writing a research paper engl 1301. topic focus explore—research!/orient yourself sort out...
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WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
ENGL 1301
Topic
Focus Explore—Research!/Orient Yourself Sort out available information
Topics to Avoid
Topics based entirely on personal experience or opinion
Topics fully explained in a single source
Topics that are brand new Topics that are overly broad Topics that have been worked over
and over
From Topic, to Issue, to Claim Use brainstorming to narrow down the
topic and create an issue Issue = Question Avoid simple issues/issues that can be
easily answered by a single source Come up with a tentative claim—a
hypothesis Test and refine hypothesis as you research Having claim will prevent you from being
overwhelmed by the information of the sources you read
Claims for Different Purposes Try to Establish Something as a Fact—
Point of your informative research paper
Defend or oppose some policy Support or oppose some action Assert the greater value of someone or
something Often deductive as you show how
conclusions follow from agreed-upon values
Directing Essay to Readers
Need to know: How much does audience know about this
issue? What are readers’ interests, expectations,
and needs concerning this issue? What evidence is most likely to inform
them? What objections and consequences would
probably weigh most heavily with them?
Research: Using Sources
The best and most reliable sources are old-fashioned print media (often now in electronic form but initially in print form)
If you restrict yourself to electronic sources like the Internet, you do yourself a disservice
Finding Sources Using the Library
Go Through Cougarweb Online Catalog, includes Ebooks Databases
Full Text Only
Evaluating Sources
Most reputable sources:1. Books published by academic and
university presses2. Articles in scholarly and professional
journals3. Articles in prominent and reputable
newspapers
Questions on Sources
Is the information recent? If not, is the validity of the information likely to have changed?
How credible is the author? Is he/she an expert on the subject?
Does the argument seem sound, fair, thoughtful?
Is the evidence convincing?
Evaluating Web Sources
Restrict yourself to web sources: Signed by an Author Hosted by a Respectable Site,
University Library Official Association devoted to the topic
Also ask: Does it explain how the data was obtained? Does it appear to misuse any data? Is the information it presents consistent with other
material you have found? If not, does it provide adequate support for its claims?
Taking Notes on Sources
Write down everything that might be useful later—remember to include author and title
Write down page numbers and double-check facts and spellings
Think about why you chose to write down a particular idea—write a commentary on it
Differentiate your ideas/words from those of your source!
Use quotation marks for direct quotations!
Drafting the Research Paper
Revisit tentative thesis and refine as needed
In outline, figure out where each source might fit
Construct an essay of your own using secondary sources to support your structure of ideas and evidence
Integrating Sources
The source is an article, “The Temper of the 1920s” by Frederick J. Hoffman. In “The Temper of the 1920s,” literary
historian Fredrick J. Hoffman argues that the young American writers of the 1920s rejected the values and conventions of America’s literary tradition, pointed to World War I as a sign that Western civilization had failed them, and turned to art as the source of meaning.
Definitions
Summary—gives main idea, types of evidence, supporting points. Short, not exhaustive, a succinct overview, often much shorter than original
Paraphrase—puts the information into new words. About the same length as original, possibly longer or shorter
Quotation—records exact wording and punctuation of source and enclosed in quotation marks
When to Use a Summary
Get across main ideas from source Take a long passage and focus on main
points to provide background or general support for your point
Remember to cite source!
When to Use a Paraphrase
To clarify meaning of obscure or ambiguous term or idea
Get across significant details author has described
When source’s language is not especially arresting or memorable
Useful to make sure you “get” the original
When to Use a Quotation
Author’s words are especially vivid or expressive
Exact wording needed for technical accuracy Words of reliable authority would lend support Highlight an opinion Language of source is topic of discussion If you make a change, you need to indicate it May combine paraphrase with one special or
technical term quoted
Benefits of Summary and Paraphrase over Quotations
Keep quotations as short as possible Summaries and Paraphrases fit better
into your prose style Paraphrase is easier to integrate into
your essay than quotation
Avoiding Plagiarism
Document everything you learn from a source,
including ideas and language If you express the ideas of others in your
own words, still need complete, correct documentation
Exception: extremely common knowledge The fact that something is repeated verbatim
on several internet sites does not make it common knowledge—it may mean they are plagiarizing from another source
Paraphrasing Do’s and Don’ts
Don’t change a few words here and there omit a few sentences or scramble their order use same sentence patterns or vocabulary strain to find substitutes for words that are essential to the
meaning of a passageDo: Introduce your own comments or reflections, just be sure to
indicate that these are not those of the source Reproduce the original’s emphasis and details Indicate the page numbers of the original source as well as author’s
name Use a dictionary if any words in the original are not completely
familiar to you Work with whole ideas—break complex sentences down into several
simpler ones of your own
Incorrect and Correct Paraphrase
From “Causes of Prejudice” by Vincent Parrillo on page 577:
“Prejudice is a complex because it is most likely the product of more
than one causal agent.” Incorrect paraphrase: Vincent Parrillo claims that prejudice
is complex because it is most likely the product of more than one causal agent. (577).
