writing

Writing with a pen

WritingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language through theinscription or recording of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is acomplement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language but a form oftechnology. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures asspeech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics, with the added dependency of asystem of signs or symbols, usually in the form of a formal alphabet. The result ofwriting is generally called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivationsfor writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary. Writing has beeninstrumental in keeping history, dissemination of knowledge through the media and theformation of legal systems. It is also an important medium of expressing oneself by wayof written words as do authors, poets and the like.

As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmaticexigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifyinglaws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew humanmemory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[1] In both AncientEgypt and Mesoamerica writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmentalevents.

Contents1 Means for recording information

1.1 Writing systems1.1.1 Logographies1.1.2 Syllabaries1.1.3 Alphabets

1.1.3.1 Abjads1.1.3.2 Abugidas

1.1.4 Featural scripts1.1.5 Historical significance of writing systems

1.2 Tools and materials2 History

2.1 Neolithic writing2.2 Mesopotamia2.3 Elamite scripts

2.3.1 Cretan and Greek scripts2.4 China2.5 Egypt2.6 Indus Valley2.7 Turkmenistan2.8 Phoenician writing system and descendants2.9 Mesoamerica2.10 South America2.11 Dacia

3 Creation of textual or written information3.1 Composition3.2 Creativity3.3 Author3.4 Writer3.5 Critiques

4 See also5 Notes6 References7 Further reading8 External links

Writing - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing

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Means for recording informationH.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger thanthe old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could gofar beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death".[2]

Writing systemsThe major writing systemsmethods of inscriptionbroadly fall into four categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, and featural.Another category, ideographic (symbols for ideas), has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category,pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies.

Logographies

A logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinesecharacters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both - ("logoconsonantal" in the case ofhieroglyphs). Many logograms have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). For example, in Mayan,the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka'", was also used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to beindicated, or when there was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called aradical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a phonetic. However, such phonetic elements complement thelogographic elements, rather than vice versa.

The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for the various languages of China, and forJapanese. Korean, even in South Korea, today uses mainly the phonetic Hangul system.

Syllabaries

A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonantfollowed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, orconsonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, thesyllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.

Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabicwriting include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam; and the Vaiscript of Liberia. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component. Ethiopic, though technically an abugida, has fusedconsonants and vowels together to the point where it is learned as if it were a syllabary.

Alphabets

An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonologicalalphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given itspronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.

As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were notdesigned for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to anotherand even within a single language.

Abjads

In most of the writing systems of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may beindicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date backto the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called abjads, derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet".

Abugidas

In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant.These are called abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called"syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.

Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the Latin alphabet, although


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Olin Levi Warner, tympanum representing Writing, above exterior ofmain entrance doors, Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington DC,1896.

abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is often considered to be the first alphabet.

Featural scripts

A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p";however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" and "d" are not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labialconsonants are based on the same basic element, but in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featuralelements tend to pass unnoticed.

Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes and movements of thehands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as J.R.R. Tolkien'sTengwar.

Historical significance of writing systems

Historians draw a sharp distinction between prehistory and history,with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings andpetroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors ofwriting, but they are not considered true writing because they did notrepresent language directly.

Writing systems develop and change based on the needs of the peoplewho use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation, and meaning ofindividual signs changes over time. By tracing the development of ascript, it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used thescript as well as how the script changed over time.

Tools and materialsThe many tools and writing materials used throughout history includestone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slats, wax tablets, vellum,parchment, paper, copperplate, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils,pens, and many styles of lithography. It is speculated that the Incasmight have employed knotted cords known as quipu (or khipu) as a writing system.[3]

The typewriter and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies havecompared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil.[4][5][6][7][8]

HistoryNeolithic writingBy definition, the modern practice of history begins with written records. Evidence of human culture without writing is the realm ofprehistory. The Dispilio Tablet (Greece) and Trtria tablets (Romania), which have been carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, are recentdiscoveries of the earliest known neolithic writings. Szentgyrgyvlgy cow is a world model from B.C. 5500 (25)

MesopotamiaWhile neolithic writing is a current research topic, conventional history assumes that the writing process first evolved from economicnecessity in the ancient Near East. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which neededreliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependablemethod of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[1]

Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which havebeen found in the Zagros region of Iran, and the first known writing, Mesopotamian cuneiform.[10] In approximately 8000 BC, theMesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing these tokens insidelarge, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container came to beexpressed by impressing, on the container's surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens,


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Amulet of the Trtria tablets, the earliest found exampleof the Old European script and of human writing in theworld generally, dating to 5300-5500 BC.[9] It is aproduct of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture that was inRomania and neighbouring regions

Globular envelope with a cluster ofaccountancy tokens, Uruk period, fromSusa. Louvre Museum

relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoidmaking a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 picturesof a hat to represent 100 hats), they 'counted' the objects by using various smallmarks. In this way the Sumerians added "a system for enumerating objects totheir incipient system of symbols".

