world bank document...beijing, bombay, colombo, jakarta, and metro manila -- with assistance from...

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Restorinng

An Integrated Urban Environmental PlanningExperience in Colombo, Sri Lanka

Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program

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Restoring

Beira Lake

An Integrated Urban Environmental PlanningExperience in Colombo, Sri Lanka

Written by Leonard Dissanayake and Ravi Pereira forthe Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program

2

Aerial view of Beira Lake

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................... 4

FOREWORD ...................................... 5

PROLOGUE:RESTORING A NEGLECTED RESOURCE ...................................... 9

CHAPTER ONE:COLOMBO CITY'S POLLUTED LANDMARK ..................................... 11

LAKE SETTING ............................ 11CHANGING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS ... 12IDENTIFYING A RESTORATION STRATEGY ............. .................... 15

CHAPTER TWO:A POLITICAL AND SOCIAL HISTORY OF BEIRA, LAKE . 17

PORTUGUESE PERIOD (1505 - 1658) ............................. ... ... ....... 17DUTCHPERIOD (1658 -1796) ................................... 9............. 9BRTSH PERIOD (1797 - 1948) ....... .... ... 19POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD ................................. 23........................ 23URBANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT ................................................ ... 24MISUSE AND POLLUTION IN MODERN COLOMBO .............. 27

CHAPTER THREE:PAST ATTEMPTS AT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT . 29

LAKE DEVELOPMENT SCHEME ............................ ............. 29

3

LOWERING THE WATER LEVEL ........................................... ................... 31GEDDES' PLAN .............................................................. 31ABERCROMBIE'S PLAN .............................................................. 32UNDP -- COLOMBO MASTER PLAN .............................................................. 34UDA -- INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN ............................................ I ........ 34NARA -- REPORT ON THE ECO-SYSTEM ........................................................... 35BEIRA LAKE MONITORING COMMITTEE ........................................................... 36

CHAPTER FOUR:TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED RESTORATION STRATEGY ............ 38

MEIP LEAD INITIATIVE .................... .......................................... 38CONSULTATIVE GUIDANCE AND DIRECTION ...................................... ............... 39

National Environmental Steering Committee ............................................... 39Beira Lake Restoration Coordinating Committee .......................... .............. 40

GETTING STARTED ON BEIRA LAKE RESTORATION STUDY ............. .................. 41RESTORATION STRATEGY ........................ ...................................... 51

Three Options Considered, One Selected .................................................... 53COMPONENTS OF THE RESTORATION STRATEGY .............................................. 55

Reducing Entry of Pollutants ..................................... 55In-Lake Restoration Techniques . ..................................... 58Shoreline Beautification & Recreational Facilities ..................................... 60Land use zoning ..................................... 61Lake Management ..................................... 64Institutional Arrangements for Project Implementation ............... ............... 65Monitoring Program and Enforcement .................................................... 66

CHAPTER FIVE:ACTION PLAN FOR A CLEAN BEIRA LAKE ......................................... 69

IMPLEMENTATION OF PHASE I OF ACTION PLAN ............................................... 71COST RECOVERY .............................................................. 73IMPLEMENTATION OF PHASE II OF ACTION PLAN ......................... ................... 75

EPILOGUE:ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLE ASSET FOR COLOMBO ...................... 76

REFERENCES .................................................. 77

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................. ................................. 79

CONTACT INFORMATION: .................................................. 80

MAP 1. SUB-CATCHMENT AREAS OF BEIRA LAKE ........................... 81

MAP 2. EXISTING LAND USES IN BEIRA LAKE CATCHMENT ....... 82

RESTORING BEIRA LAKE

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work would be incomplete without a word of thanks to those whocontributed in so many ways to make this publication a success.

We would like to convey our sincere thanks to the following personswithout whose assistance this publication would not have seen the light ofday. At the World Bank offices of MEIP, we gratefully acknowledgeDavid Williams, Tom Walton, and P. Illangovan for the continuoussupport, valuable suggestions and editorial expertise, and Sheldon Lippmanwho completed the final editing and layout design of this publication. ToIllango, in particular, we owe a debt of gratitude for nursing to fruitionwhat was once merely a germ of an idea.

The collaboration of our Canadian counterparts during the Beira LakeRestoration Study and the support they gave towards enhancing thispublication with the inputs and colorful maps is acknowledged withappreciation. In particular, Claude Vezina and Vital Boule of RocheInternational and Alain Berranger of Coginter deserve special mention.

Others who helped materially include Dr. U. Pethiyagoda, Christopher DonCarolis, M. E. Striwardena, Razeena Adam and Mankesh Veliah and othersto numerous to mention on the MEIP-Colombo and UDA staff.

On a personal note, the authors would like to dedicate this publication toHiranthi and Violet with love and respect.

Leonard Dissanayake and Ravi PereiraAuthors

5

FOREWORD

The World Bank-executed Metropolitan Environmental ImprovementProgram (MIEIP) started work in 1990 in five Asian metropolitan areas --Beijing, Bombay, Colombo, Jakarta, and Metro Manila -- with assistancefrom the United Nations Development Programme. In 1993, thisintercountry program began its second phase and Kathmandu joined as thesixth MEIP city. In 1995, MEIP began work in Karachi, the NorthernEconomic Triangle of Vietnam, and in secondary cities in existing MEIPcountries.

The MEIP mission is to assist urban areas tackle their rapidly growingenvironmental problems. The MEIP approach emphasizes thecross-sectoral nature of these problems and the failure of traditional,sectoral development strategies to adequately address urban environmentaldeterioration or the linkage between industrial and urban development.

The work program in each city is therefore guided by Steering Committeesand technical working groups that reflect the cross-sectoral, interagencynature of urban environmental issues. The policy and technical committeesdevelop Environmental Management Strategies (EMS) and action plans fortheir metropolitan regions; incorporate environmental considerations intothe work of economic and planning agencies; contribute to thestrengthening of environmental protection institutions; and identify highpriority environmental investments.

The MEIP city office serves as secretariat to the Steering Committee and ismanaged by a local environmental professional, the National ProgramCoordinator (NPC). The NPC coordinates all MEIP activities and isresponsible for developing the environmental network of government,private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), researchinstitutions, and communities. MEIP supports workshops, demonstrationprojects, and community environmental actions, and links these growingenvironmental network efforts with government policy and investmentinitiatives.


6

A further focus is the exchange of experience and sharing of informationamong MEIP cities. This has been carried out through a series ofintercountry workshops that review the city work programs, exchangeuseful experience, and develop intercountry projects.

MEIP has now established the city programs, set in motion a variety of citysubprojects, and mobilized the intercountry exchange. MEIP publicationsare intended to share insights and experiences developed from the MEIPprocess and its projects. The MEIP city programs work independently,with each other, and with international partners to reverse urbanenvironmental degradation and provide useful and replicable lessons inurban environmental management.

David G. WilliamsProgram Manager, MEIP

The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this publication are entirely those of theauthors of this study and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliatedorganizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. TheWorld Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts noresponsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use.

Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the convenience of the readers; thedesignations and presentation of materiel in them does not imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its board or member countries concerning thelegal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitationof its boundaries or its national affiliation.

Likewise, the material in this report should not be attributed in any matter whatever to governments, non-governmental organizations, any other institutions or individuals who participated in the Beira LakeRestoration Study and related workshops and meetings.

Beira Lake has played arich role in Colombo'scultural heritage as eviderby the pristine Temple inthe South West Lake

Shanties along Beira'sshores add to itspolluted and smellywaters.


8

Figure 1.Beira Lake andCity of Colombo INDI

I 1km

Colomabo

SRI ZH

FOR~~~

FORT AWATTAH

MunicipA Limits

9

Prologue

RESTORING A NEGLECTED RESOURCE

The City of Colombo is distinguished by a neglected, deteriorating butpotentially magnificent resource, Beira Lake, which lies in the heart of thisport City (figure 1). The lake has been in existence for nearly five centuriesand once was a larger and deeper body of water which had strategicrelevance to the ancient fort of Colombo. Long known as Colombo Lake,the origin of the name Beira is subject to different interpretations.

The name Beira appears for the first time in a map dating around 1927.Some believe that Beira Lake is named after a Portuguese engineernamed Beiro who in 1554 dammed flowing water at the present DamStreet to form a lake. Others argue that the lake was named after aDutch engineer named De Beer who constructed the moats and waterdefenses of the Colombo Fort around 1700. Still others are of theopinion that Beira was derived from "de beer" which denotes a placewhere the boats are berthed. Whatever the name origin, Beira Lake wasidentified in maps (figure 2) drawn during the Portuguese, Dutch andeven in the early British periods only as the "Lake" or "Colombo Lake."

Despite the idyllic location and natural beauty, its potential has not beenfully realized. Rather, over the years it has progressively become heavilysilted and progressively polluted as a result of receiving both domestic andcommercial waste.

This publication provides a record of the history of the lake, its gradualdeterioration, previous efforts made to improve it and future lake restorationplans. The publication aims to raise the level of public knowledge andprovide information to concerned citizens who wish to maintain a dialogwith decision makers and participate in the lake's improvement. It alsodetails some of the technical and policy aspects of a recent Beira LakeRestoration Study which provides a practical blueprint for action by publicsector agencies and the private developers and landowners around the lake.


10

Finally, it offers an example of integrated planning and management of anatural enviroiunental feature in an urban setting and an approach whichcould be applied in similar situations in Sri Lanka and other countries.

Figure 2.Map of Colombo . ..

showing Beira Lake d X C t>l

1~~~~~~~4

-Z~~~--

Oft R.

Box 1. The name Colombo is believed to be a corruption of a local word. Some say it isHow Colombo derived from the Sinhala term for a mango (amba) leaf or a mango tree which

got its name grew in the City, but bore no fruit Kola-amba. Others prefer the derivation fromthe term Kolon-tota which translates into 'ferry at river kolon' [kolon being aformer branch of the Kelani opening into the Harbor] and then to Kalanbu by theMoors or Kolamba [ferry, port or harbor] by the Sinhalese and its subsequentAnglicization.

11Chapter One

COLOMBO CITY'S POLLUTED LANDMARK

LAKE SETTING

At present Beira Lake is essentially a stagnant water body totally dependenton the run-off of its highly urbanized, mostly flat catchment which coversapproximately 448 hectare. The maximum elevation within the catchment is9.8 meters above mean sea level (MSL). The lake covers 65.4 hectares(162 acres) and has an average depth of 2.0 meters (6.5 feet). It comprisesfour main basins: the East Lake, the Galle Face Lake, the West Lake, andthe South West Lake (figure 3). The East Lake is the largest and deepestbasin (43.2 hectare, maximum depth of 5.6 meters), while the other threebasins are much smaller and shallower (total of 22.2 hectare, maximumdepth of 3.4 meters). The water level of the lake is maintained at 1.8 metersabove MSL by a semi-circular spillway at Galle Face Lake.

Two locks, the San Sebastian and McCallum, allow management of thewater level and give connections to the Kelani River and the Harbor,respectively (figure 4). In the past San Sebastian Canal was the linkbetween Beira Lake and an extensive network of canals and waterwaysdeveloped by the Dutch which served to transport both goods and peopleand was part of the City's drainage system. No longer used for commercialtransport, this network is now fragmented and in a state of disrepair.

The bulk of run-off into the lake is provided by rainfall, which is highlyvariable due to monsoonal effects. During the dry seasons the lake waterlevel falls and produces conditions favorable to increased microbial andchemical activity, resulting in anaerobic gas production and unpleasantsmells. The turbulence resulting from this gas production occasionallycauses the re-suspension of the dark, bottom muds which results inportions of the lake turning black. In addition, released hydrogen sulfideadds to the stench emanating from its polluted waters.


12

Figure 3.

CHANGING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS

The increasing pollution of Beira Lake has become a source of concern tothe Government of Sri Lanka. The pollution has made bathing and watersports hazardous to the health of citizens and reduced the lake's capacity tosupport aquatic life. Consequently, the lake has lost its attraction to theresidents who once enjoyed its vistas and has become a nuisance to peopleliving and working around its shores. Beira Lake is becomning increasinglyisolated and, lacking proper maintenance, a national eyesore.

Many factors contribute to Beira Lake's degradation including its almosttotal dependence on rainfall for replenishment, its stagnant condition,numerous outfalls discharging polluted waters, and locus for disposal ofsewage and garbage. Moreover, the aesthetic appeal of the City isdiminished due to periodic discoloration of the lake, unrestricted growth ofalgae and massive fish kills and bad odors. The almost complete apathy of

13

an uninformed public which has little idea of the potential value of thismagnificent asset contributes to this decline.

Periodically, the public and the media voice their displeasure over thisdisheartening situation. The Chamber of Commerce expresses its concernthat attendance at tea auctions may diminish as a result of the stenchemanating from the lake during periodic fish kills. Criticism is leveledagainst the various authorities who are perceived as having responsibility forthe lake. Newspaper articles on the subject often carry provocativeheadlines. A newspaper editorial comments that "what is abundantly clear isthat many responsible authorities and agencies have negligently permittedpollution to escalate to very considerable proportions. The lack of thatproverbial 'stitch in time' has necessitated not just nine stitches but ninehundred thousand as far as Beira Lake is concerned. "

In the past, the administration of Beira Lake had been the responsibility of asingle individual or agency (box 2). Today, however, administrativeresponse to public outcry about the lake has not been easy, as numerousgovernment agencies have jurisdiction over the lake and its related activities;at best only ad hoc remedies can be undertaken. Furthermore, economicconstraints, public apathy and lack of strong political will prevent thedevelopment and implementation of a comprehensive solution.

