world war i: experience and impact - university of alberta pdfs/… · africa and the first world...

World War I:Experience and Impact

Africa in 1914

Africa and The First World WarAfrica and The First World War

In 1914, Europe went to war.

Principal ‘foes’ also principal colonial powers:

-‘Entente Powers’ (Allied Forces): Britain, France; Belgium initially neutral, ‘joined’ Allies after being invaded by Germany [also Russia]

- ‘Central Powers’: Germany [also Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria]

Africa in WWIAfrica in WWI

British, French, BelgianNeutral

German

WWI in Africa, Middle East, Europe


Principal ‘foes’ also principal colonial powers:

Colonial presence in Africa complicated, as well as contributed to, Allied War Effort.

Key Question:

- Could Britain, France count on support, loyalty of newly-established colonies –especially those bordering German colonies?


GermanColonies

inAfrica1914

Boer

.Zanzibar.Tabora

Africa in WW1Africa in WW1

Example: Zanzibar and ‘Omani’ influence in interior

- Ottoman Sultan (allied with Germany) issued call for ‘jihad’ against ‘infidels’(Allies): all Muslim peoples ‘owe’ it to Islam to oppose British, French


1917: Situation best expressed in British intelligence report (July)

“[the] Mohammedans of the Swahili speaking area have been given furiously to think by the declaration of the JIHAD from STAMBOUL”


- raised problem of ‘loyalty’ for Zanzibar: under British ‘protection’ but long and close relations (religious, political) with Ottomans

- many among Zanzibari ‘subjects’ in East African interior argued for open support of Ottomans/Germans

- Threat to British engaged in battle


British needed Zanzibar’s support:

- under pressure, Sultan issued formal statement that ‘Muslims in Zanzibar and East Africa’ should cease their support for ‘the Turks’ and show loyalty to the British


Not universally effective:

-Omani ‘Arabs’ in Tabora (major commercial centre) gathered support for exiled Sultan Khalid (who had opposed British initially) to aid Germans against British

- inland ‘resistance’ continued until Sultan taken prisoner by the British

Africa in WWIAfrica in WWIAfrica: extension European BattlefieldBetween August 1914 – November 1918 battles fought in:

-Cameroon-Togoland- South West Africa- German East Africa- Northern Rhodesia- Portuguese East

Africa- Angola- Liberia

xx

xx

xx

x

[see ‘The First World War in Africa’ Readings’]

Africa in WW1: East AfricaAfrica in WW1: East Africa

The East Africa Campaign:

- Longest campaign in Africa, often called ‘The Forgotten Front’

- Involved Mozambique, Northern Rhodesia, British and German East Africa, Belgium Congo

- Strategy: keeping allied forces ‘occupied’ and out of Europe


The East Africa Campaign:- Not totally successful: Indian and South

African forces were principals engaged from 1916 through to end of war [‘First World War: Africa’ Readings]

- But engaged over 1 million soldiers from Africa, India – even the West Indies

- never defeated: submitted only when (and because) Germany surrendered 1918

‘The Great War in East Africa’


Colonial Forces, German East Africa


German Artillery in East Africa Campaign


African Soldiers ‘askari’ in German East African Forces


German Officer,

African FootSoldier,

East AfricanCampaign


Kings African Rifles fromNyasaland (Malawi), Kenya, Uganda (above)

Africans from West (West African Frontier Forces), Central and East Africa joined Allied Forces (below)


Video:

The First World War: Africa –The East Africa Campaign

[YouTube, 12 min. Readings]


East African Campaign Reveals:- extent of African colonial effort in World

War 1

- real difficulties of battle on African terrain even with ‘superior’ military technology

- Role of South Africans: in turn entrenching perception of ‘contribution’ to the making of colonial Africa

[More on this subject in ‘Discussion’, Friday January 24]


Africa: important recruiting terrain for Europe between 1914-1918

-slaves, soldiers, porters ‘drafted’

- some ‘voluntary’ [e.g. story Rashid bin Hassani, freed slave from Zanzibar; see ‘Resources’]

- most/many forced: sometimes led to resistance [e.g. diary from ‘WhitefathersMission’ (Belgian Congo, 1916; see ‘Resources’)]


Africa: recruiting terrain for Europe between 1914-1918

- French conscripts drawn from all territories

- fought in Europe and Asia as well as Africa

Africa in WW1: Africans in EuropeAfrica in WW1: Africans in Europe

First Regiment of Tirailleurswith Flag,

Longchamps (France)World War 1 Poster, France: ‘the Tirailleur’ (Senegalese)

Africa in WW1: Africans in EuropeAfrica in WW1: Africans in Europe

Senegalese Troops on the Western Front

Africa in WWIAfrica in WWIAfrica: material support for ‘war effort’