The original Mesopotamian writing system (believed to be the world's oldest) wasderived around 3600 BC from this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the4th millennium BC,[11] the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped styluspressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmentedwith using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means ofpictographs. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced bywriting using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only forlogograms, but by the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements . Around 2700BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that time,Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general purpose writing system forlogograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to anotherMesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian)around 2600 BC, and then to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite.Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic andOld Persian. With the adoption of Aramaic as the 'lingua franca' of theNeo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted toMesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thusfar date from the 1st century AD.

Elamite scriptsOver the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest knownwriting system from Iran. In use only for a brief time (c. 32002900 BC), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran. The Proto-Elamite script is thoughtto have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists ofmore than 1,000 signs and is thought to be partly logographic.

Linear Elamite is a writing system attested in a few monumental inscriptions in Iran. It was usedfor a very brief period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed thatLinear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot beproven since Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to decipherthe script, most notably Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi.

The Elamite cuneiform script was used from about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from theAkkadian cuneiform. The Elamite cuneiform script consisted of about 130 symbols, far fewer thanmost other cuneiform scripts.

Cretan and Greek scripts

Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I toMM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system ofthe Mycenaean Greeks,[12] has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. Thesequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can besummarized as follows:[12][A 1] Cretan hieroglyphs were used in Crete from c. 1625 to 1500 BC;Linear A was used in the Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and the Greek mainland (Laconia) from c. 18th century to 1450BC; and Linear B was used in Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) from c. 1375 to 1200 BC.

ChinaThe earliest surviving examples of writing in Chinainscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used fordivinationdate from around 1200 BC in the late Shang dynasty. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have alsosurvived.[13] Historians have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used.

In 2003 archaeologists reported discoveries of isolated tortoise-shell carvings dating back to the 7th millennium BC, but whether or notthese symbols are related to the characters of the later oracle-bone script is disputed.[14][15]


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Narmer Palette, with the two serpopardsrepresenting unification of Upper and LowerEgypt, 3000 B. C.

EgyptThe earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer Palette, dating to c. 3200 BC,and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs were based ona much older artistic rather than written tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographicwith phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet.

Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy wasconcentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds wereallowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and militaryauthorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries waspurposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status.

The world's oldest known alphabet appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoiseminers in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th century BC.[16] Around 30 crude inscriptionshave been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. Thissite was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two lineinscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphicprototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for aconsonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until the 12th to9th centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used.

Indus ValleyIndus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization(which spanned modern-day Pakistan and North India) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. Inspite of many attempts at decipherments and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The term'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhapsevolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC,[17] and was followed by the mature Harappan script. The script is writtenfrom right to left,[18] and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400600,[19] midwaybetween typical logographic and syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic[20] (typically syllabic scripts haveabout 50100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structuralanalysis indicates that an agglutinative language underlies the script.

TurkmenistanArchaeologists have recently discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia using writing c. 2000 BC. An excavation nearAshgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal.[21]

Phoenician writing system and descendantsThe Proto-Sinaitic script in which Proto-Canaanite is believed to have been first written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. ThePhoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowedprinciples of representing phonetic information from Hieratic, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics. This writing system was an odd sortof syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs torepresent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its owndescendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include Cyrillic, used to write Bulgarian,Russian and Serbian among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script andalso that of Arabic are descended.

The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin.

MesoamericaA stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing, known as the Cascajal Block, was discovered in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is an exampleof the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing by approximately 500 years.[22][23][24] It is thought tobe Olmec.

Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, isthe Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC.[25] Maya writing used logogramscomplemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing.


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St. Augustine writing, revising, and re-writing:Sandro Botticelli's St. Augustine in His Cell

South AmericaThe Incas had no known script. Their quipu system of recording informationbased on knots tied along one or many linked cordswasapparently used for inventory and accountancy purposes and could not encode textual information.