The Portuguese gained control of Colombo in 1565, with the fall of the Kotte Box 2.Kingdom. The City, though nominally ruled by a Sinhala king, was in actual fact Changingunder the Portuguese Captain General. administration

of Beira LakeDuring Dutch administration of Colombo and after the fall of the Dutch East IndiaCompany, the lake was in the hands of the governor and director of the Islandand the Political Council, consisting of the Controller of Revenue, the "Dissawa"(District Chief) of Colombo, the Chief Military Officer, the Public Prosecutor andfive other heads of principal departments.

During early British times, the administrative responsibility for the city was in thecharge of a Crown Collector stationed in Madras. After 1833 the govemmentagent of the Western Province administered the city until the Municipal Councilwas established in January 1866. With the development of the Colombo Harbor,the Beira was placed under the Colombo Port Commission (CPC), established in1936 and given jurisdiction of the lake waters and six feet of its near shore area.With the abolition of the CPC in 1979, the Beira came under the purview of itssuccessor, the Sri Lanka Ports Authority (SLPA).


14

Figure 4.Beira Lake in relation to

other water bodies inand around Colombo

4~~~~~/L

.~~~~~~~~~

FORT O

BB~~eira g}°

\ , ~~~~Kotte

atQw ParliamentINDIAN OCEAN Lake

* McCallum Locks

A St. Sebastian Canal Lock

* Spillway , Colombo City Limits

* North Lock B Bcira Lakc Catchment Boundary

15

IDENTIFYING A RESTORATION STRATEGY

Polluting of Beira Lake was first recorded in the last decade of thenineteenth century. Over the ensuing years sporadic efforts have been madetowards its potential restoration. Many of these -efforts, unfortunately,remained in the proposal stage, but a few were implemented includingdredging, water level management, shoreline improvements, control ofentering pollutants, and relocation of squatters from the banks. Extensivereclamation, which began in the early part of this century, reduced the areaof the once sizable lake by more than half. This further diminished thecarrying capacity of the lake and hindered restoration efforts.

The more recent 1990 initiatives led by the Metropolitan EnvironmentalImprovement Program (MEIP) within the World Bank prompted therelevant government authorities to take concrete actions towards thesustainable restoration of the lake. Playing a pivotal role in this action, theNational Environmental Steering Committee (NESC) coordinated the inputs,functions and responsibilities of the various sectoral agencies havingjurisdiction over Beira Lake and its catchment. This culminated in acomprehensive feasibility study on restoring Beira Lake carried out jointlyby the Urban Development Authority (UDA) and a Canadian consultancyfirm with the financial assistance of the World Bank and the CanadianInternational Development Agency (CIDA). The Beira Lake RestorationStudy (BLRS) was overseen and guided throughout its year-long duration byan intersectoral Beira Lake Restoration Coordination Committee (BLRCC).The feasibility study encompassed the lake's physical, biological and humanenvironmental considerations and identified the lake's pollution sources andits water and nutrient budget.

Revealed in the study are the diverse extent of pollution in the differentbasins of the lake, the high nutrient content of its waters and toxic metalcontent of its sediments. The poor biological diversity in the lake's watersand the presence of indicator organisms confirming its advanced eutrophiccondition are also disclosed in the study. In addition, the results establishedthe mixed land use character of Beira Lake catchment and revealed that theState owned the majority of the lands immediately surrounding the lake.


16

The study made evident the extent of the lake-shore shanty dwellers, theirimpact on the lake and the fact that subsistence fishing was prevalent.

The study conclusively demonstrated that the major pollution source of thelake was the entry of sewage and sullage to the extensive storm-waternetwork through unauthorized connections from households in the lakecatchment area. The study also made an attempt to work out the lake'swater and nutrient budget and tentatively identified phosphorus as thelimiting nutrient which entered via the extensive storm-water network whichdelivers the lake's main source of water.

Finally, the study suggested a restoration strategy with an action plan to beimplemented in two phases over a ten-year period. The total cost isestimated to be US$23.7 million. The restoration strategy has five majorcomponents which include: (i) reduction of pollutant loading from thecatchment; (ii) in-lake restoration procedures; (iii) shoreline beautificationand recreational facilities; (iv) land/catchment development and managementprogram, and (v) a monitoring and enforcement program. Chapter 4 of thispublication describes the strategy in more detail. The World Bank isfinancing the first phase of the recommended restoration strategy with asomewhat modified action plan as a component of the ColomboEnvironmental Improvement Project (CEIP) which was initially developedby MEIP.

17

Chapter Two

A POLITICAL AND SOCIAL HISTORYOF BEIRA LAKE

The origin and history of the man-made Beira Lake are inextricablyentwined with that of the City of Colombo; furthermore, the lake also has aninteresting geological history (box 3). Between the ninth and sixteenthcenturies, Colombo was a small seaport used by Arab, Indian, Persian andChinese sailing craft. When the maritime provinces of the Island, SriLanka, then known as Ceylon, came under successive occupation by thePortuguese, Dutch and finally the British, Colombo was their metropolis;and in 1815 when the Island finally capitulated, Colombo became the capitalof the Island.

The Kelani, one of the Island's major rivers, flows into the sea at Colombo.Many centuries ago, apart from a port situated at the mouth of the KelaniRiver, much of what is Colombo today consisted of low, swampymarshlands subject to floods. It is believed that a Moorish trading settlementwas set up in the early part of the eighth century by Arab traders engaged inthe export of cinnamon, arecanuts, pearls, gems and elephants.

PORTUGUESE PERIOD (1505 - 1658)

The Portuguese discovered the Island in late 1505 and established a fortressin Colombo by 1518. Later, as a protective measure, they cut a ditch fromthe harbor to the sea to separate the fort from the mainland (figure 5).

Seventeenth century records show that Beira Lake owes its origins to theperiod when the local ruler attacked the Portuguese Fort of Colombo in1521. The Portuguese, in repulsing their attackers, dammed a brookpassing through a stretch of swampy land which was a flood outlet of theKelani river. This formed a lake which effectively protected the City ofColombo from land attacks and thus formed one of its chief defenses. It


18

Box 3. According to the distinguished Indian scientist D.N. Wadia, the geological historyGeological History of Beira Lake is closely connected with that of the Kelani River estuary, the Lake

of Beira Lake being at one time a portion of that estuary. The Kelani mouth since then hasmigrated four miles to the north. Historic evidence points to the fact that fromthe start of the Holocene Period (11,000 years before present), Beira Lake hasoscillated between fresh-water and salt-water no less than four times, most ofthis movement occurring within very recent geological times.

It appears that the present bed of Beira Lake is not the true bottom of the Lake.The original bedrock supporting the water-basin is 38 feet below spill-level in thedeepest parts. The surface of the Lake now is 6 feet above mean sea-level.Between the old bottom and the present floor of the Lake, there occurs a belt ofstratified deposits of about 30 feet maximum thickness, divisible into four well-marked horizons, indicating four different cycles in its history.

On the weathered uneven floor of gneiss, with an overlying sheet of sand, amarsh must have flourished for a period long enough to fill it with 7 feet ofvegetable humus and forest debris. The ground was already subject to a slowsubsidence of the coast, then a more pronounced sinking of the ground withconsequent submergence of the marsh under the sea-water. This connectionwith the sea did not last long and a reversion to fresh-water and marshyconditions occurred. A second in-rush of the sea is suggested at a later date.This is the latest earth-movement. The two submergences could not have beenless than 20-25 feet. No data is available to judge the amount of uplift that hastaken place in the interval between these two submergences.

Early Portuguese map n Mwv 'showing first fortress ofColombo (1518) which

was situated on the narrow point which now

forms the foot of thesouth-west breakwater.

For greater safety it was cut off by a ditch

and had no otherentrance

but by the ditch. .

19

encircled more than half the city and gave protection to its southern andeastern areas, while the sea protected it to the north and west. The localpopulace, although unsuccessful in capturing the Fort of Colombo,somehow managed to drain the lake dry twice through canals, one of whichis represented today by the San Sebastian Canal. The main gate out of thefort at that time was Queens Gate (or Poorte Reina) on the eastern flank ofthe fortress. This was later called Kaymans Gate named after the crocodiles(or "Kaaiman") who came to feed on the garbage cast out from the city.

DUTCH PERIOD (1658 -1796)

Arriving in 1602 for purposes of trade, the Dutch besieged Colombo Fort in1655, and the lake became the scene of some of the bitterest encountersbetween the Portuguese and Dutch. The Portuguese made great use of thelake for the transport of material for the City's defense while the Dutch arereported to have launched vessels on the lake for the transport of soldiersand to breach the Portuguese defenses.

The battered Portuguese ramparts were temporarily replaced by a stockadeextending to the edge of the lake. Later the defenses were withdrawn tohigher ground a few hundred yards back. The low-lying ground outside wasflooded and a broad expanse of the lake flowed in as far as Kaymans Gate(figure 6). During the Dutch period, the lake was enlarged and connectedwith the Kelani river to the north and the Panadura river to the south by anavigable canal system (figure 7).

BRITISH PERIOD (1797 - 1948)

The British commenced hostilities against the Dutch and by 1795 most of themaritime provinces of Ceylon had fallen. In 1815 Ceylon in its entirety fellinto British hands. Colombo became the country's capital.

