baseline data was stable, they introduced their

intervention plan and continued collecting data. The form in Table 31 shows their recording from

the five-day pre-training period (baseline) and the first five days of the program (intervention).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0 1 2 3 4 5

Freq

uen

cy

Trials

111

Table 31: Frequency Data for Yelling

Date Frequency of Target Behavior (Baseline) Frequency

5/17 Yelling 10

//// ////

5/18 Yelling 8

//// ///

5/19 Yelling 9

//// ////

5/20 Yelling 10

//// ////

5/21 Yelling 10

//// ////

Date Frequency of Target Behavior (Intervention) Frequency

5/24 Yelling 8

//// ///

5/25 Yelling 7

//// //

5/26 Yelling 7

//// //

5/27 Yelling 5

////

5/28 Yelling 5

////

If Mary’s team was interested in whether the intervention that the implemented was effective in

decreasing the frequency of Mary’s yelling, they could look at the total column on the right of

the data sheet. It does look as though the total number of yelling incidents per day is decreasing

during the training program. These results can also be portrayed as a graph to more clearly show

the results of the intervention and to share progress with others. In this example, data should also

be collected on the frequency of the replacement behavior that was targeted for Mary (i.e., using

words or gestures to request assistance rather than yelling).

A sample line graph showing Mary’s frequency data is shown in Figure 4.

112

Figure 4: Sample Frequency Graph for Yelling Behavior at Work

Each of the baseline and intervention trials is plotted on the graph. The first five data points on

the graph (to the left of the phase change line and under the label “Baseline”) represent the daily

totals that were recorded during the baseline phase. The last five data points (to the right of the

phase change line and under the label “Intervention” show the daily totals that were recorded

during the training program. It is important to note that the length of the trials should be

consistent when recording data. If they are not the same length of time, the frequency data would

need to be reported as rate.

A quick glance at the graph clearly shows that the frequency of Mary’s yelling episodes was

decreasing over the first five days of the intervention plan being implemented. Because this

challenging behavior is steadily decreasing, the plan seems to be effective and should be

continued until the number of Mary’s yelling episodes reaches the criteria specified in her


113

Graphing Duration Data

In addition to frequency data, sometimes a person’s support team also needs information about

how long a target behavior is occurring (i.e., duration). When graphing duration data, a bar graph

is usually the best choice for showing a measure of time (rather than plotting individual data

points). Using the information from the data collection form below (Table 32), two days of

baseline duration data are shown on Figure 5.

Table 32: Duration Data for Stuffing Envelopes at Work


Observation

Time when

behavior begins

Time when

behavior stops

Duration of

behavior

Comments

5/17 Stuffing

Envelopes

9-11am

9:11am 9:24am 13 minutes Yelling behavior

started after cue

to start working

10:03am 10:18am 17 minutes Yelling started

during transition

back to work after

bathroom break


Duration

Average Duration


5/18 Stuffing

Envelopes

9-11am


started after cue

to start working


started after timer

went off to signal

returning to work

after bathroom

break


Duration

Average Duration


114

Figure 5: Sample Duration Graph for Yelling Behavior While

Stuffing Envelopes at Work

For this graph, the total number of minutes that the yelling behavior occurred during two

observation periods (two hours each) is shown. In this example, the length of the observation

periods was the same. If the length of the observation periods had varied, the data would need to

be reported as rate. Because this is baseline data, the observer would need to collect data during

at least one more observation period before implementing the behavior support plan for Mary.

115

Graphing Behavioral Checklist Data

The following behavioral checklist (Table 33) shows data for four grooming tasks.

Table 33: Behavioral Checklist for Four Grooming Tasks Date Dressing Combing

Hair

Bathing Brushing

Teeth Totals

+ - / %

6/10 + + - + 3 1 0 75%

6/11 + + + - 3 1 0 75%

6/12 + - - + 2 2 0 50%

6/13 + / - + 2 1 1 66%

6/14 + + + + 4 0 0 100%

Totals

+ 5 3 2 4

- 0 1 3 1

/ 0 1 0 0

% 100% 75% 40% 80%

Data from checklists can be graphed in two basic ways. If the person’s support team is concerned

with the person’s daily success in completing the target behaviors, the percentages in the far-

right column of the checklist would be graphed as shown in Figure 6.

116

Figure 6: Sample Behavioral Checklist Graph for Four Grooming Tasks

If the person’s support team is more interested in displaying the person’s success over time in

completing a specific behavior from the checklist (e.g., bathing because this is the grooming task

that the person completes the least), the percentage for bathing in the bottom row of the checklist

would be graphed (as shown in Figure 7). If the person’s behavior was recorded during

subsequent weeks, each weekly percentage for bathing would be added to the graph.