DaciaThree stone slabs were found by Romanian archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in the mid-20th century (1961) in Trtria (present-day Albacounty, Transylvania), Romania, ancient land of Dacia, inhabited by Dacians, which were a population who may have been related to theGetaes and Thracians. One of the slabs contains 4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some of the characters are also found in ancientGreek, as well as in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian. The origin and the timing of the writings are disputed, because there areno precise evidence in situ, the slabs cannot be carbon dated, because of the bad treatment of the Cluj museum. There are indirect carbondates found on a skeleton discovered near the slabs, that certifies the 53005500 BC period.

Creation of textual or written informationCompositionCreativityAuthorWriterCritiques

See also

Asemic writingAuthorBoustrophedon textCalligraphyCollaborativewritingCommunicationCompositionstudiesCopyright ClauseCreative writingDeciphermentDyslexiaEssayFiction writingForeign languagewriting aidGraphonomics

Interactive fictionJournalismKishotenketsuLinguisticsList of writers'conferencesLiteracyLiterary awardLiterary criticismLiterary festivalLiteratureManuscriptMechanicalPencilOrthographyPencilPrinting

PublishingCreation of theSequoyah syllabaryScriptoriumStory bibleSpeechcommunicationTeaching Writing inthe United StatesTextual scholarshipTypographyWhite papersWord processingWriterWriter's blockWriting bumpWriting circleWriting in spaceWriting slateWriting styleWriting systemsWriter's voice

NotesBeginning date refers to first attestations, the assumed origins of all scripts lie further back in the past.1.

ReferencesRobinson, 2003, p. 361. Wells, H.G. (1922). A Short History Of The World. p. 41.2.


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Wikiquote has quotations related to:Writing

Wikimedia Commons has media relatedto People writing.

"The Khipu Database Project" (http://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/index.html).3. Chandler, Daniel (1990). "Do the write thing?". Electric Word 17: 2730.4. Chandler, Daniel (1992). "The phenomenology of writing by hand". Intelligent Tutoring Media 3 (2/3): 6574. doi:10.1080/14626269209408310(https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14626269209408310).

5.

Chandler, Daniel (1993). "Writing strategies and writers' tools". English Today: the International Review of the English Language 9 (2): 328.doi:10.1017/S0266078400000341 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0266078400000341).

6.

Chandler, Daniel (1994). "Who needs suspended inscription?". Computers and Composition 11 (3): 191201. doi:10.1016/8755-4615(94)90012-4(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F8755-4615%2894%2990012-4).

7.

Chandler, Daniel (1995). The Act of Writing: A Media Theory Approach. Aberystwyth: Prifysgol Cymru.8. Haarmann, Harald: "Geschichte der Schrift", C.H. Beck, 2002, ISBN 3-406-47998-7, p. 209. Rudgley, Richard (2000). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 4857.10. The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing, Samuel Noah Kramer, Thirty Nine Firsts In Recorded History pp 38138311. Olivier 1986, pp. 377f.12. Boltz, William (1999). "Language and Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. The Cambridge History of Ancient China.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 74123. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.

13.

"Archaeologists Rewrite History" (http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm). China Daily. 12 June 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012.14. " 'Earliest writing' found in China." (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm). BBC News. 17 April 2003. Retrieved 4 January2012. "Signs carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists."

15.

Goldwasser, Orly. "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr 201016. Whitehouse, David (1999) 'Earliest writing' found (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm) BBC17. (Lal 1966)18. (Wells 1999)19. (Bryant 2000)20. "Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan." (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1330705.stm). BBC. 2001-05-15. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "Apreviously unknown civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed,archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that seemsto have been used as a stamp seal."

21.

"Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere." (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/15/science/15writing.html). New York Times. 2006-09-15.Retrieved 2008-03-30. "A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state ofVeracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere."

22.

" 'Oldest' New World writing found" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5347080.stm). BBC. 2006-09-14. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "Ancientcivilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests."

23.

"Oldest Writing in the New World" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/313/5793/1610). Science. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "A blockwith a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the blockplaces it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotaldevelopment to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica."

24.

Saturno, William A.; David Stuart; Boris Beltrn (3 March 2006). "Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala". Science 311 (5765):12811283. doi:10.1126/science.1121745 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121745). PMID 16400112 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16400112).

25.