Painting a vivid picture of the lake as it was in the early half of thenineteenth century, the modem day scholar-historian R. L. Brohier drew onthe contemporaneous writings of John Deschamps (a Royal Artillery officerwho served in Ceylon from 1828 to 1837) among others. Brohier describeda much larger Beira Lake, which was an ornament of the city and affordedan ideal opportunity for boating which resulted in the increase of smallsailing vessels and row boats, pleasure barges and skiffs (figure 8).


~~~~~~ o

au *.* , .. 4.

'.3 i..- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........

~~ q..L V... .......

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... ...

0~~~~oN~~~~~~tf

(0

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Z3

21

Frequent and colorful regattas were held with enjoyment only hindered byan "inordinate growth of water weeds." Colombo residents living outsidethe fort dwelt on the high land by the margin of the sea, or on the verges ofthe many inlets of Beira Lake. Residents on the banks often boated to theirwork places in the fort. Their "villas" offered a gracious setting for theirless fortunate friends living in the fort "to come across the lake, to partakeof a hospitable dinner at four o'clock under charming circumstances andsalubrious conditions." During the early British Period, the banks of BeiraLake were extensively used for parties and other recreational activities, andit is even reported that a festive ball was held in June 1815 to celebrateNapoleon's defeat. Beira Lake was both a center of commercial activity anda notable resort in the city.

In 1845, John Deschamps spoke of several small tributary streams feedingthe "Lake of Colombo" which then extended four to five miles in a north-easterly direction from the fort. He wrote that the lake "communicates, bymeans of canals, with the Kalany Ganga [Kelani River], near the bridge ofboats, and so with Negombo, northwards; with the lake of Bolgodde[Bolgoda], the Pantura [Panadura] river, or estuary, and thus with the KaluGanga near Caltura [Kalutara], southward, affording great facilities forinternal communication, which might be most advantageously extendedwithout much labor or expense."

There were many beautiful areas near the lake. An open space called"Racket Court" that existed up to the second decade of the twentieth centurywas bounded by the lake on one side and the harbor on the other. It wasdescribed as the "most charming of all places - with beautiful floweringplants and shady walks." In its location now stand the dilapidated buildingsof the Chalmer's Granary.

The Beira featured prominently in the life of Colombo citizens. Mosthouseholders bought drinking water from "water-men" who transportedwater from wells in Captain's garden, a peninsula which jutted into BeiraLake opposite the pettah (now marked by the Historic Hindu Temple in thebusy railway yard off Maradana). Washer-men, locally referred to as"dhobies," had a prescriptive claim to parts of Beira Lake (figure 9).


Figure 7.Map of Colombo

(1796)

{/{:fo} iciX~:fM

e

.ca ~ s.'"

23

POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

After Ceylon gained independence in 1948, considerable political andeconomic changes took place in the country. Following a period of Stateownership of production, it is now moving towards an export-oriented freemarket economy which is increasingly becoming sensitized to environmentalissues. Some of these have had impacts on Beira Lake.

As a result of increased port activities, the lake underwent furtherencroachment. Sections of East Lake were reclaimed to put up warehousesand the boatyard of the Port Commission. Some stretches of land on thebanks of the lake were encroached upon by squatters. A few corners of thelake have become naturally filled up due to siltation. Two new roads havebeen developed, namely Perahera Mawatha in the 1970s and NavamMawatha in the 1980s, along the southern and northern boundaries of theSouth West Lake.

Presently, Beira Lake supports several activities which include domestic andindustrial uses. The Beira Lake offers berthing for repair and construction ofboats and barges. Many of the old barges have ended up sinking and over aperiod of time their numbers in the East Lake became quite substantial andobstructions to boats plying the lake. In 1989 the number of sunken bargeswas reported to be 141. The Sri Lanka Port Authority (SLPA) has beenprogressively salvaging these barges and by 1993 only 21 remained.Subsistence fishing is performed by people from surrounding areas. TheColombo Rowing Club, located on the East Lake for nearly a century, stilluses the lake for recreational and competitive rowing. Household garbage,laundry and waste water add to the pollution of the lake as people continueto dump garbage along the banks and in the water. In addition, the humanpolluter continues the regular use of the South West Lake to wash vehiclesand bathe livestock, and periodically even as an elephant bath when religiousprocessions are held at a nearby Buddhist temple.

Several establishments, however, exploit their location at or near the Beirafor aesthetic purposes which are intrinsically non-polluting. These includesome hotels, restaurants, clubs, private sector companies, as well as militaryand religious premises. During the last few years, Beira Lake has beenpatrolled by military boats for security purposes, especially since severaldefense forces buildings, including the Ministry of Defense, are located on


24

Figure 8.Artist view

of Beira Lake fromthe Galle Face area

(1845)

its shores. The lake also supports a variety of bird life which uses its watersand near-shore area as feeding and breeding grounds.

URBANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT

During the Portuguese Period in Colombo, the foreign residents, who weremostly soldiers, lived within an area fortified by ramparts and gun batterieswhich covered most of today's fort and pettah areas. The residential quarterwas the old town or "pettah," an Anglo-Indian term used during the Britishtimes meaning extramural suburb of a fortified city. The fort had a thickrampart with bastions at the angles. A portion of this fortification is visibletoday, preserved in the premises of the present Commercial Bank. Termsfort and pettah still survive, but their significance has all but been lost.Gradually within the ring of the fort's ramparts arose churches, colleges,hospitals, elegant villas occupied by high officials and smaller housesoccupied by lesser bureaucrats. Historical accounts refer to a fortified citypopulated by some 2,400 families while on the outside there lived some 300Portuguese who had intermarried with the local population.

During the Dutch siege against the Portuguese, the fortified city wasvirtually reduced to rubble by the Dutch cannonade. For practical purposes,the Dutch during their rule reduced the size of the original fortified city by a

25

third to approximately the size now occupied by the Colombo Fort. Thefort was separated from the residential pettah. An engineer named Vyverconverted the open space which separated fort and pettah into a pond byadmitting water from the lake. The road from the pettah to the fort lay overa dam or causeway and is represented by a section of today's Main Street.The present Echelon Square, now the hub of the urban redevelopment of thefort area, was an open space during the Dutch Period, bounded on one sideby the moated ramparts of the citadel and on the other by Beira Lake.

African slave labor, originally introduced to Ceylon by the Portuguesearound 1630 from their settlement in Goa, was drawn on extensively by theDutch when they set out to build the citadel of Colombo. The slaves werehoused in lines of shanties outside the fort across the lake on a jaggedpeninsula which came to be mislabeled "Ije" on old maps meaning island.The area still known as "Slave Island" perpetuates this misnomer despite thefact that reclamation of the lake has wiped out its original topography(figure 10).

Restricted space within the fort resulted in the population spreading intoareas outside the fort with some of the most elegant homes situated on thebanks of the lake. Describing the changing face of the fort area, British

Figure 9.Dhobies (washermen) at

jA': ' .. . ' ' -" '' ,__ '',work in the Beira lake(possibly in 1940s)


26

historian John Penry Lewis stated that "the railway has made great changesround the lake. The breakwaters have altered the appearance of the harbor.But, perhaps, the greatest change was caused by the removal of the rampartsround the fort. These were taken down and the moats filled by the Militaryauthorities between 1869 and 1871." The British traders and agenciesstarted establishing their offices and stores in the fort area of Colombo.Today these can still be identified within the fort area, especially aroundBeira Lake.

Figuire 10.Artist view of Beira Lake

and Slave Islancl fromthe Fort (1845)

l l~~~~~~~

11~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V

In 1824 the population of Colombo totaled a mere 31,188, with 1,734 in thefort; 4,979 in the pettah, and 25,475 in the neighboring regions. By 1871the total population increased to 98,843 and by 1881 it was up to 110,502with a density of 11 persons per acre. In 1931, fifty years later, thepopulation more than doubled to 284,155 with a density of 21 persons peracre. Another fifty years later, in 1981, Colombo City had a population of585,776 with an average density of 63 persons per acre. In the absence of arecent census the population in 1995 is estimated as being over 615,000,with a density of around 67 persons per acre.

The Beira catchment area, 1,107 acres in extent, has an estimated residentialpopulation of approximately 62,278, giving a population density of 56persons per acre. The immediate surroundings of the Beira (core area) withan area of approximately 287.5 acres has a residential population of 6,884

27

with a population density of 24 persons per acre. This density rises to 153persons per acre when the daily working population is taken into account.

MISUSE AND POLLUTION IN MODERN COLOMBO

During the British occupation, the lake and canal systems were used mainlyfor navigation. Unfortunately, they were also subjected to gradual pollutionby diversion of drainage and sewerage outlets into them. The effectivenessof the lake to serve as a natural outlet to the sea was reduced when the waterlevel of the lake was raised to between 8 to 10 feet above MSL during theearly part of the twentieth century. It was subsequently lowered around1918 to its present level of about six feet above MSL and maintained at thislevel by a semi-circular spillway at the Galle Face Lake. These actionsaggravated water stagnation and pollution problems. In addition, Beiralake's carrying capacity has been reduced by reclamation and siltation, as aresult of urban expansion.

Historical records indicate that the quality of water in the lake was gooduntil the latter part of the nineteenth century. In 1845, John Deschampsdescribed Beira Lake as a "fine piece of water supplied by several smalltributary streams." In 1879, a botanist named Dr. Trimen observed that agreat variety of water plants grew in the lake which indicated that the waterwas pure. The lake would have been one of the more pleasing amenities ofthe city. However, in 1891 Trimen reported that the lake was increasinglypolluted as sewage passed into it.

The lake was neglected thereafter and as the population increased it becamea menace to the health of the inhabitants, since much of the sewage of thecity found its way into it. By the dawn of the twentieth century, the lakewas described as a "cesspool," wherein plant life had "degenerated to thespecies 'algae' due to sewage contamination." In time, the water body cameto be used more for drainage purposes than for transport, and with thischange the canal system also finally fell into disuse and became badly siltedand neglected.

Over a thousand outfalls opening into Beira Lake were identified in theNational Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA ) study of 1985. Many of thelarge diameter outfalls are storm drains. The greatest concentration ofoutfalls is to be found in the Galle Face Lake and the east bank of the East


28~~~ ~_

Lake. It was noted that a significant number of outfalls were clogged withorganic matter coming from waste water outlets which entered Beira withoutprior treatment. The discharged quantities varied from a trickle to about 0.5cubic meter per second noted at a commercial establishment on its banks(Ceylon Cold Stores Ltd.). The squatter settlements along its banks havebecome a major source of pollution aggravated by the construction oftemporary latrines opening into the lake. Further, soap used for bathing andtoilet purposes introduces more pollution into the lake.

There is a lack of maintenance of the existing drainage system as well asoutfall restrictions due to siltation. During periods of rain, storm waterentering the lake carries with it pollutants derived from the catchment areas.It was noted that floating garbage and refuse tended to accumulate on theleeward side of the wind and much of this collected in the half-sunkenbarges which until recently obstructed most of the middle of the East Lake.

The southern end of the East Lake is an area where extensive dumping ofrefuse has taken place. This blocks a badly silted and marshy end of thelake. The shoe shaped cul-de-sac on the western flank of the East Lake isalso badly silted and filed with refuse. The bottom mud of this area istotally anoxic, giving off bubbles of hydrogen sulfide with its characteristicodor of rotten eggs.

In addition to liquid waste, oil from several motor repair garages situatednear its banks also finds its way into the Beira. Among the many outfallsthat open into the lake are three which are major sources of pollutants. Alarge open drain which serves a good part of the Slave Island area falls intothe West Lake near the railway bridge and brings in refuse and waste watermainly from slum area drains routinely used for toilet purposes. The EastLake is despoiled similarly by a major drain serving a significant portion ofthe catchment which brings in a variety of pollutants including untreatedhospital wastes. Another enters the South West Lake at its western flank,often introducing sewage diverted from a nearby sewage pumping stationduring its regular maintenance periods.

29

Chapter Three

PAST ATTEMPTSAT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT

Proposals were made and certain actions taken from time to time by therelevant authorities with regard to the lake and its surroundings. Thesemainly dealt with the reclamation, water management, shorelinedevelopment, navigation and pollution aspects of the lake.

LAKE DEVELOPMENT SCHEME

In 1904, Governor Sir Henry Blake appointed a committee to report on anumber of proposals concerning the lake. One of these was to connect thelake to the harbor. The lake at the time had an area of about 400 acres (162hectare) and a volume of 83 million cubic feet at maximum water level(fiwe 11). The committee's report indicated that there would be nopractical advantage to this proposal as the existing depth of the lake was suchthat the flow of water would be minimal and would require extensivedredging of the lake.

Blake's committee also endorsed a proposal for a development schemeinvolving reclamation of parts of the lake for building purposes and theconstruction of new roads. The cost of the development was to be partlyrecovered by the sale of the reclaimed land. Nevertheless, one member ofthe committee strongly dissented, saying that the proposed scheme not onlyfavored private ownership of the foreshore area, enormously enhanced invalue at public expense, but also practically excluded the public from thelake frontage altogether.

However, both the construction of the canal and the reclamation of the lakewere initiated during the tenure of Governor Sir Henry McCallum (1907 -1913), and despite the fact that some European firms said that their interestswould be adversely affected, the majority welcomed the scheme. The


30= - g~~~~~~~~~~~---------

Figure 11'.Map of Beira Lake inColombo City (1901)

X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

31

reclamation of the lake under this scheme, which was completed in 1921,considerably reduced the extent of the lake.

LOWERING THE WATER LEVEL

In the early part of the twentieth century, Beira Lake was isolated fromdirect access to the sea. The water surface of the lake was kept at a levelvarying from plus 8 to 10 feet MSL. With this isolation the city wasdeprived of its natural drainage outlets and thereafter began experiencing anever increasing need for a coordinated system of soil and storm waterdrainage within the municipal limits. Around 1918, Beira Lake waspartially lowered to plus six feet MSL and its bed was dredged. Somedrainage relief was provided through the semi-circular spill at Galle Facebecause the outfall was reduced to plus six feet MSL.

GEDDES' PLAN

In his report, "Town Planning in Colombo" (1920), the eminent Britishtown planner Sir Patrick Geddes emphasized the "Garden City" concept andalso stressed the importance of the harbor and related facilities,recommending that these should largely determine the layout of the city.

Rather than reclaiming part of the lake to construct a new road, he proposedthe creation of a fairly wide parkway linking Colombo's Victoria Park withthe South West Beira Lake. He argued that the area of acquisition for theparkway was neither extensive nor very expensive, with an existing roadrunning almost exactly through this proposed parkway to the lake. At thattime the South West Lake basin was much more extensive than it is nowwith a looped section (figure 12).

Offering a strong argument to prevent the reclamation and elimination ofthis looped section, Geddes observed:

at sunset especially, looking over the lake to the palm forest of the lake-sidebungalows, this is by far the finest park view in Colombo, and only second to thetotally different seascape of GaUe Face. Hence I cannot too strongly emphasizethe plea, that, though the great lake ri. e. East Lake] and the north of this oneare now being completely commercialized [commercially developed], this oneportion of the city's old beauty should be spared for the future. the economicreturn from spoiling this end of the lake can after all be but small, and the lossto the city is incomparably great.


32