117

Figure 7: Sample Behavioral Checklist Graph for Bathing

In Feedback Exercise 14, you will have the opportunity to calculate and graph data from a

behavior checklist for completion of household chores.


Use the information below to add the total number of + and – (as well as /) on Kate’s behavior

checklist for household chores. The boxes that you need to fill in are highlighted. Using the

numbers in the boxes that you filled in, calculate Kate’s percentage of task completion by date

and chore for three trials of baseline and five trials of instruction. Using the blank graph in

Appendix I, graph the percentages for baseline and instructional trials (by dates). After

comparing your graph with the answer key, you can refer back to the lesson to correct any

errors.

118

Date of

Baseline

Making

Bed

Cleaning

Room

Washing

Dinner

Dishes

Totals

+ - / %

6/10 - - -

6/11 - - +

6/12 + - -

Totals

+

-

/

%

Date 0f

Instruction

Making

Bed

Cleaning

Room

Washing

Dinner

Dishes

Totals

+ - / %

6/13 - - +

6/15 + / +

6/15 + + +

6/16 + / +

6/17 + + +

Totals

+

-

/

%


Graphing Interval Data

The data collection form in Table 34 shows one observational session for whole interval data that

was collected on a person’s on-task behavior (e.g., which was defined as working on his assigned

task). The observation period was broken down into 10-minute increments. The observer

recorded whether the person was on-task for the entire 10-minute interval. If the learner was on-

task during the whole interval, a plus (+) was recorded. For intervals during which the person

was not on task the entire time, a minus (-) was recorded. The person was on task for 12/19

intervals which translates into 63 percent. The observer would need to collect data during

additional observation sessions in order to analyze the person’s patterns of on-task behavior.

119

Table 34: Interval Data for On-Task Behavior


8:00-

8:09

+ 10:00-

10:09



8:10-

8:29

+ 10:10-

10:29



8:30-

8:39

+ 10:30-

10:39

+

8:40-

8:49

+ 10:40-

10:49

+

8:50-

8:59

- Was off-task waiting for

bathroom break

10:50-

10:59

+

9:00-

9:09

NA Bathroom break 11:00-

11:09

+

9:10-

9:29

+ 11:10-

11:29

+

9:30-

9:39

+ 11:30-

11:39

- Complaining about

being hungry

9:40-

9:49

+ 11:40-

11:49

- Complaining about

being hungry

9:50-

9:59

- Distracted by loud noise 11:50-

11:59

- Complaining about

being hungry

Total number of intervals in which a + was recorded 12

Total number of intervals 19

% of intervals in which the behavior occurred 63%

A graph of this interval data is provided in Figure 8.

120

Figure 8: Interval Data for On-Task Behavior

While the data collection form above only records data from one observational session as an

example, the graph reflects several data points. By reviewing the graph, it is apparent that the

person’s baseline data is quite stable. In order to increase the person’s on-task behavior during

his work sessions, the support team could develop an interventional support plan.


Use the partial interval data collection form below to add the frequencies, calculate the

percentages, and construct a graph which shows the percent of time that Gus was observed

interacting with others (as defined by his support team as greeting another person, asking a

question, answering a question, or talking to someone). Complete this exercise without

referring back to the lesson. Use this blank graph in Appendix I to complete this exercise.

121

Date Observation Periods - Baseline Total %

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6/10 + - - - - + + - - -

6/11 - + + + - - - - - -

6/12 - - - - + - - + - +

Date Observation Periods - Instruction Total %

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6/13 - + + + + + - - - -

6/14 - - + + + + + + + _-

6/15 + + + + - + + + + +

See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 15 at the end of the Module. After comparing your

graph with the one at the end of the module, you can refer back to the lesson to correct any

errors.

Graphing Task Analysis Data

Using the information from Mary’s baseline and instructional data sheet (i.e. the percentage of

task analysis steps that the person completed independently/correctly) the data points are plotted

on a line graph that includes the required labels so that the learner’s progress can be easily

visualized

A sample line graph for Mary’s grocery shopping data is shown in Figure 9 on the next page.

Please note that this is a continuation of the baseline data graph that was presented in Table 25

with instructional data added.

122

Figure 9: Sample Grocery Shopping Graph

123

Feedback Exercise 16 – Graphing Baseline and Instructional Data

Part A

Complete the data sheet below for Michael who is working at a grocery store. Enter the

information in each of the highlighted boxes for baseline and instructional data (i.e. total

number of +’s and percentages). For each trial, circle the number that corresponds to the

number of independent/correct steps that the person performed. Add a phase change line.