Further readingA History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multimedia, edited by Anne-MarieChristin, Flammarion (http://www.flammarion.com/groupe/) (in French,hardcover: 408 pages, 2002, ISBN 2-08-010887-5)In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.(http://books.google.com/books?id=momIk7nVNdkC) By Joel M. Hoffman,2004. Chapter 3 covers the invention of writing and its various stages.Origins of writing on AncientScripts.com (http://www.ancientscripts.com/ws.html)Museum of Writing (http://www.museumofwriting.co.uk/): UK Museum ofWriting with information on writing history and implementsOn ERIC Digests: Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom (http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/writing.htm);Writing Development (http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm); Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years(http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/views.htm)Angioni, Giulio, La scrittura, una fabrilit semiotica, in Fare, dire, sentire. L'identico e il diverso nelle culture, il Maestrale, 2011,149169. ISBN 978-88-6429-020-1Children of the Code: The Power of Writing Online Video (http://www.childrenofthecode.org/Tour/c5/index.htm)Powell, Barry B. 2009. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization, Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN978-1-4051-6256-2Reynolds, Jack 2004. Merleau-Ponty And Derrida: Intertwining Embodiment And Alterity, Ohio University PressRogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN0-631-23464-0 (paperback)Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexistingcontemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. pp. 5966, 235s.


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Wikiversity has learning materialsabout Collaborative_play_writing

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Look up writing in Wiktionary, thefree dictionary.

ISBN 2-88155-004-5.Robinson, Andrew "The Origins of Writing" in David Crowley and Paul Heyer (eds) Communication in History: Technology,Culture, Society (Allyn and Bacon, 2003).Falkenstein, A. 1965 Zu den Tafeln aus Tartaria. Germania 43, 269273Haarmann, H. 1990 Writing from Old Europe. The Journal of Indo-European Studies 17Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The Eagle the Bird of death, regeneration resurrection and mesenger of Godds.Archaeological and ethnological problems. Tibiscum, 5768Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The Eye Symbol, Gesture, Expression.Tibiscum, 115128Makkay, J. 1969 The Late Neolithic Tordos Group of Signs. Alba Regia 10, 950Makkay, J. 1984 Early Stamp Seals in South-East Europe. BudapestMasson, E. 1984 L' criture dans les civilisations danubiennes nolithiques. Kadmos 23, 2, 89123. Berlin & New York.Maxim, Z. 1997 Neo-eneoliticul din Transilvania. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 19. Cluj-NapocaMilojcic, Vl. 1963 Die Tontafeln von Tartaria (Siebenbrgen), und die Absolute Chronologie des mitteleeuropischenNeolithikums.Germania 43, 266268Paul, I. 1990 Mitograma de acum 8 milenii. Atheneum 1, p. 28Paul, I. 1995 Vorgeschichtliche untersuchungen in Siebenburgen. Alba IuliaVlassa, N. 1962 --- (Studia UBB 2), 2330.Vlassa, N. 1962 --- (Dacia 7), 485494;Vlassa, N. 1965 --- (Atti UISPP, Roma 1965), 267269Vlassa, N. 1976 Contribuii la Problema racordrii Neoliticul Transilvaniei, p. 2843, fig. 7-8Vlassa, N. 1976 Neoliticul Transilvaniei. Studii, articole, note. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 3. Cluj-NapocaWinn, Sham M. M. 1973 The Sings of the Vinca CultureWinn, Sham M. M. 1981 Pre-writing in Southeast Europe: The Sign System of the Vinca culture. BARMerlini, Marco 2004 La scrittura natta in Europa?, Roma (2004)Merlini, Marco and Gheorghe Lazarovici 2008 Luca, Sabin Adrian ed. "Settling discovery circumstances, dating and utilization ofthe Trtria Tablets"Merlini, Marco and Gheorghe Lazarovici 2005 "New archaeological data referring to Trtria tablets", in Documenta PraehistoricaXXXII, Department of Archeology Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Ljubljana:2005-2019.

External linksLanguage, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico(http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf) Damqatum 3 (2007)"Signs - Books - Networks", virtual exhibition of the German Museum ofBooks and Writing i.a. with a thematic module on sounds, symbols and script(http://mediengeschichte.dnb.de/DBSMZBN/Web/EN/Navigation/SoundsSymbolsScript/sounds_symbols_script_doorpage.html)Pictopen: Modern written communication based on pictograms(http://www.pictopen.com)

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