Further, commenting on the water quality of the area, Geddes reported "Iam told that the water in this loop is dirty. That, of course, one sees at thefirst glance, but also how to cleanse it. " This he proposed by dredging theloop and by replacing the existing three or four little drains by a new onewhich would empty under the bridge at the mouth of the loop, where he feltit would do no harm and help to feed the fish. The whole strategy hebelieved would be far less costly than the new road proposed for the areaunder the Lake Development Scheme, and would preserve its beauty.

Unfortunately, many of Sir Patrick's proposals for Colombo could not beimplemented, largely because of the lack of resources. As for the Beira, hisvision was not to be a reality. The Loop was reclaimed and today is the siteof two playgrounds and various buildings. The road proposed in the LakeDevelopment Scheme became a reality and was called General's Lake Road(today Sir James Pieris Mawatha).

ABERCROMBIE'S PLAN

With the enactment of the Town and Country Planning Ordinance in 1946,the Colombo Municipal Council embarked on preparing a town planningscheme for the city. For this purpose, the services of another internationallyrecognized British town plamer, Sir Patrick Abercrombie, were secured.

Abercrombie's Plan (1949) ambitiously covered the Colombo metropolitanregion as a whole, but was not translated into detailed proposals.Consequently, it has had little effect on the nature and extent of Colombo'ssubsequent development. While Abercrombie's report made no specificproposals regarding Beira Lake, annexed to the report are the notes of ameeting held in May 1948 in connection with a proposed extension of thePort involving East Beira Lake.

In outlining the details of this proposal, the chairman of the Colombo PortCommission had described plans to provide deep water quays in the harborwith separate warehouses for export goods on the north bank of the EastBeira Lake. He had pointed to the availability of excellent rail and roadfacilities which would facilitate transport and storage of export products (tea,rubber, copra, etc.) prior to their being transported across Beira Lakethrough a canal, to be loaded into ships in the harbor. This would easedelay and congestion in the port resulting from restricted warehouse spaceavailable in the harbor area.

33

Figure 12.Map of Beira Lake

g('o in Colombo City

R (1920)


34

The chairman also had suggested that if all the land on the north bank ofBeira Lake was reserved for warehouses then the open land existing on thesouth bank of Beira Lake need not be built upon. The chairman alsoendorsed Abercrombie's suggestion that the south east bank of Beira Laketowards the Slave Island end could be reclaimed to provide additional landfor commercial purposes. To a large extent, this scenario has been fulfilled.However, the open space envisioned by Abercrombie is today occupied bycommercial buildings, the Hotel Renaissance and various governmentestablishments.

UNDP - COLOMBO MASTER PLAN

In 1975, preparation of a Master Plan for the Greater Colombo area wasundertaken by the Government with UNDP assistance. In Volume 2 of theirFinal Report (1978) the consultants referred to Beira Lake as a resource aswell as an asset, one that was unfortunately long neglected.

Emphasizing its substantial tourism potential including its use for watersports, the consultants had prepared an action project for the utilization ofthe South West Beira Lake for this purpose. This included the creation of amini-leisure park complete with sculpture court, island restaurant, children'splay area, boathouse, fishing decks and swimming pool. However, there isno record of any follow up or implementation of this action project.

UDA - INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN

In July 1977 a change of government resulted in dramatic changes includinga policy shift from long-term planning to an emphasis on projects and a newattitude to urban development.

In order to promote integrated planning and implementation of economic,social and physical development of urban areas, the UDA was set up in1978. One of its priority functions was to prepare a development plan forColombo City together with the new set of planning and buildingregulations. This task was completed and formally approved by theGovernment in 1985.

The City of Colombo Development Plan identified Beira Lake as one of themost unexploited resources of the City and specified planning guidelines inrespect of Beira Lake and its surroundings. It recommended the

35

encouragement of shops, offices, hotels, apartments and landscaping aroundthe lake, and the shifting of existing warehouses.

The Plan also advocated prohibition of new warehousing, workshops andpollution of the lake. It also called for the conservation and preservation ofthe Beira environment and preparation of detailed plans for shorelinedevelopment. However, due to shortcomings in planning practices and thelack of direct and adequate intervention of the relevant governmentauthorities, these objectives have not been satisfactorily realized.

NARA -- REPORT ON THE ECO-SYSTEM

In 1985, a subcommittee appointed by the Presidential Secretariat directedthe NARA to investigate and report on the status of the lake and itsenvirons. The NARA Report revealed that Beira Lake was a highlyeutrophied, mostly shallow body of water (average depth 2 - 2.5 meters)which had restricted flow and limited potential for self cleansing.Investigation of the chemical and biological parameters confirmed the lake'seutrophic status and revealed that the lake waters had excessive populationsof blue-green "algae" (cyanobacteria), high turbidity levels, and elevatedvalues for chemical and biochemical oxygen demand (COD and BOD). Theexcessive fecal coliform contamination in the lake waters indicatedsignificant amounts of sewage entering the lake. The report identified over athousand ouffalls of varying sizes which discharged effluent into the lake.Also identified were four squatter settlements on the banks which used thelake as an open toilet and garbage dump. Indiscriminate garbage dumpingon the banks of the lake was excessively apparent. Beira Lake was found tosupport a thriving and varied bird population, in addition to a fishpopulation. However, the deterioration of water quality periodicallyresulted in mass fish kills.

The report recommended, among other initiatives, the establishment of anInter-agency Governmental Management Committee for Beira Lake toimplement immediate short-term and long-term actions identified in thereport. Although initial steps were taken towards implementing somerecommended actions, they were neither sustained nor carried through into aconcrete action plan.


36

BEIRA LAKE MONITORING COMMITTEE

Cognizant of the worsening situation in and around the lake and in responseto increasing public concern, in August 1989 the President of Sri Lankadirected that a meeting of relevant government agencies be convened toreview the condition of Beira Lake and discuss improvement measures.Subsequently, a technical committee appointed in December 1989 identifiedsix projects for implementation. They included: (i) improvement andmonitoring of water quality; (ii) control of pollutants entering the lake; (iii)dredging; (iv) resettling lakeshore shanty dwellers; (v) landscaping of lakereservation with development of recreational, transport and tourismactivities, and (vi) employment generation. The project document,submitted by the technical committee in July 1990, had both short- andintermediate-term recommendations and their estimated costs.

The short-term actions included a physical clean up of the lake and its banksdesigned to maintain the water body in an acceptable condition. Theintermediate measures were in two phases. Phase I included pumping waterfrom the East Lake to the South West Lake using pipes and existing stormndrains to overcome stagnation. Phase II involved pumping in water fromthe Kelani River through the dredged San Sebastian Canal, together withrelocation of shanty dwellers and construction of "silt traps" at main stormwater inlets to the lake.

However, apart from a few actions such as some public awareness activitiesand monitoring of 18 major and minor outfalls by the National BuildingResearch Organization (NBRO), no further steps were taken to implementthe measures outlined above, mainly due to financial constraints. TheNBRO study nevertheless established for the first time the greatersignificance of domestic sewage outflow over industrial discharges into BeiraLake.

On January 1, 1991 a large number of dead fish were observed floating onBeira Lake. This perceived health hazard became such an issue that itprompted the President to direct a ministerial-level inquiry aimed atrectifying the problem. Based on the outcome of meetings held in thisconnection, the then Minister of Housing and Construction sought Cabinetapproval to mobilize relief measures at an estimated cost of Rs.25 million(US$500,000), which was granted.

37

A Beira Lake Monitoring Committee (BLMC) was set up at the same timeto monitor the progress of these activities. The Committee included headsof relevant institutions and was chaired by the Director General of theCentral Environmental Authority (CEA). The program of work was basedon the July 1990 project document cited above. Although the major itemsof phases I and II were completed by July 1991, the BLMC continued tofunction thereafter and coordinate the activities designed to improve theBeira Lake environment.


38

Chapter Four

TOWARD AN INTEGRATEDRESTORATION STRATEGY

MEIP LEAD INITIATIVE

A turning point towards a concerted effort at restoring Beira Lake was theestablishment in 1989 of MEIP initiated by the World Bank, together withthe UNDP. MEIP-Colombo was started in April 1990 at the invitation ofthe Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) and was placed under the thenMinistry of Policy Planning and Inplementation. In July 1991, it wasunderstood that the World Bank, through the International DevelopmentAgency (IDA), had made tentative provision for an investment operation forpriorities identified under MEIP.

MEIP identified deterioration of surface and ground water quality as one ofthe priority issues of Colombo's environment. As the most significant waterbody in the City of Colombo, Beira Lake was assigned great importance forits restoration. The priorities of MEIP were to be implemented through theproposed CEIP which included restoration work on Beira Lake.

Prior to attempting the sustainable restoration of Beira Lake, a feasibilitystudy was considered essential. Previously there had been no concertedattempt made to undertake a multi-disciplinary study aimed at identifying thecauses and magnitude of the pollution and finding solutions with respect tothe degradation of the lake. MEIP was able to obtain funds for this purposefrom the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and theCanadian Environmental Trust Fund (CETF) facility at the World Bank.

The Canadian consulting fimn, Roche International, submitted a proposal toCIDA and the World Bank in November 1991. The Roche proposal wasaccepted and the necessary contracts/agreements between the concernedparties were signed by January 1993, with a contract value of aboutCAN$470,000. The proposed feasibility study was to become known as the

39

Beira Lake Restoration Study. The main objective of the BLRS was toexamine the feasibility of different restoration options and formulate a long-term strategy for the lake. The main elements included improvement of thewater quality, planned development of surrounding lands and viablemanagement of the lake.

The BLRS was carried out in two stages. The first was a diagnostic analysiswhich reviewed the existing state of knowledge about the lake anddetermined the extent of environmental degradation, identified causes andreviewed short-term remedial action taken by the GOSL. This was followedby the establishment of environmental quality standards and the developmentof a least cost strategy to achieve the standards, including an action plan toimplement the strategy.

In addition to the intersectoral initiatives on the lake pioneered by MEIP,there were isolated efforts made by both the public and private sectorstowards improvement of the Beira Lake environment. For instance, theNational Housing Development Authority (NHDA) took the initiative toconduct surveys of the squatter settlement areas on the lake shore andregistered them by issuing "yellow cards" making them eligible for inclusionin future urban shelter programs. With the involvement of local municipalcouncilors, the settlers were mobilized into community development groups.In addition, there were actions taken by some institutions with vestedinterests in the lake to maintain the lake shore front in an attractive manner.Among these were the Colombo Rowing Club, the Renaissance and OberoiHotels, and the John Keels group of companies. Even the armed forces tooksteps to enhance the beauty of the shore, albeit restricted to the regionbordering their officers' mess.

CONSULTATIVE GUIDANCE AND DIRECTION

National Environmental Steering Committee

An Inter-Ministerial NESC, comprising the secretaries of relevant ministriesand the heads of concerned institutions, was established in January 1991 tocoordinate major environmental initiatives and ensure the integration ofenvironmental perspectives in development planning. The NESC providedpolicy guidance and direction to MEIP-Colombo.


40

Recognizing the funding constraints faced by the BLMC, the NESC gavehigh priority to the Beira Lake Restoration Project which enabled the GOSLto obtain substantial funds for studies and a subsequent investment programto finance the necessary civil and remedial works.

NESC decided in June 1992 that the UDA should function as theimplementing agency for the Beira Lake Restoration Project and that CEAwould function as a regulatory agency with responsibility to lay downstandards and monitor the environmental measures taken. In response, theUDA established a coordinating body called the Beira Lake RestorationCoordinating Committee.

Beira Lake Restoration Coordinating Committee

The Beira Lake Restoration Coordinating Committee (BLRCC), establishedin August 1992 under the UDA Chairman, was comprised of the chiefexecutive officers of Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and DevelopmentCorporation (SLLR&DC), Colombo Municipal Council (CMC), Sri LankaPort Authority (SLPA), National Housing Development Authority (NHDA),CEA and MEIP-Colombo. Subsequently, in February 1993, NARA andNational Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWS&DB) were also co-optedinto the BLRCC. The BLRCC would debate and reach consensus onoperational issues and refer to NESC for policy advice.

During its tenure, the committee dealt with a number of major issues.

* Control industrial effluents entering the lake. A major foodprocessing and beverage company on Beira Lake was persuaded todivert its effluent into the sanitary sewer network and to installgrease traps to its vehicle maintenance bays.

* Ownership and maintenance of the lake. The SLPA claimedownership of the lake and a six-foot wide strip of its banks. TheCMC maintained that if the lake was under their jurisdiction it wouldallow them to keep the banks and waters clean and clear of debris.The matter was not resolved but the SLLR&DC was contracted tokeep the South West Lake and part of the West Lake clean andSLPA maintenance activities were confined to the rest of the lake.

* Relocation of shanties bordering the lake. A five acre block ofland belonging to the Railway Department had been identified by the

41

NHDA from relocation purposes. The Railway Department wasreluctant to release this land. NESC sought Cabinet approval forrelease of this land but due to the opposition by the Minister ofTransport and Highways, the matter could not be resolved.

* Temporary lowering of water level prior to rainy seasons. Thiswas a contentious issue with respect to management of the lake'swater level. SLLR&DC was of the opinion that lowering of thewater level by about two feet during the rainy seasons would offersome relief from flooding. The SLPA did not favor this course ofaction because of the fear of possible structural damages to buildingson the banks. However, a compromise was reached and partiallowering of the water by nine to twelve inches was successfullyimplemented;

* Survey of illegal connections to storm water outfalls into BeiraLake. Following an initial discussion of this work, the consultants'terms of reference were amended to take into account this surveywhich was determined would be a critical factor of the study.Subsequently five representative sub-catchment areas were thusanalyzed by the consultants and the methodology established for acomplete survey.

GETTING STARTED ON BEIRA LAKE RESTORATION STUDY

After the consultant's contract was finalized, UDA established a projectoffice with one of its staff as the project manager. The project manager,who was also a land use planner, was part of a full-time, local counterpartstudy team together with a hydraulic engineer and water quality specialist.

The progress of the study, carried out in two stages, was reviewed by theBLRCC at its monthly meetings. The committee decided to obtain viewsand suggestions from the public with respect to restoring Beira Iake andmaintaining its peripheral areas. Even though newspaper advertisements tothis effect were published on April 7, 1993, in the leading Sinhala, Tamiland English newspapers, the response was very poor.

The team considered a proposal submitted to the UDA which suggested thatsea water be pumped to the South West Lake to flush out the polluted water.With a view to getting expert opinion on this subject, a half-day workshop


42

Over 2,000 people live ==16 4in squatter settlements

along the banks of Beira Lake

on the subject "Beira Lake - Fresh or Saline Water" was held under theauspices of the Environmental Committee of the Sri Lanka Association forthe Advancement of Science (SLAAS). This was attended by a cross sectionof scientists and members of the public. The majority of the participants,however, did not favor the saline option.