-ports like West Africa’s Dakar (Senegal) and Accra (Gold Coast)…

- and East Africa’s Mombasa (Kenya) serviced ships

-all transport services (sea, rail, animal porterage) turned to war needs

Africa in WWIAfrica in WWIAfrica: one large ‘resource for ‘war effort’

-foodstuffs diverted to war effort

-imports food, manufactured goods rare

- local shortages severe

Africa in WWI Africa in WWI

War effort changed economy, demography:

- encouraged development secondary industry consumer goods (East, South Africa)

-servicing new industries, port cities deprived rural areas (fuel as well as goods)

Africa in WWI Africa in WWI

War effort changed economy, demography:

- pulled, pushed rural populations into cities

- rapid urbanization (with attendant problems)

Africa in WWI : DiseaseAfrica in WWI : DiseaseDemography also affected by Disease:

- accounts of battles repeatedly emphasized losses soldiers (as well as animals) to disease: variety tropical fevers (especially malaria), intestinal disorders

- e.g. In East African Campaign, reported that: “By the end of 1916 (alone) 12 000 white troops had succumbed and been repatriated [to South Africa]. If the objective of war is to nullify the fighting ability of the opposition, disease was certainly a factor which assisted von Lettow-Vorbeck.”

Africa in WWI : DiseaseAfrica in WWI : Disease

- situation similar all over the continent but not only for ‘white’ troops

- Africans drawn into new disease environments (e.g. Nigerian ‘Hausa Troops’or Senegalese ‘Tirailleurs’ fighting in East Africa) equally vulnerable: combatants and non-combatants ravaged by disease, epidemics

- African (and Indian) porters in East African Campaign: 1 in 15 died of disease or accident


- passage of troops also brought/spread diseases

- ‘civilian’ populations equally impacted

- consequences immediate for effectiveness of troops

-longer-term in demographic terms, weakening of local populations

Africa in WWI : DiseaseAfrica in WWI : Disease1918 of Special Significance:

- world-wide movement troops meant world-wide movement of influenza inpandemic 1918


1918 flu pandemic

Africa in WWI : DiseaseAfrica in WWI : DiseaseEspecially virulent strain in Sierra Leone:

- West African troops mixed with British, Australian, New Zealand, East African and South African troops moving in and out of European Theatre

- young adults most vulnerable

- killed more victims than any previous virus: 3% entire African population dead within a month

Africa in WWI : DiseaseAfrica in WWI : DiseaseElsewhere:- Senegal (West Africa): through busy

International port of Dakar, similarly affected

- Gold Coast (West Africa): port of Accra, at least 100,000 victims

- British Somaliland (‘Horn’): estimated 7% of (regional) African population

Colonial efforts to contain: all ineffectual


Consequences of Disease both short and long-term:

- impact war, disease: varied regionally

- accentuated material deprivation (caused by war shortages in commodities, medicine)

- accentuated ‘development differences’: urban-rural; regional

Africa in WWI : End of PartitionAfrica in WWI : End of Partition

Consequences also political:

Treaty of Versailles led to redrawing of ‘Africa’ (Map):


Italian ‘Gains’:


German ‘Losses’:

- South West Africa: mandate to South Africa

- Cameroun ,Togo: mandate split between British and French

- German East Africa: mandated to British (Tanganika – later Tanzania with addition Zanzibar), Belgium (Rwanda-Burundi)


Africa was “ Class B” Mandates: what were ‘Mandated Territories’?

- those not considered sufficiently advanced politically, economically for independence to be recognized ‘at this time’

- placed under administration of League of Nations member states (European Allied powers, including South Africa).


Mandatory Authority responsible for:

"the administration of the territory under conditions [that would] guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic, and the liquor traffic”

- and that there be no military build-up and that there be no "military training of the natives" except for policing and defense.


Where European powers (including South Africa) acted as ‘trustees’ and saw themselves bringing Continent to ‘Independence’:

- Africans saw/understood ‘mandated power’ as being no different than full Colonial Rule

They were not wrong!

Africa in WWI : impact on colonialismAfrica in WWI : impact on colonialism

Consequences of involvement in World War 1 both short and long-term:

Fighting with Europeans, seeing Europeans killed, shaped African response to colonialism:

- fed expectations of ‘rewards’ for war effort: soon disillusioned


Ideals of WWI: freedom, democracy for all!

Woodrow Wilson’s 14-points:

V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.


Ideals of WWI: freedom, democracy for all!

Woodrow Wilson’s 14-points:

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.


Disillusion, Disappointment quickly led to more Resistance all over the continent:

- nationalist parties emerged demanding ‘power’ ranging from increased representation to full independence

- disappointment deriving from WWI critical factor shaping Africa’s role in Decolonization


Ironically, World War 1 marked at one and same time:

Final stage of ‘Partition’ of Africaand

First stage of nationalist movements!

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