Learner’s Name: Michael Baseline Instruction

Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5












of +’s or I’s)



of steps)

Part B

Using the percentages that you recorded on the data collection form, use a copy of the blank

graph (in Appendix I) to plot Michael’s data points. Please make sure that you label all of the

components of the graph correctly (i.e. axes, percentages and trial numbers, phases, and title).

Add a phase change line and connect the data points within each phase.

See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 16 A and B at the end of the Module.

Data-Based Decision Making

In all of the examples provided in Lesson 1 of Unit IV, the person for whom data was being

collected was making steady progress toward meeting his or her behavioral objectives. As we

all know, however, this is not always the case. Some individuals with disabilities have varying

levels of success related to the behavioral objectives on which they are working. A variety of

possible data patterns are shown below with guidelines for making instructional modifications

as needed.

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Data Patterns

After a person’s progress has been summarized on a graph, the data pattern can be analyzed so

that data-based decisions can be made. Data-based decisions are designed to help an individual’s

support team to understand what the data actually says and to support decisions about what to do

next.

There are several possible data patterns that a person’s support team must analyze so that data-

based decisions can be made. Each of these data patterns are represented in the graphs below. A

description of each data pattern as well as its corresponding data-based decision is also provided.

1. Mastery: When a person reaches the criterion set in the learning objective, it is said that he or

she has mastered the skill/activity. Figure 10 illustrates a person who has mastered the

skill/activity because the last three data points are at the mastery level established in the

learning objective (100% independent/correct for three consecutive sessions).

Figure 10: Mastery Data Pattern

Data-Based Decision for Mastery: When the individual masters the learning objective, a new

learning objective should be written. The mastered objective would switch to the maintenance

phase of learning.

2. Steady Progress: The person is making sufficient progress when the data is above the

baseline and is improving. The individual is making steady progress by increasing the number

of independent/correct responses over the course of the review timeframe. While the person is

not yet at the mastery level, the trend is accelerating steadily, and progress is adequate (as

shown in Figure 11).

125

Figure 11: Steady Progress Data Pattern

Data-Based Decision for Steady Progress: When the person is making steady progress,

instruction should continue in the same way that it has been previously implemented. The

individual is on their way to mastering the learning objective.

3. Slow Progress: The person is making slow progress as he or she is only making a few

independent/correct responses in spite of several weeks of instruction. While the trend of the

progress line is moving, it is not in a consistently upward direction for reaching mastery (as

shown in Figure 12).

Figure 12: Slow Progress Data Pattern

Data-Based Decision for Slow Progress: Nonspecific prompts (e.g., “What do you do first?” or

“What’s next?”) should be used. Prompts should be faded eventually. Because some people may

126

need longer time to respond without help, a longer time delay between prompts may be

necessary. Assistive technology could be introduced for steps that are difficult for the person.

Only independent/correct responses should be reinforced.

4. Variable Progress: When the person’s progress is variable, his or her performance data is up

and down (as shown in Figure 13). The individual can make independent/correct responses

some days but not others.

Figure 13: Variable Progress Data Pattern

Data-Based Decision for Variable Progress: If a person’s progress is variable, an overall change

in health, medications, or behavior must be ruled out first. If these are not factors, it is important

to improve the individual’s motivation (reinforcement) for doing his/her best each time. Only

independent/correct responses should be reinforced. The type of reinforcement that is being used

should be varied so that satiation does not occur and to ensure that reinforcers remain powerful.

Also, the schedule of reinforcement should be changed periodically so that the person will want

to do his or her best all of the time (since he or she does not know when the reinforcer will be

delivered). Using natural consequences (e.g., allowing the person to work alongside a favorite

co-worker), the use of media or technology, or allowing the individual to chart his or her own

progress are also effective strategies for variable performance.

5. No Progress: When no progress has been made, data remains very similar to baseline results

despite ongoing instruction (Figure 14). The person’s performance shows little or no

improvement during instruction (compared to baseline).

127

Figure 14: No Progress Data Pattern

Data-Based Decisions for No Progress: When little or no progress is being made, it usually

means that the skill/activity is too hard. Responses need to be simplified (i.e. broken down into

smaller components in the task analysis) into more discrete steps. Assistive technology can also

be used to promote opportunities for more consistent responses.

Occasionally, there may be some instances when you would not apply data-based decisions. For

example, if the person demonstrates a lack of progress that is not related to instruction such as

the regression of performance across all skills, there may be medical or behavioral interventions

that are necessary before data can be collected on skill performance. Another instance in which it

would be erroneous to apply data-based decisions is when data collection is inconsistent such as

when the criteria within the data collection system is not clear to instructors, there are too few

data collection sessions, or there is too long of a time period between data collection sessions.