At the end of Stage I, the interim report was submitted and reviewed at aworkshop held in Colombo. It was attended by the BLRCC members,representatives of the World Bank, MEIP, relevant government agencies,NGOs, universities and professional organizations. At t]his workshop, thefeasibility of the three different restoration alternatives presented in theInterim Report were discussed and a consensus reached about one of theoptions presented. Based on this option, a comprehensive restorationstrategy was developed and presented in the Final Report.

During the initial stages of the BLRS, the applicability of hydraulicnumerical modeling in respect of Beira Lake was evaluated. Hydraulicnumerical models are generally used to determine the general circulationpattern of a water body and evaluate the relative importance of water inflowand discharge in relation to the inputs of contaminants and their movementswithin the water body. However, considering that the Beira does notpossess any natural feeder tributaries and since there is scarcely any

43

circulation in the lake, the consultants felt that the need for using a hydraulicnumerical model was unnecessary.

Instead, the study team decided to use an empirical water quality modeldeveloped by H. J. Salas and P. Martino (The Control of Eutrophication ofLakes and Reservoirs, 1991) for tropical lakes. This type of model wasbetter suited for the type of problems encountered in Beira Lake, since itpennitted the evaluation of the lake's trophic level and of the relativecontribution of the different pollution sources to the lake in terms ofphosphorus loads. Contrary to the hydraulic model, the empirical waterquality model considers both point and diffuse sources of pollution. It wasagreed that diffuse sources of pollution represented an important proportionof the pollution load entering Beira Lake.

An important aspect that was unique to this study was the necessity tocomply with certain security requirements. Defense Ministry clearance wasan absolute requirement to conduct any surveys in and around Beira Lake,especially the Galle Face and West Lake areas which had been declared ahigh security zone. The approval was granted only for a specific day, duringa specific time period and for specifically named persons on specific surveys(such as the collection of water samples from a boat). Even maps and aerialphotographs of Beira Lake area were released only upon Defense Ministryclearance.

The SLPA boat was used for surveys of the lake, but securing of the boatwas also not an easy task. Under these circumstances, obtaining the securityclearance and arranging a boat for specific surveys at short notice (such as24 hours after a heavy rainfall) was a challenge. However, the cordial andclose relationship developed by the study team with the relevant agenciesmade logistics much easier.

There were ample opportunities for close interactions between the Canadianand Sri Lankan team members both in Sri Lanka (where the consultantsvisited frequently) and in Canada (where the Sri Lankan team membersparticipated in technology know-how transfer). Even the time differencebetween Quebec and Colombo was effectively exploited to give whatbecame an almost 24-hour working day for the team as a whole. The mainevents relating to the BLRS are chronologically summarized in box 4.


44

Box 5Milestones of Beira July 1991 - draft Terms of Reference for the BLRS submitted.

Lake Restoration November 1991 - Roche International, Canada ,submitted a studyStudy proposal to CIDA and the World Bank.

* Roche proposal accepted and three separate contracts/agreementsentered into:

December 16,1992 - between UDA and Roche.January 4,1993 - between CIDA and Roche.January 15, 1993 - between World Bank and Roche.

December 1, 1992 - Official commencement of BLRS with the setting upof the project office at UDA.December 7 - 17, 1992 - Inception mission by a three-member team ofthe Roche consultants.February 2, 1993 - Presentation of draft inception report at BLRCCmeeting.February 9, 1993 - Inception report submitted to, and accepted by,BLRCC.February 1993 - Visit by Canadian limnologist for one month to initiateand organize the environmental assessment of the lake.February to June, 1993 - Environmental assessment of Beira Lake andits watershed carried out.April 7, 1993 - Newspaper advertisement published to obtain public viewsand suggestions on restoring the Lake.May 1993 - Visit of Canadian limnologist for two weeks to monitor progressof the study.May 19, 1993 - Half-day workshop, "Beira Lake - Fresh or Saline Water,"was held in Colombo under the auspices of the SLAAS.May - June 1993 - Visit to Canada by project manager and hydraulicengineer for three weeks to work with Roche consultants on the InterimReport.June 1993 - Submission of Progress Report to the World Bank.July 1993 - Visit of four-member Canadian team to conduct a workshop inconnection with Interim Report.July 16, 1993 - Interim Report reviewed at a workshop held in Colombo.September - October, 1993 - Visit to Canada of the water qualityspecialist for three weeks to work on the draft final report.October 1993 - Visit by five-member Canadian team to conduct aworkshop in connection with the draft final report.October 18, 1993 - Workshop held in Colombo to review the draft finalreport.December 1993 - Presentation of final report.January 24, 1994 - Final report accepted by the BLRCC.June 8, 1994 - The final report is honored with a Canadian Award forInternational Development (1994) presented at the 11th Annual CEAICIAconsultations in Hull, Canada.

45

Findings of Beira Lake Restoration Study

The results of the surveys and investigations carried out by the study teamand the environmental assessment of Beira Lake, on which it was based,were documented in detail in the BLRS Final Report. The results aresummarized in boxes 5, 6, and 7 as follows:

Long-term Degradation of Water Quality 1985 1992 Box 5.BOD5 37.0 mg/L 70.0 mg/L Results of BLRS:Orthophosphate 0.016 mg/L 2.388 mg/L PhysicalTurbidity 8.16 9.12 Environment

Average Water Quality Ranges in Major OutfallsBOD5 129 - 179 mg/LSuspended Solids 61 - 163 mg/LFaecal Coliforms (no./100mL) [1061 0.2 -180

Total Phosphorus 1.6 - 2.4

Mean Nutrient Values for Lake (1993)Total Phosphorus 1.52 mg/LTotal Nitrogen 13.74 mg/L

Core Sample DatalCore samples obtained indicate that the sediment layer is about 0.5 m thick except inthe West Lake where it was 1.5 m

Physical Environment. The water quality of Beira Lake has so deterioratedwith time that bathing or recreational activities involving prolonged watercontact would be a health hazard. This is amply demonstrated by the testingresults in box 5. This was complemented by an intensive monitoringprogram conducted during the study which further indicated that the waterquality of the West and South West Lakes has deteriorated to a greaterextent than that of the East and Galle Face Lakes. The studies also indicatedthat the organic pollution load entering the lake through the storm waternetwork is very high.

Extremely high concentrations of nutrient (phosphorus and nitrogen)observed in Beira Lake is a clear indication that this body of water is at anadvanced stage of eutrophication. The resulting microbial productivity leadsto excessive generation of oxygen in the surface waters and its depletion inthe lake bottom waters.


46

The conditions prevailing in the lake favor nutrient release from thesediments and increase the toxicity of some metals found in the water andsediments of Beira Lake. Concentrations of lead, zinc, copper, and iron areparticularly high and sufficient to affect sensitive benthic organisms andresident fish species.

Box 6.Results of BLRS: Reduction in Species Richness

Biological . genera of algae in 1970 (14 green algae; 6 cyanobacteria)Environment * genera of algae in 1990 (5 green algae; 7 cyanobacteria)* genera of algae in 1993 (0 green algae; 2 cyanobacteria)

Biological Environment. Investigation on the biological environment ofBeira Lake covered five areas: phytoplankton, macrophytes, benthicorganisms, ichthyofauna and avifauna. The number of plankton, benthic,and fish taxa present in Beira Lake has substantially decreased over the pastdecades. This reduction in the richness of the aquatic communities indicatesthe extent of Beira Lake water quality degradation. It is best exemplified bythe change in the ratio of green algae to poisonous cyanobacteria over time(box 6). By contrast, the terrestrial and aquatic flora show considerablerichness.

The presence of cyanobacteria and their rapid growth as a thick surface mathas no doubt contributed to changing the characteristics of the water column.The extremely high level of primary productivity can cause largefluctuations in dissolved oxygen levels, create bad odors, change the pH ofthe water, and impede light penetration in the water column.

In 1954, twelve species of fish were reported for Beira Lake. The 1993survey revealed only seven species of which the dominant one was Tilapia.Occasional severe reductions of oxygen levels and/or increase of ammoniaconcentrations may partly be the cause of the periodic fish kills observed inBeira Lake. The 1993 survey also indicated the presence of 22 species ofbirds in the near shore area of the lake.

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Population Box 7.Catchment area resident population 62,300 Results of BLRS:Core area resident population 6,800 Human EnvironmentCore area working population 4,400

Land Use: Catchment areaResidential 26.0%Institutional 18.5%Commercial 15.0%Utilities 8.0%Roads and Reservations 14.0%Others 18.5%

Human Environment. The Beira Lake catchment area has a mixed landuse character (map 2). During the 1993 study, it was estimated that thetotal population of Beira Lake catchment area was approximately ten percentof the total residential population of the City of Colombo. Demographicand other data from the Beira lake area are given in box 7.

In Beira Lake core area, approximately 67 percent of the land mainlybordering the East Lake, the Galle Face Lake and the northern section of theWest Lake are under government ownership where mostly public and semi-public institutions, defense establishments and warehouses are thepredominant land uses (figure 13). Five squatter settlements are located onthe banks of the lake. There are 487 housing units for 573 families with atotal population of 2,247 in these settlements.

After the liberalization of the economy in the country in 1977, Colomboexperienced a marked increase in the construction of buildings; there hasbeen a significant increase in such activities in the Beira Lake core area, too.Of the total premises surveyed in the core area, approximately 25 percent ofthe total floor space of existing buildings was added after 1978, most of itfor commercial and institutional purposes.

Human activities on the lake include subsistence fishing which is exclusivelycarried out by a small community of fishermen mainly on the East Lake andinvolves up to 24 boats and around 50 fishermen. Other activities includerecreational and competitive rowing and the use of mechanized boats for theactivities of the SLPA as well as periodic patrols by security forces.


48

Figure 13.Ownership X M

of lands in BeiraLake core area e

sirnilar.~r State or

The Stuavd t eatutory Bodies0 50Gm ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Private

Point/Non-Point Pollution Sources. Pollutant loads to the lake originatein the catchiment either as point or non-point sources. Point sourcepollution represents pollution arising from a definiite or discrete source, suchas an industrial facility or sources that discharge water through a pipe or asimilar outlet.

The 1985 NARA study revealed that more tha a thousand outfalls from thecatchment open into Beira Lake. The storm sewer network in the catchmentis shown in (map 1). The 1993 BLRS survey monitored six major outfalls.The observed values confirmed that the organic pollution contributed by thestorm-water network was very high.

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The storm-water entering the lake is made up of run-off waters, waste-waters (sullage) and sewage. Storm-water drains receive waste waters fromdifferent sources (laundries, water stand-posts, vehicle service and repairshops, etc.) within the catchment. In addition, run-off, rain water passingthrough uncollected, scattered garbage piles bring nutrients, silt and organicmatter into the drains. Further, wash water containing oil and grease fromservice stations and vehicle repair shops located in the Beira Lake catchmentmay also flow into the storm-water drains. During the dry season, there islimited flow in many of the storm-water drains, and this results in thebuilding up of a significant amounts of organic matter and silt. During therainy season this material is flushed into Beira Lake, contributing aconsiderable portion of the pollutant load.

Many premises located in the core area of Beira Lake still dispose theirwaste waters directly into the lake. Overflow of and percolation throughineffective soakage pits close to the lake possibly contributes to the nutrientload entering the lake. Another significant source of pollution is the wastewater from the Colombo General Hospital that enters a major storm-waterdrain which eventually discharges into the Beira. Other possible sourcesinclude armed forces facilities and even major hotels which border the lake.

Sewage enters the storm-water system and, subsequently, Beira Lakethrough overflows from the sewer system, from unauthorized connections ofsewer lines to the storm-water network and from overflowing septic tanks inthe catchment. The sewage that reaches Beira Lake contributes to the highconcentration of fecal coliforms observed in the lake.

Fortunately, no major sources of industrial effluent were identified in thecatchment of Beira Lake since most industries located in the catchment areconnected to the municipal sewer system. Only one major industry, CeylonCold Stores Limited, (a food and beverage producer) which borders thelake, discharges its effluent directly into the Beira.

Non-point source pollution originate from silt, nutrients, organic matter,and other pollutant loads that. are distributed over the catchment and aretransported to the lake, either directly through run-off waters or through theground-water system. Nutrients can also enter the lake from atmosphericfallout. This phenomenon, which is usually characteristic of urban areas, isa result of combustion emissions.


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The repeated encroachment of the lake shores by squatter settlementcommunities has contributed to the reduction of the lake surface area and thedegradation of the water quality. These populations use the lake fordifferent purposes that contribute to its degradation. Among other things,the lake is used as an open sewer, a garbage disposal site and even as alandfill. The lake is used as a landfill at several locations where residentsencroach upon the waters and enlarge their property by filling the lake withdifferent materials.

Beira Lake Water and Nutrient Budget. Rainfall (directly or indirectly)represents the only natural source of water to Beira Lake. The overallaverage water budget of Beira Lake was established by considering the meanoverall flow of all the contributing factors such as direct run-off, groundwater infiltration (seepage), unauthorized sewer lines, evaporation, naturalwater retention and lake water management practices (figure 14)

The Beira Lake receives about 5.7 million cubic meters per year from thecatcbment area (14,48.21 hectare) composed of direct runoff (whichcontributes 4.8 million cubic meters per year) and to groundwater infiltrationinto the lake from the catchment (seepage which contributes the remaining0.9 million cubic meters). Waste waters originating from unauthorizedsewer lines are being discharged into the storm sewer retwork that leads to

Figure 14.Annual water inflow Waste Water Inflow (4.0) Net Precipitation (0.5)

into Beira Lake 39.2% 4r9 ((x million cubic meotos per year)

Direct Runoff (4.8)} - ;=_ ................. 47.1%

Ground Water Inflow (0.9)8.8%

NET PRECIPATATION EQUALS DIRECT RAINFALL OVER LAKE LESSEVAPORATION. TOTAL INFLOWS ARE BALANCED BY LOSSES THROUGH

LOCK GATES OUTWARD SEEPAGE DURING DRY PERIODS ANDOVERFLOW AT SPILLWAY

51

the lake. Although discharge measurements taken at a few outfalls showgreat spatial and temporal variability, it was estimated that some 4.0 millioncubic meters per year of water reach the lake on an annual basis. Netprecipitation on the lake accounts for about 0.5 million cubic meters peryear. Water loss from seepage through the lake bed, operation of the lockgates and industrial uses represents a water depletion of only 0.149 millioncubic meters per year. It can be assumed that the excess water coming intothe lake is lost through the semi-circular spillway (major) and leakagethrough both McCallum and St. Sebastian lock gates (minor).

Taking into consideration the uncertainties and assumptions previouslymentioned, and excluding the outflow due to general water management, theoverall mean water budget of Beira Lake can roughly be estimated between9.95 and 10.05 million cubic meters per year.

Primary productivity is affected by nutrient avaiabiiy. According to thelimiting nutrient concept, productivity will be determined by the abundance(and availability) of the substance that in relation to needs of the organism isleast abundant in the environment. Nitrogen and phosphorus are the usualcandidates. Thus, the reference figure for the ratio of total nitrogen to totalphosphorus greater than 9.0 was used as an indication of phosphoruslimitation in this study.

Based on the available information, it appears that 97 percent of thephosphorus load comes from the catchment via the storm-water network.Annually, the phosphorus loading of Beira Lake is estimated atapproximately 9,500 kilograms of phosphorus.

RESTORATION STRATEGY

Objectives of the Strategy

To realize the goals of the proposed restoration strategy, obtainable,environmental quality objectives were identified with respect to water,sanitation, aquatic fauna and aesthetic standards, especially with regard topotential uses of the restored lake. Target environmental quality objectivesdesigned to achieve these goals for both short-term (less than 5 years) andlong-term (5 - 10 years) periods were deternined (figure 15).


52

Figure 15. Short ternm Long tennTarget Environmental (<5 tears) (5-10 years)

Quality Objectives Sanitary

Fecal coliforms 50% reduction in storm 100% reduction in stormsewer network. sewer networka50% reduction in the 100% reduction in the

BOD ~~~~~~~70% reduction in storm 85% reduction in stormmsewer network sewer network;