Incorrect paraphrase: Vincent Parillo claims that prejudice complex; it is usually produced by more than one cause (577).
Incorrect paraphrase: Multiple causes often create prejudice, making it a complicated phenomenon.
Example of correct paraphrase: According to Vincent Parrillo, multiple causes often create prejudice, making it a complicated phenomenon (577).
Practice Paraphrase
From Malcolm Gladwell’s book Outliers: “In the early nineteenth century, a group of reformers set out to establish a system of public education in the United States. What passed for public school at the time was a haphazard assortment of locally run one-room schoolhouses and overcrowded urban classrooms scattered around the country. In rural areas, schools closed in the spring and fall and ran all summer long, so that children could help out in the busy planting and harvesting seasons. In the city, many schools mirrored the long and chaotic schedules of the children’s working-class parents. The reformers wanted to make sure that all children went to school and that public school was comprehensive, meaning that all children got enough basic schooling to learn how to read and write and do basic arithmetic and function as productive citizens” (252).
How to Integrate Quotations: Don’t Just Drop It In!
Be wary of the assumption that a quotation is self-sufficient or its meaning self-evident
Every time you put a quotation in your paper, be sure to identify the source with a signal phrase
Provide sufficient context so that your reader understands what the quotation means and how it relates to your ideas
You may need to paraphrase material surrounding the quotation to provide context
How to Integrate Quotations: Signal Phrases
Signal Phrase tells reader a bit about thequotation Author’s or organization’s name and verb that
reveals something about the author’s position Robert Pearson acknowledges, advises, affirms,
advocates, believes, charges, claims, concludes, concurs, contends, criticizes, denies, discusses, emphasizes, interprets, objects, offers, observes, responds, reports (etc.)
Can precede quotation, interrupt it, or follow it
Integrating Quotations: Variations
Vary the signal phrase Reynolds makes a strong case that Poe was
influenced by the popular press: “Poe frequently included in his tales phenomena recently reported on by the daily papers” (399).
Reynolds further explains that Poe “frequently included in his tales phenomena recently reported on by the daily papers” (399).
According to Reynolds, “Poe frequently included in his tales phenomena recently reported on by the daily papers” (399).
Rules for Quotations
Quote fairly and accurately; don’t distort the meaning of the original
When quoting up to 4 lines of prose or 3 lines of poetry, integrate the quotations directly into your paragraph; enclose the quoted material in double quotation marks
Block Quotations—omit quotation marks, start a new line and indent twice the amount as you would to start a new paragraph (10 spaces or 1 inch) on the left margin only, no extra spaces before or after quotation. Page number appears after period at end of block quotation.
Block quotations should be rare
Block Quotation
Margaret Bledsoe disagrees:From all that we know of “enlightened self-
interest,” the best chance that humans will begin to act differently from their habitual response
is if they are provided a clear model for change, one that answers their most pressing questions concerning the needs of their everyday lives. Utopian images will simply confuse them. (73)
That said, ideals can motivate people to reach beyond their daily experience and to examine new
possibilities.
Changing Quotations
If the source has a grammatical or spelling error, reproduce it exactly, but indicate it is not your error with sic in square brackets: John Berring claims that the class struggle “represents
the zeitgiest [sic] of the 19th century” (223). To change words, enclose the alteration in square
brackets: “Much of Matthew Pearl’s research involved reading
newspaper articles written at the time of [Poe’s] death” (Carson 99).
To change from lowercase to uppercase or vice versa, use square brackets The doctor told him to “[t]ake these pills” (Harris 7).
Deletions from Quotations
To delete words, indicate deletion with an ellipsis (three spaced periods): Standish is also correct that the French Revolution “left in its wake . . . years of uncertainty about the nature of democracy in France” (78).
When an omission comes at the end of the sentence and what is quoted can stand as a complete sentence, use an unspaced period followed by an ellipsis: According to Jane Hendricks, “The plight of the freedman in the South also angered the abolitionists. . . .” (2).
When you drop a whole sentence, you also use an unspaced period followed by an ellipsis: Marcus Jacque finds fault with this explanation: “The notion that truth is relative does not open up a Pandora’s box of moral turpitude. . . . On the contrary, the mania for absolute truth is more likely to lead to violence” (151-52).
Quotation in a Quotation
If there is a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks: “‘The last two and a half centuries have seen the
rise, apogee, and decline of a family structure based on a male bread-winner norm’” (Seccombe qtd. in Hanagan 136).
Generally speaking cite source of quotation within a quotation in the signal phrase: As Scottish poet Robert Burns once noted, “‘The best-
laid schemes o’ mice an’ men / Gang aft agley’” (qtd. in Partridge 225).