Practice Exercise

Read each statement about data patterns on the left side. Match the correct data pattern

with the corresponding statement of learner performance (from the list on the right).

_____1. Data points are variable. a. Learner has mastered the skill.

_____2. Data points have reached criteria. b. Learner is making no progress.

_____3. Data points are flat. c. Learner is making steady progress

_____4. Data points are all at zero. d. Learner is stalled.

_____5. Data points are accelerating e. Learner is no longer motivated;

reinforcement is no longer effective

128

Answer Key

1-e, 2-a, 3-d, 4-b, 5-c


Review each of the data collection forms and graphs that are presented below. After you analyze

the data patterns that are represented in each graph, you will answer a series of questions related

to the learner’s progress. In this feedback exercise, you will also have the opportunity to apply

data rules to determine if instructional modifications are necessary.

Part A

Student Name: Baseline Instruction

Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6

20 Leave store + + + I I I I I I 19 Put cart away - + - V V I I I I 18 Get bagged items + + + I I I I I I 17 Say “thank you” - - - M V I I I I 16 Put money away + + + I I I I I I 15 Pay for items - - - G I I I I I 14 Count money - - - V V I I I I 13 Unload cart + + + I I I I I I 12 Go to check out - - - G I I I I I 11 Check off item - - - PP PP G I I I 10 Put item in cart + + + I I I I I I 9 Locate 3rd item - - - G G G I I I 8 Check off item - - - PP V I I I I 7 Put item in cart + + + I I I I I I 6 Locate 2nd item - - - V I I I I I 5 Check off item + + + I I I I I I 4 Put item in cart + + + I I I I I I 3 Locate 1st item - - - G G V I I I 2 Get cart + + + I I I I I I 1 Go in store + + + I I I I I I

Total # of +’s 10 11 10 10 13 17 20 20 20




50

55

50

50

65

85

100

100

100

129

1. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?

2. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support the

learner’s progress?

Part B


Trials/Date 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6

5 Leave + + + I I I I I I 4 Pay - - - FP FP FP FP FP FP 3 Go to check out - - - I I I I I I 2 Find items on list - - - G G G G G G 1 Get Cart + + + I I I I I I

Total # of +’s 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3




40

40

40

60

60

60

60

60

60

130




Part C


Trials/Date 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6

10 Leave + + + V I V I I I 9 Get items - + + G G I G I G 8 Pay - - - PP PP PP PP PP PP 7 Count money - - + G I I G G G 6 Go to check out - - - I V I I V V 5 Check off items - + - FP FP FP FP FP FP 4 Put items in cart - - - M I V I V I 3 Find items - - - I I I V V G 2 Get cart + - - G I G I G G 1 Go in store + + - V I G I V I

Total # of +’s 3 4 3 2 6 4 5 2 3




30

40

30

20

60

40

50

20

30

131




See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 17 A, B, and C at the end of the Module.

Making a Plan

Understanding what the data represents related to performance and carefully considering the

person’s needs and preferences allow the person who is teaching the skill to plan for the next

instructional sequence. Based on the patterns described above, this instructional plan will be

guided by data-based decisions and team input. A phase-change line on the learner’s graph will

indicate modifications to the instructional plan.

Referring back to Mary’s grocery shopping skill, it is apparent from the data that two of the task

analysis steps (i.e., checking items off of her list and paying) are difficult for Mary. To support

Mary in completing these steps, her team would need to meet to identify an adaptation that Mary

could use for checking items off and paying. Once these adaptations were introduced, a phase

change line would be added to her graph to show that there was a modification to the instruction

and the new phase would be labeled Instruction 2 (as shown in Figure 15). As a result of these

modifications, hopefully Mary would be able to complete these steps without partial or full

physical assistance.

132

Figure 15: Sample Graph with Instruction 2 Labeled


Measures of behavior can be graphed to provide a visual representation of a learner’s

performance. Line graphs are the most common way to portray data and include several

required components. Once a learner’s performance data is graphed, it can be analyzed for a

variety of patterns (i.e. mastery, steady progress, slow progress, or no progress) and

appropriate modifications to the instruction that is being provided can be made in response to

the person’s progress.

133

References

Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2017). Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers. Boston: Pearson.

National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder

http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/evidence-based-practices

Snell, M. & Brown, F. (2016). Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities. Boston: Pearson.

134

Answer Keys for Feedback Exercises

Feedback Exercise 1

D 1. Jenn stays in her room during her spare time.

E 2. Jenn is withdrawn

E 3. Sam is untidy.