- ~~~6 mg/L in the LakeFish and Aquatic Life

DisovedOye Concentrations should notfall below 4mg/L (dailyminimum)

AestheticChlorophyll-a 0.10 mg/L 0.08 mg LTotal Phosphorus (as "P) 0.750 mg/L 0.15mg/LTotai Kjeidahi Nitrogen (as - 6.1 mg/L

.........................................................................................................................................................................Transparency 50 cm 80 cmSuspended Solids 45 mg/L 25 mg/La The proposed water quality objectives are yearly average concentrations (with the exception ofdissolved oxygen). Because of the presence of extremely high fecal coliform concentrations.b The fecal coliforms objectives should aim towards a 100% reduction, although in practice, therewill still be a residual presence of fecal coliforms.

Central to the long-term success and the achievement of these goals is thereduction of pollutant loadings from the catchment. The goals of theproposed Restoration Strategy are:

* to control and reverse environmental degradation of the lake;

* to improve the sanitary condition of the lake in order to reduce therisk of health hazards to those persons carrying out activitiesinvolving limited water contact;

* to remedy the problem of periodic bad smells;

* to control nuisance algae;

* to provide water conditions capable of supporting living healthyaquatic communities;

53

* to improve the aesthetic quality of the built environment andconserve the natural environment of the lake and its shoreline;

* to provide and improve the recreational and public use potential ofthe lake for the local and tourist population;

* to provide opportunities for multi-use development and promoteoptimum utilization of lands and increase the commercial potential ofthe lake shore; and

* to create economic and employment generating activities especiallyfor the local population.

Three Options Considered, One Selected

Based on the investigation carried out, and taking into account the viewsexpressed during numerous discussions and consultations with local experts,the BLRS team selected a series of practical interventions, from a range ofavailable restoration techniques, which could be successful in improving thecondition of Beira Lake. These were chosen to ensure that the actions couldbe implemented at relatively low cost. Although some interventions wereconsidered, such as the interception and/or treatment of the incomingeffluent from storm-water drains, they were discarded due to lack ofsufficient space; high cost of required infrastructure, and the fact that theywould eliminate neither the causes nor the sources of pollution.

Instead, it was decided to trace all unauthorized sewer and sullageconnections made to storm water drains in the lake catchment area. Thesewould then be disconnected and diverted to existing or new municipal sewerlines. In some instances, pre-treatment of effluent would be required beforefinal disposal into the sanitary sewer network.

Three restoration options were then developed and presented in the BLRSInterim Report and discussed at the workshop held in Colombo on July 16,1993 (figure 16). All three options had three features in common, namelyreduction of pollutant loadings to lake, dredging and bio-manipulation (suchas the use of algae-eating fish). Two of the options involved dilution of thelake waters using water either from the Kelani Ganga or from the ocean.These were suggested as a means of increasing the water renewal of the lake


54MS- =5450M,15002M

and thus, achieving a dilution of the pollutants present in the lake. Howeverthese were not favored by the participants.

Figure 16. - -:..Restoration ;PTION- OPTION 2 OPTION 3

OptionsConsidered ReduiMon of plutant Reduction of pollutant Reduction of pollutant