D 4. Sam throws his clothes on the floor by his bed every night

D 5. Joe frequently smiles.

E 6. Joe is happy.

D 7. Holly always says “please” and “thank you.”

E 8. Holly is a well-mannered person.

D 9. Mary does not speak.

E 10. Mary is shy.

Feedback Exercise 2

E 1. William is lazy.

D 2. Lee arrives at work 10 minutes early each day.

D 3. Josie can read all of the words on her grocery list.

E 4. Kayla is very dependent on others.

E 5. Tyler is well-adjusted.

D 6. Samantha can tie her shoes without help.

E 7. Nick acts silly when he’s with other teenagers.

D 8. Alexandra always finishes her work assignments.

E 9. Ingrid has poor self-care skills.

D 10. John always says “thank you” after he receives his order at the restaurant.

135

Feedback Exercise 3

1. Jon is aggressive toward others

Jon hits and kicks others.

Jon sticks his foot out and trips people who pass him in the hall.

Jon shouts and swears at his roommate each morning.

Jon shakes his fist at others when they annoy him.

2. Faith is a productive employee.

Faith always arrives on time for work.

Faith works faster than 90% of her co-workers.

Faith always finishes her assigned work tasks.

Faith checks her work for errors before leaving.

3. Hannah communicates poorly.

Hannah cannot speak clearly.

Hannah talks too fast.

Hannah can say only a few words.

Hannah frequently stutters.

Hannah never answers emails.

Hannah often uses words that are unfamiliar to others.

4. Dominic was unhappy this morning.

Dominic did not smile at breakfast.

Dominic cried twice before going to work.

Dominic was frowning every time I saw him this morning.

Dominic closed his eyes and leaned his head on his hand at the breakfast table

136

5. Liz is a very well- adjusted person.

Liz never gets into fights.

Liz works without complaining.

Liz ne received the “Miss Congeniality” award.

Liz uses her coping strategies (taking a few minutes alone to regroup) when she is upset

Feedback Exercise 4

B 1. Will pay for her items

L 2. The employee at the grocery store

C 3. Using her assistive communication device

C 4. Following a demonstration of how to drain pasta

CR 5. Without an error

CR 6. With 95 percent accuracy

B 7. Will set the oven temperature

L 8. Mary

C 9. During a two-hour work shift

C 10. With partial physical assistance

B 11. Will signal to get off the bus at the correct stop

CR 12. For five consecutive sessions

B 13. Will stuff 25 envelopes

C 14. In the kitchen

CR 15. For 10 minutes

C 16. When arriving at work

CR 17. With 80% independence on the task analysis

L 18. Sara

C 19. Given four possible dinner choices

C 20. Without assistance

137

Feedback Exercise 5

1. Mary will recognize her stop for getting off the bus.

2. Mary will not have an emotional outburst.

3. Mary will understand how to use the Internet to find a recipe.

X 4. Mary will swim 10 laps at the YMCA

X 5. Mary will pay the correct amount for her groceries.

6. Mary will appreciate how to cook a three-course meal.

7. Mary will be aware of the weather.

X 8. Mary will use her communication device to order at a restaurant.

9. Mary will behave herself.

X 10. Mary will put her dirty lunch dishes in the dishwasher.

Feedback Exercise 6

1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct spots of the


2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six consecutive

weeks.


a. correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.

4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting all four

corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five consecutive trials.

Feedback Exercise 7

1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct spots of the


Cr-1: in the correct spots of the silverware tray

Cr-2: in 9 out of 10 trials

138

2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six consecutive weeks.

Cr-1: every third day

Cr-2: for six consecutive weeks



Cr-1: to the correct setting, on the first try

Cr-2: on five consecutive days



trials.

Cr-1: fitting all four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress

Cr-2: for five consecutive trials

Feedback Exercise 8

1. Mary will staple five stacks of papers, using an electric stapler, during the first 15 minutes of

her work shift for 10 consecutive trials.

Condition(s): using an electric stapler

Behavior: staple five stacks of paper

Cr-1: during the first 15 minutes of her work shift

Cr-2: for 10 consecutive trials

2. Given a cell phone with pre-programmed phone numbers, Mary will find the telephone

number for her employer, within three minutes of being asked in five consecutive tests.

Condition(s): given a cell phone with pre-programmed phone numbers

Behavior: find the telephone number

Cr-1: for her employer, within three minutes

Cr-2: in five consecutive tests

139

3. Before dinner, Mary will set the table with plates, cups, and silverware in the proper spots

within five seconds of being asked, 8 out of 10 times.