_: loadins. loadings loadings: :.:~ ..: ............. DeDregin Dredging Dredging

:, .. , h.... .-.. .----. -.-. -Dilution with freshwater dilution with seawater

~~~~~~..:.:i... : . .. . ...,......... ...

.tnW.. ... Stocking of algae-eating Stocking of algae-eating.i h.. ........ . fish fish

The preferred Opton 1 recommended removal of algae through filtrationand had the advantage of not requiring the use of external sources of water(central to the other two options) to rehabilitate the lake, which is of primeimportance in Colombo where freshwater supplies are limited and requiredfor human consumption. Option 1 was then incorporated with suitablemodifications and developed into a restoration strategy with five maincomponents, each consisting of a set of interventions to be implemented in aphased program with specific objectives as detailed in the following section.The cost of implementing the proposed restoration activities was estimated atapproximately Rs. 1,200 million (US$24 million).

In Option 2, water collected from the upstream section of the Kelani(Ambatale) would have to be carried and pumped into Beira Lake through awater main, thus avoiding the use of polluted downstream waters. Thisoption was discarded on a number of counts. Among the reasons for this isits prohibitive cost (since all water leaving Ambatale is purified and laying anew main would have been uneconomical) and the ecological impacts that itwould have had both on the river (such as saline intrusion due to decreasedflow caused by abstraction of larger water volumes) and the lake(introduction of large volumes of chlorinated water). Added to this is thefact that the Kelani can hardly cope with servicing the increased demand offresh water for the city's water supply. Option 3, which was rejected,consisted of pumping seawater into the most polluted sections of the Beira,namely the South West Lake, the West Lake and Galle Face Lake andconstructing a dike to prevent saline intrusion into the East Lake. Thus oneportion of the lake would be saline and the other fresh. This option wasrejected because of the effects it would have had on existing ecosystems of

55

the lake and the adverse impacts it would have had on the groundwater tableand possibly the foundations of buildings in the vicinity of the lake.

COMPONENTS OF THE RESTORATION STRATEGY

Reducing Entry of Pollutants

Central to the successful and sustainable restoration of the lake is thereduction of pollutant loads entering it from the catchment. This can onlybe achieved by a concerted attack on several fronts.

Disconnection of Unauthorized Sewer Lines. The NBRO survey provedconclusively that the storm-water network brings sewage into the lake. Itwas assumed that this was a result of unauthorized connections of sewagelines to the storm-water network. A field survey was carried out to validatethis assumption by a CMC engineer who studied the storm-water network offive major outfalls, draining 7 out of the 24 sub-catchment areas. Thesurvey showed conclusively that this was indeed the case, and byextrapolation of the results to the entire catchment, it was estimated thatthere were some 7,254 unauthorized connections.

Required interventions are identification and disconnection of allunauthorized sewage and sullage connections, including public water stand-post outlets and redirection of waste waters to the sanitary sewer network.

Reduction of Frequency of Sanitary Sewer Overflows. Colombo's sewernetwork is over ninety years old and at present its capacity is inadequate andin need of rehabilitation. The ultimate disposal of sewage, which takesplace with only primary treatment, is through two 1,500 millimeter oceanoutfalls -- a northern one off Mutwal which is 2,053 meters long, and asouthern one off Wellawatte which is 1,394 meters long (figure 17). Thenetwork has occasional overflow connections to the storm-water network.This is to prevent the backing up of sewers in the event of their failureduring periodic pump house maintenance and the overloading of thesewerage system during excessive rainfall. However, because of smallgradients in the sewerage system, excessive silting, and the frequentmaintenance required to this aging system and pump houses, such overflowsare becoming increasingly frequent. This probably contributes far morepollutants than all the individual unauthorized connections. The required


56

Figure 17.Northem and southemr

sewage ouffalls (Northern)SEWAGE OUTFALL

0 I km

SEWAGE OUTFALL|

* McCsItuto Locks

A. St. Sebastiaa C uul Lcck

c Sp[llway , ~¢- Colombo City tmits

, Nortfi Lock ~ ~Bcina Lake Catchmcnt SoiuEdary

57~~~~~~~5'' g= V ___

interventions involve plugging up the overflow connections, de-silting thenetwork serving the catchment and rehabilitating the existing pump stations.

Reduction of Industrial Effluent Loadings. Only one major foodprocessing plant has any outfalls into Beira Lake. This industry has alreadydiverted its most polluting outfalls into the sanitary sewer network and hasinstalled grease traps. The intervention required involves monitoring closelythe effluent of this industry and the installation of more effective oil andgrease separators. The other major source of pollutants is the GeneralHospital which discharges its waste water into a major storm-water drain[Norris Canal] which ends up in Beira Lake. This could be remedied bydiverting all waste water into the sanitary sewer system.

Connection of Septic Tanks and Soakage Pits to Sanitary Sewer System.Not all of Beira Lake perimeter is served by a sanitary sewer network; oneexample is part of the East Lake perimeter. These areas are served by septictanks and soakage pits which often overflow and discharge their effluents,either directly into or so close to the lake that the pollutants do not degradebefore reaching the water. The intervention recommended here is thedevelopment of a new sewer network to serve these areas with a new orupgraded pump station facilities designed to accommodate the increasedflows.

Improvement to Solid Waste Management. According to the CMC, theannual solid waste generation by residents in the catchment is approximately24 million kilograms per year. Many problems related to disposal andmanagement of solid waste (such as the lack of serviceable vehicles andequipment, reduced frequency of collection, lack of garbage containers,inappropriate and damaged temporary collection sites) result in garbagebeing scattered throughout the catchment. In addition, Colombo's municipalgarbage disposal site, which is an open dump, is quickly reaching itscapacity. Among the interventions suggested are the upgrading of the fleetof trucks, increased frequency of collection, improved temporary collectionsites and containers, and suitable final disposal of the garbage.

Street Cleaning. This aspect was considered as a result of experiencesgained from the Great Lakes basin of North America where it had beendemonstrated that street sweeping proved to be a relevant remedial measureto control urban non-point sources of pollution. The suggested interventions


58

include increasing both the number of street sweepers and the frequency ofcleaning with the provision of better equipment to improve the efficiency.

Upgrading of Squatter Settlements. The number of inhabitants in squattersettlements in Beira Lake margins has been estimated at 2,347. Dischargeof raw sewage directly into the lake, from open latrines in close proximity totheir dwellings, contributes to the overall fecal contamination of the water.Although it is by no means the largest overall contributor, its localizednature would constitute a health hazard to the inhabitants, especially thechildren who often swim in the vicinity. As a measure of improving thesituation of these individuals, a proposal has been made to relocate thesquatter dwellers to an area within the catchment itself where they would begiven rehabilitated housing facilities.

Public Awareness Program. Lack of public awareness and apathy towardsenvironmental conservation and protection is possibly a major factorcontributing to the continuing degradation of the lake. Any sustainablerestoration effort would have to galvanize the public into active participationto ensure the maintenance of the restored lake. The study suggested a publicawareness program directed exclusively at Beira Lake and consisting of threephases. Phase I would convey the goals of the restoration program andwould be implemented through billboards, posters, stickers and mediacoverage. Phase II would identify target groups/affected communities andorient them towards preserving the water body through awareness of theimportance of the Beira, the need to restore and maintain it. Phase IIIwould involve local participation in preserving the restored lake.

Engineering Studies. The Study recommended that before engineeringworks are undertaken, studies should be done (i) to quantify and determinethe extent of siltation and need to de-silt the sanitary sewer network, (ii) toidentify unauthorized sewer and water stand-post connections to the stormwater network, (iii) study the contributions made by hospitals and industry,and (iv) to evaluate the adequacy of the existing pumping stations andidentify the points where the sewer system overflows into the storm watersystem.

In-Lake Restoration Techniques

These interventions would accelerate the restoration process and controlnuisance algae once pollutant loadings to the Lake are significantly reduced.

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A variety of alternatives available for the restoration of eutrophic lakes wereconsidered with regard to their applicability to Beira Lake.

Beira Lake is a hypertrophic, shallow, tropical lake whose waters do notshow a permanent stratification. A thick layer of sediments rich in nutrientsand organic matter is present at the bottom of the lake. These physico-chemical characteristics appear incompatible with those necessary for theeffectiveness of several restoration procedures ained at controlling nuisancealgae. More specifically, phosphoms precipitation, sediment inactivation,hypo-limnetic aeration or withdrawal, and artificial circulation have thusbeen discarded from the array of restoration techniques potentially applicableto lake systems.

Phosphorus precipitation would require an immense amount of alum, andthe stability of the flocculated material overlaying and inactivating thesediment would be jeopardized by factors which cause turbulence (e.g.winds, emanation of methane, etc.). Similarly, artificial circulation ofbottom waters may displace the loose sediment and result in negative effectssuch as an increase of the BOD and COD leading to oxygen depletion. Theshallowness of the lake is also associated with a lack of permanent thermalstratification, and the absence of a true hypo-limnion which effectivelyprevents the application of both hypo-limnetic aeration and withdrawal.Moreover, these last two techniques are not commonly used and are still atan experimental stage.

Three in-lake restoration procedures have been retained for their potentialeffectiveness and their applicability to Beira Lake: dredging of sediments,filtration of algae, and the stocking of algae-eating fish.

Dredging. The most enriched layers of the lake sediments could beremoved by dredging which would thereby reduce nutrient release from thebottom sediments and result in lower in-lake nutrient concentrations andreduction in algal "blooms. " Prior to this, the removal of surface debris andany remaining sunken barges would have to be undertaken.

The coring studies undertaken indicated that the top layer of sediments andthe organic clay layer beneath must be removed to limit or eliminate theabove problems. Estimates of the total volume of material to be dredged isapproximately 600,000 cubic meters. Disposal of dredged material would beat sea subject to the necessary environmental safeguards.


60

Filtration of Algae. Removal of algae would constitute another way toremove lake nutrients which have become incorporated in the algal biomass.Of the available technologies for removing cyanobacteria, the drainage tablemethod was deemed most suitable. Here the algae-loaded liquid would bepumped slowly onto a continuously moving canvas filter belt. The algalbiomass that collects on the belt would be scraped off and disposed of. Theentire unit would be fitted on a barge which would also have a generator topower the unit and detachable containers to receive the biomass removedfrom the water. Preliminary experiments carried out during the studyshowed that a one-stage (50 micron) filter would remove approximately 50percent of the suspended solids and with it 50 percent of the totalphosphorus in the water. It is expected that approximately 10 tons of driedalgal sludge would be extracted each year at a pumping rate of 100 cubicmeters per hour.

Stocking of Algae Eating Fish. The use of algae-eating fish as potentialbiological control agents constitutes a relatively inexpensive partial solutionto the problem of algal "blooms. " Introduction of Oreochromis fingerlingswhich are herbivorous may help to control nuisance algae while enhancingthe fishery potential of the lake.

Shoreline Beautification & Recreational Facilities

An evaluation of the existing problems, needs and potential of this urbanwater body and its verges, in respect of landscape and recreational potential,led to proposals for:

* maximum use of the water surface for recreation and passengertransport without conflict and management problems; and

* redevelopment of surrounding lands according to a comprehensiveurban design including visual integration of the lake into the fabric ofthe City and providing necessary public open spaces.

Recommended water-based activities include a mix of water buses, grouppleasure boating, rowing and canoeing, with pedalos in one small bay. Thestudy also recommended the creation of a typically urban waterfront,catering for optimum pedestrian access and intensive use, while includingmaximum possible compatible vegetation. The planting concept requires theestablishment of a luxuriant tropical vegetation character which wouldcontribute substantially towards a "green lung" for the City while providing

61

shade, coolness, dust reduction and beautification and helping to decreasepollutant inflow to the lake.

Also suggested was the creation of linear parks varying from 6 to 12 metersin width and wider nodal parks including recreation facilities with landmarkand focal feature buildings at the water's edge or on the water at carefullychosen locations. Small bays would be preserved to add interest and caterfor smaller scale water recreation activities (e.g. pedalos).

The study proposed that following the dredging operations, unstable, banksbe stabilized, mostly by gabion structures, while selected small coves wouldhave "pebble and boulder beaches" or "natural banks." It has beenrecommended that a plant nursery equipped with suitable vehicles andmachinery be set up in advance of restoration work on a priority basis tomeet the forecasted need for appropriate plant material (especially semi-mature trees) and to undertake actual planting and initial maintenance. Atthe same time, clearing of the shoreline, temporary fencing and cleaning ofthe areas earmarked for linear and nodal parks would be needed.

Land use zoning

Present Development Plan. The physical developments and themanagement of land uses in the Beira Lake catchment are guided by the Cityof Colombo Development Plan (1985) of the UDA. According to this plan,the lands in the Beira Lake catchment area generally fall under four land usezoning categories: Primary Residential, Mixed Residential, Commercial,and Public and Semi-Public, while some lands are designated for specificuses.

The type of uses that are permitted as well as the activities that areprohibited in different land use zones are defmed in the Development Plan.It also indicates the permissible building densities, in terms of Floor AreaRatio (FAR), for sites in different areas. The Development Plan has alsospecified some planning guidelines for Beira Lake and its surroundings.However, the objectives of the Development Plan in respect of the land usecharacteristics and environmental improvement around Beira Lake has notbeen fully realized through present planning practices and also due to thelack of direct and adequate intervention on the part of the governmentauthorities concerned.


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Unauthorized development in properties abutting the lake generally negatesthe planned objective of achieving and maintaining a pleasant environment.Encroachment of the water body has taken place by the squatter settlers andby established property owners and legal occupants around the lake, in spiteof the 20-feet-wide lake reservation stipulation in the UDA DevelopmentPlan and the SLPA claim for the ownership of a 6 feet-wide strip of landalong the border of Beira Lake. Implementation of planning guidelinesregarding the prohibition of warehouses, workshops, etc. around Beira Lakeis not possible within the context of the present development controlpractices, since such activities are permissible to a limited extent in the areasdesignated as mixed residential and commercial zones. Therefore, it wasfound necessary to identify specifically both desirable and undesirable typesof uses, with a view to encourage compatible uses, and determine theappropriate intensity of development allowable for different areas of theBeira Lake surroundings.

Development Potentials and Desired Uses. It was noted that the catchmentarea of Beira Lake, especially the immediate surroundings of the East Lakepossess an extremely high potential for commercial, residential, recreational,cultural and tourism-oriented development of high environmental quality.Accordingly, the following activities have been identified as the mostdesirable uses around Beira Lake. Based on this list, and having evaluatedthe compatibility of the existing activities of the premises around the lake,the study team formulated a conceptual development plan for the Beira LakeCore Area.

Commercial: retail shops, departmental stores, super markets, officesbanking institutions, consumer service establishments, professional serviceestablishments, business services (e.g. airline offices);

Residential: luxury apartments; residential hotels; high density, middle-income housing;

Cultural and Recreational: cultural centers, gymnasiumtgames centers,exhibition centers, cineplexes, clubs/bars and restaurants, parks andplaygrounds, promenades, floating restaurants, art galleries and museums,community centers for socio-cultural activities, outdoor recreational spaceswith special emphasis on water sports;

Others: environment friendly activities (even factories). Utilities such ascar parks to facilitate the above uses.

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Undesirable uses. The following are the activities identified as undesirableuses not only from an environmental point of view, but also consideringtheir inability for optimal economic utilization of lands.

Industnes and Workshops: Manufacturing industries and workshopsproducing effluents and wastes, automobile repair workshops and servicestations. Boat building and repairs, beverage factories;

Others: Stores and warehouses, container yards, agriculture and livestockfarming, wholesale trade, high security establishments.

Proposed Plan In the proposed Development Plan, the core area is dividedinto different sections of blocks under the "Dominant" land use categories:commercial, residential, cultural and recreational, mixed development ofdesired uses, parks and playgrounds, and areas designated for specific uses

ppX-~U ~z4\\~rFl\ h u w e Figure 18.RES GPrposed zoning plan

for the Beira lakecore area

0 ~~~~ETRIGBIALK

64

(figure 18). This classifications has been made taking into considerationsuch factors as: land ownership, land values, property sizes, status ofexisting developments, demand for development, traffic circulation patterns,and need for better enviromnental quality standards. In addition to the landuse specifications, the proposed plan also defines planning guidelines forbuilding densities, land subdivisions, plot coverage, building line setbackfrom the lake, and urban design practices in respect of each area category ofthe development plan.

Lake Management

Management of the Lake Water Level. The operation of the McCallumlock gates is under the supervision of the SLPA. The lock gates are used forthe transport of small boats and barges from the congested port facilities tothe SLPA boat repair facilities on the Beira Lake shoreline. Presently, theMcCallum lock gates are used on the average about 15 times per month.

The water losses result from (a) an increased operation of the McCallumlock gates, (b) evaporation on the lake surface, (c) seepage through the agedlock gates, (d) seepage through the lake's bottom and (e) industrial andcommercial uses. These may contribute to lower water levels anddeteriorate the lake's water quality during the dry seasons, when evaporationreaches its highest values, rainfall is minimal, and the water table is at itslowest.

The reduction of water-borne pollutant loadings from the storm-waternetwork will reduce the water inflow to the lake. The impact of thisreduction on the water budget of the lake was studied in order to determineif it would result in an important draw-down of the lake's water level duringthe dry seasons. Calculations revealed that this would cause the lowering ofthe water level by about 0.35 meter.

Flood Control. The BLRS team also considered the possible use of BeiraLake for flood control as requested by SLLR&DC, since the ColomboNorth area is subject to periodic flooding during the rainy season. In orderto prevent such flooding, the SLLR&DC had proposed the rehabilitation ofthe San Sebastian Canal, including the San Sebastian lock gates, and todirect the excess water towards Beira Lake. This solution would alsoinvolve some modifications to the existing structure of the semi-circularspillway in order to accommodate the excess flow.

65

However, considering the poor water quality of the San Sebastian Canal, thestudy team was of the opinion that directing water from the Canal into theBeira would have an adverse impact on the water quality of the East BeiraLake and thus would jeopardize the restoration efforts put into the leastpolluted section of Beira Lake. Flood waters carry significant amounts ofsuspended solids, nutrients and organic matter. Until the water quality ofthe San Sebastian Canal is improved, the use of Beira Lake for flood controlwas not recommended unless its use is limited to extreme cases or inemergency situations.

Institutional Arrangementsfor Project Implementation

One of the institutional problems that was identified during the Beira LakeRestoration Study was the multiplicity of government organizations that havetheir own limited and specific responsibilities over a given activity or area ofBeira Lake, its shoreline and catchment.