Condition(s): Before dinner

Behavior: set the table

Cr-1: with plates, cups, and silverware, in the proper spots, within five seconds of being

asked

Cr-2: 8 out of 10 times

4. When shown 5 articles of clothing including three that are appropriate for cold weather,

Mary will point to all three of the winter clothing items within 30 seconds of being asked in

four out of five trials.

Condition(s): when shown 5 articles of clothing

Behavior: point to

Cr-1: all three of the winter clothing items, within 30 seconds of being asked

Cr-2: four out of five trials

5. In the morning, Mary will brush her teeth on the top and bottom fronts and sides

for 60 seconds for 14 consecutive mornings.

Condition(s): in the morning

Behavior: brush her teeth

Cr-1: on the top and bottom fronts and sides, for 60 seconds

Cr-2: 14 consecutive mornings

6. At the end of each work shift, Mary will give her completed work to her supervisor

for five consecutive working days without being told.

Condition(s): at the end of each work shift

Behavior: give

Cr-1: completed work, without being told

Cr-2: five consecutive working days

140

Feedback Exercise 9

1. While eating, Tom will use silverware, for foods which should not be eaten with fingers, for

12 consecutive meals.

Condition(s): while eating

Behavior: will use silverware – OK

Cr-1: for foods which should not be eaten with fingers – see below

Cr-2: for 12 consecutive meals – OK

The part one criterion, “for foods which should not be eaten with fingers, “does not really

specify how well Tom is expected to use silverware for this purpose. Is it okay if he spills?

What if he misses his mouth? Does it matter if he doesn’t cut his food into bite-sized chunks?

These may seem like silly or extreme examples. However, if Tom is not very adept with

silverware, there will almost certainly be some spilling of food. How much leeway does Tom

get? If there is a shared definition for proper use of silverware, then the part one criterion

could be improved by adding “properly” to it. Otherwise, a criterion needs to be set that

would give the limits on the kind and number of mistakes Tom can make and still meet the

criterion.

2. Linda will hang up her coat every day when she returns from work for 10 working days in a

row.

Condition(s): when she returns from work – OK

Behavior: will hang up her coat – OK

Cr-1: every day – see below

Cr-2: 10 working days in a row – OK

The part one criterion is insufficient. As we pointed out, regularity is not good as the only

criterion. It does not indicate a measurement for the performance of the actual behavior. The

way it is stated, Linda could hang up her coat sloppily, and she would still meet the criterion.

She could also hang it anywhere she pleases. An additional statement or two is needed. If

Linda learned a particular way to hang up her coat through an earlier teaching program, and

everyone agrees on how it should look when properly hung up, then the word “correctly” or

“properly” could just be added. Otherwise, the important requirements of proper coat

hanging would need to be specified.

141

3. When asked to do so, Lucas will put on his pullover shirt within six seconds for six

consecutive trials.

Condition(s): when asked to do so, pullover shirt – OK

Behavior: will put on his shirt – OK

Cr-1: within six seconds – see below

Cr-2: for six consecutive trials – OK

Again, the part one criterion does not give a standard for the actual behavior other than the

time he takes to put on the shirt. This objective would allow Lucas to put the shirt on wrong

side out and backward, and still meet the criteria of the objective. It would be better to also

specify “right side out and front ward” as part of the Cr-1.

4. Brynn will wash and peel the carrots for the vegetable snack bowl every Thursday afternoon

for three consecutive weeks.

Condition(s): none

Behavior: will wash and scrape the carrots for the vegetable snack bowl – OK

Cr-1: every Thursday afternoon – see below

Cr-2: for three consecutive weeks- OK

Once again, the part one criterion is not appropriate. Brynn can do the job as well or as

poorly as she pleases, as long as she does it every Thursday afternoon, according to this

objective. She may also take the entire afternoon, if she wants to. More details are needed.

5. Jack will enjoy his food without being messy at the majority of his meals.

Condition(s): none

Behavior: will enjoy his food – Not acceptable. This is not an observable measurable

behavior.

Cr-1: without being messy – Not acceptable. What is meant by “messy”? It is evaluative,

not descriptive.

Cr-2: at the majority of his meals – Not acceptable. How many meals is the “majority”

Two out of three? Six out of ten? Fifty-one out of a hundred?

You probably recognized that everything is wrong with this behavioral objective. It is

impossible to measure the inner state of enjoyment. “Without being messy” can be

142

interpreted differently by different people. What is messy to one person may be acceptable to

another. The part two criterion does not specify a cut-off point at which the observer can stop

measuring and say that the objective has been achieved.

Feedback Exercise 10 Part A

1. The target behavior was asking unnecessary questions.

2. The observer collected data on the target behavior for four days.

3. Gary asked the most unnecessary questions on May 20th.

4. Gary asked the least unnecessary questions on May 19.

Feedback Exercise 10 Part B

Name: David Dates: 5/1 to 5/10

Observer: (Your Name)

Behavior Recorded: Hitting other people

143


Activity/

Start & End

Time


Req

ues

t/P

rom

pt

Bei

ng I

gnore

d

Tra

nsi

tion

Har

d T

ask

Oth

er

Hit

ting

Kic

kin

g

Scr

eam

ing

Runs

away

Oth

er

Att

enti

on

Tim

e out

Get

s out

of

task

Tea

cher

/aid

e y

ells

Oth

er

# o

f i

nci

den

ts o

f

chal

lengin

g

beh

avio

rs b

y

acti

vit

y

Arrival at

Campus

8:00 – 8:05

1

2

3

1

2

1

2

3 1

2

3

3

Independent

Living

8:05-9:00

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

4

5

6

3

Bathroom

Break/Snack

9:00-9:30

7 7 7 7 1

Job

9:30-11:30

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

10

11

12

8

10

11

12

9 5

Lunch

11:30-12:00

0

Total # of

incidents

per category

8 0 8 9 0 2 0 3 9 0 0 0 7 5 1


1. What is the most frequent antecedent(s) for this learner’s challenging behavior(s)?

A hard task

2. What is the most frequent challenging behavior(s) that this learner exhibits?

Running away

3. What is the most frequent consequence(s) for this learner’s challenging behaviors?

The learner gets out of the task

144

4. Based on the data, what do you believe is the function/purpose that the challenging

behavior(s) is serving for this learner?

Escape/Avoidance of a difficult task

5. What is one antecedent intervention that you could implement to support this learner?

Breaking down the difficult task (the school job) into smaller steps so that it’s not so

overwhelming for the learner.

6. What is one consequence intervention that you could implement to support this learner?

The consequence intervention must always include a replacement behavior that serves the

same function as the challenging behavior.

Reinforcing the learner after small increments when he completes his school job without

trying to run away and teaching the student a more appropriate way to request a break

instead of running away.


1. List the four behaviors that were observed and recorded.

Dressing

Combing hair

Bathing

Brushing teeth

2. Who was the observer? Tessa O.

3. Did Alexis bathe on 6/10?

No - The minus (-) in the box indicates that she did not bathe.

4. Did Alexis brush her teeth on 6/12?

Yes – The plus (+) in the box indicates that she did brush her teeth.

5. On which day did Alexis complete the most grooming tasks?

6/14 – On 6/14, Alexis completed all four grooming tasks.

6. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete most often?

Dressing – Alexis completed dressing on all five days for which data were collected.

7. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete least often?

Bathing – Alexis only bathed on two of the five days.

8. On 6/13, a slash mark (/) is recorded for brushed teeth. What does this mean?

145

The slash indicates that there was no opportunity for Alexis to brush her teeth for

whatever reason (e.g., lost tooth brush, didn’t have enough time, refused, etc.).

9. On which task did Alexis score 100%?

Dressing – Alexis dressed herself on all five of the days.

10. On what day did Alexis score 50% for tasks completed?

6/12 – Alexis completed only two of the four tasks.


Date Bed

Making

Dressing Arriving

at

Breakfast

Totals

+ - / %

8/4 + + + 3 0 0 100%

8/5 - - + 1 2 - 33%

8/6 + + - 2 1 0 67%

Totals

+ 2 2 2

- 1 1 1

/ 0 0 0

% 67% 67% 67%

146

Answer Key for Feedback Exercise 13


Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5












of +’s or I’s)

0 2 2 2 3 4 4 7



of steps)

0

20%

20%

20%

30%

40%

40%

70%

147


Date of

Baseline

Making

Bed

Cleaning

Room

Washing

Dinner

Dishes

Totals

+ - / %

6/10 - - - 0 3 0 0%

6/11 - - + 1 2 0 33%

6/12 + - - 1 2 0 33%

Totals

+ 1 - 1

- 0 - -

/ 0 - -

% 33% 0% 33%

Date of

Instruction

Making

Bed

Cleaning

Room

Washing

Dinner

Dishes

Totals

+ - / %

6/13 - - + 1 2 0 33%

6/15 + / + 1 1 1 50%

6/15 + + + 3 0 0 100%

6/16 + / + 2 0 1 100%

6/17 + + + 3 0 0 100%

Totals

+ 4 2 5

- 1 1 0

/ 0 2 0

% 80% 67% 100%

148


Date Observation Periods - Baseline Total %

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6/10 + - - - - + + - - - 3 30

6/11 - + + + - - - - - - 3 30

6/12 - - - - + - - + - + 3 30

Date Observation Periods - Instruction Total %

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6/13 - + + + + + - - - - 5 50

6/14 - - + + + + + + + _- 7 70

6/15 + + + + - + + + + + 9 90

150

Feedback Exercise 16 Part A and B


Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5












of +’s or I’s)

0 2 2 2 3 4 4 7



of steps)

0

20%

20%

20%

30%

40%

40%

70%

151


Part A


Mastery



Implement strategies for maintenance and generalization. Introduce a new objective.