The multiplicity of organizations which take responsibility for the lake andits catchment has led to a situation where no single organization isresponsible for the lake and catchment as a whole, and where the specificconcerns and interests of the various organizations sometimes differs withthose of lake preservation. The study team found that the interventionsproposed to reduce pollutant loadings would fall under the purview of thefollowing institutions according to their current responsibilities:

* UDA: Coordination and implementation* CMC: Disconnection of unauthorized sewer lines; improvement to

solid waste management; street cleaning; reduction of the frequency ofthe sanitary sewer system overflows; connection of the septic tanks andsoakage pits to the sanitary sewer system

* NHDA: Upgrading squatter settlements* SLPA: Maintenance of the lake* SLLR&DC: Assisting SLPA in the maintenance of the South

West Lake* CEA: Reduction of industrial effluent loadings* NWS&DB: Necessary coordination in the Implementation of

the Greater Colombo Waste-water and Sanitation Master Plan


66

The study team proposed that the restoration and the development of BeiraLake's potential should be coordinated by one organization that would havethe overall responsibility of restoring and preserving the lake and itscatchment. This is because it is more efficient to assign overall managementof related environmental programs to a single agency than to have separategovernmental units dealing with each problem as it arises. By having oneentity responsible for the restoration, development and preservation of BeiraLake and its catchment, the public will have one clearly identified andreadily accessible body to voice their concerns and opinions.

Monitoring Program and Enforcement

Monitoring Program. Given the Lake's present condition, it will takeseveral years, after the sources of pollution are controlled, to produceobservable results. In order to assess the impact of the phase I interventions,a monitoring program will be implemented throughout the project durationand continue after the physical completion of project supported engineeringworks. The objectives of the monitoring program are threefold: (i) toquantify the improvement of water quality in storm water outfallsdischarging into the lake, (ii) to monitor the lake's water quality, and (iii) toestablish a temporal representation of the lake's condition to enableassessment of additional interventions which may accelerate its restoration.

If properly designed, the results of such a program would indicate thesuccess or failure of the restoration efforts attempted. Water qualitymonitoring of selected storm-water ouifa,ls would give a representation ofthe status of the lake. The parameters to be monitored would include totalphosphorus, total nitrogen, COD, BOD5, total suspended solids, fecalcoliforms and flow rate. Water samples would be collected at the sixoutfalls once every three months throughout the duration of the engineeringworks during the dry season at the same hour and on the same day of theweek.

This program would measure the lake 's water quality improvement duringthe implementation of the restoration strategy and enable additionalinterventions to be initiated, if required. Thus it would serve as amanagement tool in the implementation of the restoration strategy. Watersamples would be taken at mid-water column depth and be carried out onceevery three months at the nine sampling stations used by the NBRO durngthe 1993 BLRS program. The following parameters would be monitored:

67

total phosphorus, total nitrogen, COD, BOD5, total suspended solids, fecalcoliforms and chlorophyll-a.

Following the completion of phase I restoration work, the water sampleswill be collected and analyzed once a year against an expanded list ofparameters covering physical, chemical and biological aspects of the lake.These would include: Physical (temperature, turbidity, transparency,suspended solids, odor); General Chemical (pH, conductivity, hardness,BOD5, COD, dissolved oxygen); Inorganics (total nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite,ammonium, total phosphorus, orthophosphate, and the following heavymetals: iron, cadmium, chromium, nickel, lead, zinc, copper and mercury);Organics (oil and grease); and Biological (chlorophyll-a, fecal coliforms).In addition, an oxygen, temperature & pH vs. depth profile of the watercolumn would be carried out twice a year (once each during wet and dryseasons).

Diversity and variety of aquatic biology can be used as indicator organismsof improving water quality and consequently serve as a measure of the"health" of the lake. This would involve determining the speciescomposition of the phytoplankton communities once every two years atsampling stations in the East and South-West Lake. Increased diversificationfrom almost exclusively cyanobacteria to a more mixed plankton communityincluding diatoms would indicate improving "health" of the lake.

In addition a systematic monitoring program of the fish communities andchecking for heavy metals (mercury, chromium, cadmium, copper, lead,zinc, arsenic, nickel) in the flesh of commercial-size fish could also becarried out annually once phase I restoration works are completed.

Enforcement. While public awareness is crucial for long-term control ofpollution, in some cases, enforcement is the only way to control pollutionwhere prevention has failed. While there are adequate laws to monitor andcontrol pollution in Sri Lanka, effective implementation of these laws is aproblem. This is due to a variety of reasons not the least of them being thelack of personnel and resources. The area around the Beira would have tobe declared a special project area under UDA law and special regulationswill have to be formulated. Thus, illegal reclamation of the lake and thedumping of garbage on its shores would have to be severely punished. Aspecial team drawn from relevant state agencies would regularly inspect and


68

monitor water and environmental pollution of the area. Periodic verificationof unauthorized connections to storm-sewer network should be done in thecatchment and violators should be prosecuted. A special service forcewould patrol the lake ensuring the security of the area and preventencroachment, littering, dumping, vandalism, and settling of new squattersettlements in the nearshore area.

69Chapter Five

ACTION PLAN FOR A CLEAN BEIRA LAKE

According to the BLRS, the five components of the proposed RestorationStrategy were translated into an Action Plan to be implemented over a ten-year period in two phases (phase I - year one to four; phase II - years five toten). A combination of technical, social and institutional interventions weresuggested as follows:

Component 1: Reduction of Pollutant Loadings into the Lakeaddressed pollution entering the lake from its catchment. Interventionsincluded the engineering works required to improve or rehabilitate theexisting sewerage system in the catchment; reduction of industrial effluent;improvement to street cleaning and solid waste management and upgradingsquatter settlements. Further, to make these interventions effective,carrying out of an environmental public awareness program was alsoproposed. These interventions were to be implemented during phase I ofthe restoration program.

Component 2: In-Lake Restoration Procedures involved dredging,filtration of algae and the stocking of algae-eating fish aimed at acceleratingthe rehabilitation of the lake and controlling nuisance algae. These actionswere to begin during phase I and continue through phase II.

Component 3: Shoreline Beautification and Development ofRecreational Facilities dealt with cleaning the shoreline, stabilizing banks,appropriate landscaping, creating parks, walkways and developingrecreational facilities aiming at opening the lake shore to the public. Theseelements of the restoration program were to be implemented throughout bothphases.

Component 4: Lake/Catchment Development and ManagementProgram covered the institutional responses necessary to ensure propermanagement and maintenance of the lake once restored, together with


70

appropriate and compatible development of the lake surroundings. Theseaspects were to take place mainly during phase I.

Component 5: Monitoring Program and Enforcement aimed atproviding the necessary tools to monitor the progress of the restoration andenforce the regulations required to ensure sustainability of the restored lake.These activities were to begin during phase I and continue as required.

Significant improvement of the water quality in Beira Lake is expected to beobserved during years 4-6 of the action plan, after which the water qualitywould slowly improve further and reach an equilibrium. Most recreationaland tourist facilities would be provided for during phase II of component 3.However, the actual implementation of the above action plan is being carriedout with some modifications, necessitated by fiscal and practical constraints.

Public awareness ofBeira's potential will help

in its restoration goals

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IMPLEMENTATION OF PHASE I OF ACTION PLAN

The environmental initiatives begun by MEIP resulted in GOSL seekingfunding from IDA, the soft loan window of the World Bank, to implementsome of the initiatives. The result of this was the development of theColombo Environmental Improvement Project (CEIP) which becameeffective in December 1995. The total cost of CEIP is US$49 million, ofwhich US$13 million has been assigned to effect improvements to BeiraLake by implementing the priority actions in the BLRS Action Plan.

UDA has been charged with the role of implementing the plan and projectcomponents (figure 19). The priority package includes the following incomponent 1:

* Interception of unauthorized waste-water outlets now discharging tothe stonn drainage system and connecting them to the existingsewerage system (components 1.1 and 1.4);

- Reduction of sewerage overflows through cleaning sewer lines,rehabilitating pumping stations and adding a sewer line on thenorthwest bank of the East Lake (components 1.2, 1.3 and 1.5).

T-he following activities relating to components 1, 3 and 5 will be part of thetechnical assistance package to UDA financed through CEIP:

* Carrying out an environmental public awareness program;

* Formulation of further restoration measures for the lake such astechnical studies for future in-lake restoration activities, and

* Implementation of a program to monitor the water quality of storm-water outfalls opening into the lake and the lake itself.

It should be mentioned that the improvements to solid waste management inthe Beira catchment proposed under component 1 of the BLRS Action Planwill be addressed under the proposed Municipal Solid Waste ManagementProject for Colombo, also being funded under the CEIP.


72

Figure 19. . _ _ _ _ _ YearBeira Lake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Restoration COMPONENT 1 -Action Plan, Reduction Of Pollutant Loadings

Proposed 1,1 Diversion of unauthorized waste-waterImplementation connections from storm water to sanitary

Schedule sewer network1.2 Cleaning sanitary sewer network toprevent overflows1.3 Rehabilitating pumping Stations andadding new sewer lines1.4 Reduction of industrial effluentloading1.5 Connecting septic tanks and soakagepits to sanitary sewer network1.6 Improve solid waste managementpractices1.7 Upgrade squatter settlements _ __

1.8 Public Awareness programs __111111111111

COMPONENT 2In-Lake Restoration2.1 Technical Studies

2.2 Dredging r

2.3 Filtration of algaelother options(include. algae-eating fish)COMPONENT 3 -Shoreline BeautificationlRecreation3.1 Cleaning Shoreline, landscaping anddeveloping recreational facilities3.2 Stabilization of banks

COMPONENT 4 -LakelCatchment Development &Management4.0 Beira Lake Company, Business PlanCOMPONENT 5 -Monitoring & Enforcement5.1 Monitoring water quality - lake &storm water outfalls5.2 Enforcement

- - - - - - - -- duration of activities may be prolonged if judged necessary

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COST RECOVERY

The improvement and development of Beira Like should not be a burdenon the public budget, in view of the low-income level of Sri Lanka, and thefact that private interests will benefit from the lake improvement. Most ofthe improvement costs are, therefore, intended to be recovered in a varietyof ways, related to those who pollute the lake and who benefit from itsimprovement. The types of cost recovery are described below, related tothe components in figure 19.

User fees. The costs related to improving the sewerage system andcollection (components 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.5) would be paid by sewerageconnection charges to polluters and a general surcharge related to overallimprovements of the sewerage system. Solid waste management would becovered through local property tax increases or a separate fee (component1.6). The upgrading of squatter settlements would be fully or partiallyrecovered from the residents, based on their ability to pay through sale oftitled plots or lease charges.

Regulation. Private industries (component 1.4) would be required toinstitute pollution control at their own cost, or face heavy penalties.

Commercial enterprise. The BLRS also conducted a cost benefit analysiswhich explored methods by which cost recovery of the investment on thelake restoration could be realized. This was based on the premise that therewould be a demand for commercial, rather than residential, occupation ofthe restored lake shore area by those who would be willing to pay apremium for this privilege, thus contributing to the recovery of costs.Commercial establishments would also have a greater ability, and a vestedinterest, to pay towards the continuous maintenance of the lake compared tohouseholds. In addition, a restored lake with proper public access wouldcontribute to improving the quality of life of its numerous users. The costbenefit analysis concluded that the project would prove to be financiallyviable based on the largest component of marginal benefit, the increase inland value due to restoration.

Equity financing. With regards to the other main components, In-lakeRestoration (component 2.0), Shoreline Beautification/Recreation(component 3.0) and Lake Catchment Development & Management(component 4), these benefits accrue primarily to the landowners and


74

developers around the lake and should be supported by them. Therefore, itwas proposed that the vehicle for management and development of the lakesurroundings should be a public-private partnership of government agenciesand the private sector in a joint venture tentatively named the Beira LakeCompany (BLC). This development corporation could raise equity on thefinancial markets, and tax its members for the costs of development andoperations.

Subsequently, the restoration project would have long-term social andeconomic benefits by generating new employment, sustaining the know-howand appreciation of the unpolluted sites; and reducing some maintenance andcommunity health-related costs, adding also the unquantified benefits of anaesthetic environment that improves quality of life for all who would use thisimproved area of Colombo.

During the project preparation phase of CEIP, formulation of a business anddevelopment plan was initiated by the UDA and the necessary consultancyservices were obtained for its preparation. The business plan would serve asa basis for strcturing the BLC as a joint venture and to produce informationnecessary to seek private sector participation. The Scope of Work of theBusiness Plan is summarized in box 8. The plan is expected to becompleted early in 1996.

Proposed developmentof the shoreline

along the East Lake

f~~~~~~.4-~--~'

75

1. Identifying lands to be planned and developed under the purview of Beira Box 8.Lake Company (BLC). Scope of work for

Beira Lake Company2. Preparing a Master Plan for land development.

3. Reviewing existing laws and regulations to promote and stimulateinvestments and development relevant to the Project tasks and the BLC.

4. Recommending revisions and improvements as necessary to existing lawsand regulations to ensure maintenance of restored condition of the Lake.

5. Establishing the Market Feasibility of the Development Proposals andopportunities for growth.

6. Determining the optimum structuring of BLC.

7. Preparing proposals for the establishment, organization and structuring ofBLC

8. Investigation and identification of possible sources of private capital.

9. Preparation of a project schedule.

10. Preparation of a brochure to present the Business Plan to prospectiveentrepreneurs

11. In addition:(a) Recommending a strategy for rehabilitation of shanty dwellers and

Role of BLC in the task.(b) Identifying employment opportunities created through BLC

IMPLEMENTATION OF PHASE II OF ACTION PLAN

The success of phase I activities and the proper functioning of the BeiraLake Company are expected to lead to the implementation of the otheractivities,suggested in the BLRS Action Plan. These will include dredging,mechanical or biological actions to clean the lake and control algae (as perthe studies to be carried out in phase 1 under the CEIP), shorelinebeautification and development of recreational facilities, developmert of thesurrounding lands and rncessary enforcement measures.


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Epilogue

ACHIEVING A SUSTAINABLEASSET FOR COLOMBO

The concept and overall objective of the proposed development strategy is tointegrate the restored lake into the city where the lake will act as a catalystfor comprehensive development of appropriate, compatible and desirableuses of the living, working, traveling, marketing, shopping, entertainment,socio-cultural and recreational activities of the people in a functionally moreefficient and aesthetically more pleasing environment.

Owing to the neglected and unpleasant status of Beira Lake as highlighted inthe previous chapters, the full potential of the lake as an aesthetic, ecologicaland economic resource for Colombo City has not been realized. As discussin Chapter Three, previous restoration efforts were unsuccessful. Thesefailures can be attributed to addressing the physical problems in only apartial manner, and to the inadequate capacity of existing governmentorganizations to monitor and implement pollution control regulations and toproperly operate and maintain the sewerage, drainage and solid wastecollection systems.

One of the objectives of the current Beira Lake Restoration Project is,therefore, to find and implement viable solutions for a sustainable restorationof the lake. The present approach to restore the lake is one that recognizesthe importance of this body of water as a valuable asset and combines itsrestoration with a long-term opportunity for growth and development. Thisdevelopment, in turn, is one that guarantees sustainability of the restorationworks by allowing for the generation of revenue. Such an approach wouldultimately result in the upgrading of the living conditions of all inhabitants ofthe City of Colombo.

77

REFERENCES

1. ABERCROMBIE, P (1949) Colombo Regional Plan. A reportsubmitted to the Central Planning Commission, Colombo

2. BROHIER, R. L. (1984) Changing Face of Colombo (1505 - 1972)including Views of Colombo (1518 - 1900) - Ismeth Raheem, LakeHouse Investments Ltd., Colombo.

3. DE SILVA, R.K (1985) Early Prints of Ceylon 1800 - 1900,Serendib Publications, London (362 pp).

4. DE SILVA, R.K. and W.G.M. BEUMER (1988) Illustrations andViews of Dutch Ceylon 1602 - 1796, Serendib Publications, London(492 pp).

5. GEDDES, P. (1920) Town Planning in Colombo - A PreliminaryReport, Govermnent Printer, Colombo.

6. HULUGALLE, H.A.J. (1965) Centenary Volume of the ColomboMunicipal Council 1865 - 1965, Ceylon Government Press/ColomboMunicipal Council, Sri Lanka. (261 pp).

7. NATIONAL AQUATIC RESOURCES AGENCY (1985) BeiraLake (A Report of a Preliminary Study of the Beira Lake). Reportcompiled in collaboration with the Urban Development Authority, SriLanka Ports Authority, National Archives, Colombo Municipal,Council, Survey Department, Central Environmental Authority (45 pp).

8. PERERA, FR. S.G [S.J.] (1955) History of Ceylon I, ThePortuguese and the Dutch Periods 1505 - 1796. [6th Edition, Revised byFr. V. Pemicola (S.J.), The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Ltd.,Lake House, Colombo.


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9. PERERA, FR. S.G [S.J.] (1951) History of Ceylon II, The BritishPeriod 1795 - 1948. Sixth Edition, The Associated Newspapers ofCeylon Ltd., Lake House, Colombo.

10. ROCHE INTERNATIONAL and URBAN DEVELOPMENTAUTHORITY (1993) Beira Lake Restoration Study - Final Report(Volumes 1 & 2). Report Prepared for CIDA, World Bank/UNDPMetropolitan Environmental Improvement Program on behalf of theUDA, Colombo.

11. SALAS, H.J. and P. MARTINO (1991) The Control ofEutrophication of Lakes and Reservoirs. Man and the Biosphere SeriesVolume 1. UNESCO. The Parthenon Publishing Group. Paris (314 pp).

12. UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (1978)Colombo Metropolitan Region - Synthesis Report, Colombo Master PlanProject, Colombo.

13. URBAN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (1985) City of ColomboDevelopment Plan UDA, Colombo.

14. WADIA, D.N. (1941) The Beira Lake of Colombo - ItsFluctuations and Relation to Recent Changes in the Sea Level. Journal ofthe Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon) 35 (94): 91 - 94.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BLC Beira Lake CompanyBLMC Beira Lake Monitoring CommitteeBLRCC Beira Lake Restoration Coordinating CommitteeBLRS Beira Lake Restoration StudyBOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5 -five days BOD)CEA Central Environmental AuthorityCEIP Colombo Environmental Improvement ProjectCETF Canadian Environmental Trust FundCIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCMC Colombo Municipal CouncilCOD Chemical Oxygen DemandCPC Colombo Port CouncilEMS Environmental Management StrategyFAR Floor Area RatioGOSL Government of Sri Lankaha hectare (= 2.47 acres)IDA International Development Agency of the World BankMEIP Metropolitan Environmental Improvement ProgramMSL Mean Sea LevelNARA National Aquatic Resources AgencyNBRO National Building Research OrganizationNESC National Environmental Steering CommitteeNGO Non Governmental OrganizationNHDA National Housing Development AuthorityNPC National Program CoordinatorNWS&DB National Water Supply and Drainage BoardRs Rupee (1 US$ = Rs 50)SLAAS Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of ScienceSLLR&DC Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development CorporationSLPA Sri Lanka Ports AuthorityUDA Urban Development AuthorityUNDP United Nations Development Program


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CONTACT INFORMATION:

Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP)Enviromnent and Natural Resources DivisionAsia Technical DepartmentThe World Bank1818 H Street, NWWashington, DC 20433 USAtel: (202) 458-2726fax: (202) 522-1664

MEIP-ColomboMinistry of Policy Planning and Implementation3rd Floor, SethsiripayaSri Jayewardenepura KotteBattarmullaColombo, Sri Lankatel: (94-1) 863-954fax: (94-1) 863-905

Roche International3075, ch. des Quatre-BourgeoisSante-Foy (Quebec)Canada, GlW 4Y4tel: (418) 654-9600fax: (418) 654-9699

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