No progress; data is very similar to baseline trials

4. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support

the learner’s progress?

Task may be too difficult. Break down steps even smaller responses.

Feedback Exercise 17 Part C


Variable



Check extenuating circumstances (e.g., health status, medication change, challenging

behaviors, change in family situation, fatigue, hunger, etc.). If none of these factors are

influencing the learner’s performance, it is important to strengthen the reinforcement that is

being delivered so that it motivates the learner to do his/her best every time.

152

Appendices:

A – Event/Frequency Data Recording Data Collection Form

B – Duration Data Collection Form

C – Latency Data Collection Form

D – Interval Recording Data Collection Form

E – Continuous Recording Data Collection Form

F – Scatter Plot Data Collection Form

G – Behavior Checklist Data Collection Form

H – Task Analysis Data Collection Form

I – Blank Graph

153

Appendix A: Sample Event/Frequency Recording Data Collection Form

Person’s Name: ___________________________ Observer’s Name: _________________

Target Behavior(s): ________________________

Steps for Collecting Frequency Data

9) Record the name of the person and observer

10) Record the target behavior

11) Indicate the date, activity, and time when the observation begins.

12) Make a tally each time the person exhibits the target behavior.

13) Note the time when the observation ends.

14) Record the length of the observation.

15) Calculate the rate of the target behavior by adding the total number of times the target

behavior occurred and dividing by the length of the observation.

Date Activity/Time Tally of Times Target

Behavior Occurred

Length of

Observation

Frequency Rate

154

Date Comments

155

Appendix B: Sample Duration Data Collection Form

Person’s Name: Observer’s Name:

Target Behavior:


Observation

Time when

behavior begins

Time when

behavior stops

Duration of

behavior

Comments


Duration

Average Duration


Duration

Average Duration

156

Appendix C: Sample Latency Data Collection Form

Person’s Name: ____________________ Observer’s Name: ____________________

Activity/Time: _____________________ Date: ____________________

Total Observation Time: ________________

Trial Time when

prompt was given

Time when the prompted

behavior began

Amount of time that lapsed

before the prompted

behavior began

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Comments;

157

Appendix D: Sample Interval Recording Data Collection Form

Person’s Name: Observer’s Name:

Activity/Time: Date:

Target Behavior: Type of Interval Recording:

Instructions for Interval Recording

Momentary Time Sampling = Whole = Record a (+) if Partial = Record a (+) if

Record a (+) only if behavior behavior is continuous in behavior occurs at least

occurs at moment when entire interval once in interval

interval ends


8:00-

8:09

10:00-

10:09

8:10-

8:29

10:10-

10:29

8:30-

8:39

10:30-

10:39

8:40-

8:49

10:40-

10:49

8:50-

8:59

10:50-

10:59

9:00-

9:09

11:00-

11:09

9:10-

9:29

11:10-

11:29

9:30-

9:39

11:30-

11:39

9:40-

9:49

11:40-

11:49

9:50-

9:59

11:50-

11:59

Total number of intervals in which a + was recorded

Total number of intervals

% of intervals in which the behavior occurred

158

Appendix E: Sample Continuous Recording Data Collection Form

Name:______________________ Date:_______________________________

Setting:_____________________ Observation Time Frame:_______________

Observer:___________________

Antecedent (A) Behavior (B) Consequence (C)

159

Appendix F: Sample Scatter Plot Data Collection Form

Activity/

Start & End

Time


# o

f i

nci

den

ts o

f

chal

lengin

g

beh

avio

rs b

y

acti

vit

y

160

Appendix G: Sample Behavior Checklist Data Collection Form

Date Totals

+ - / %

Totals

+

-

/

%

161

Appendix H: Sample Task Analysis Data Collection Form

Learner: Objective:


Steps/Trials 1 2 3

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Total # of

independent/correct

steps (+’s)

% of

independent/correct

steps (# of +’s

divided by # of

steps)

162

Appendix I: Blank Graph

writing behavioral objectives and measuring behavior...behavioral objectives, the third step is to...

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