working paper - 6 coastal resources management

COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Formulation and Operationalization of National Action

Plan for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development through

Agriculture (NAPA)

Working Paper - 6

Yangon, June 2016

5.

Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock and Irrigation

7.

MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA)

Working Paper 6: Coastal Resources Management

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................................... i 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 2. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 1

2.1. Basic principles for the National Action Plan for Agriculture ......................................................... 1 2.2. Coastal resources management ........................................................................................................ 1 2.3. Myanmar .......................................................................................................................................... 2 2.4. Coastal regions of Myanmar ............................................................................................................ 3 2.5. Topography of the coastal regions of Myanmar ............................................................................... 3 2.6. Special economic zones in Myanmar ............................................................................................... 3 2.7. Dawei Special Economic Zone ........................................................................................................ 4 2.8. Thilawa Special Economic Zone ...................................................................................................... 5 2.9. Kyaukpyu Special Economic Zone .................................................................................................. 5 2.10. Sector history ................................................................................................................................. 5 2.11. Overall sector scope, status and performance ................................................................................ 6 2.12. Contribution to overall economy and livelihoods .......................................................................... 8

3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ......................................... 9 3.1. Integrated coastal management ........................................................................................................ 9 3.2. Coastal vulnerabilities .................................................................................................................... 11 3.3. Water resource management .......................................................................................................... 13 3.4. Water quality, water demand and supply ....................................................................................... 14 3.5. Waste management and sanitation ................................................................................................. 15 3.6. Integrating environmental management ......................................................................................... 18 3.7. Environmental education and awareness........................................................................................ 20 3.8. Management of information and knowledge .................................................................................. 21 3.9. Multilateral environmental agreements .......................................................................................... 23 3.10. Access to financial resources ....................................................................................................... 24

4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................. 25 4.1. Government institutions ................................................................................................................. 25 4.2. Research and education .................................................................................................................. 27 4.3. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), bilateral aid agencies and international

organizations ......................................................................................................................................... 28 4.4. Non-government organizations ...................................................................................................... 29 4.5. Regional bodies .............................................................................................................................. 30 4.6. Private sector .................................................................................................................................. 31

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ...................... 31 5.1. Coastal development – major sectors ............................................................................................. 31 5.2. Infrastructure development, industries, port and harbour development and transport sectors ....... 32 5.3. Mining sector ................................................................................................................................. 33 5.4. Hydropower and coal-fired power production sector ..................................................................... 33 5.5. Oil and gas sector ........................................................................................................................... 33 5.6. Tourism and recreational sector ..................................................................................................... 34 5.7. Coastal agriculture ......................................................................................................................... 34 5.8. Coastal livestock and farming ........................................................................................................ 35 5.9. Coastal forestry .............................................................................................................................. 36 5.10. Fishing and aquaculture industry ................................................................................................. 37 5.11. Community co-management ........................................................................................................ 39 5.12. High priority marine corridors ..................................................................................................... 39 5.13. Water quality ................................................................................................................................ 39 5.14. Natural hazards ............................................................................................................................. 40 5.15. Offshore resources........................................................................................................................ 41 5.16. Coastal issues ............................................................................................................................... 42

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS .............................................................................. 42 7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT ................................... 43 8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS ................................................................................ 43

8.1. Improving management of rural and coastal areas ......................................................................... 43



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8.2. Rural development and enterprise .................................................................................................. 44 8.3. Other rural renaissance initiatives .................................................................................................. 44 8.4. Forestry .......................................................................................................................................... 45 8.5. Aquaculture .................................................................................................................................... 46 8.6. Diversification of agricultural activity ........................................................................................... 47 8.7. Coastal zone management .............................................................................................................. 47 8.8. Fishing ............................................................................................................................................ 48 8.9. Mariculture ..................................................................................................................................... 49 8.10. Marine/coastal mineral extraction ................................................................................................ 50 8.11. Coastal protection ......................................................................................................................... 50 8.12. Nature conservation in coastal areas ............................................................................................ 51 8.13. Recreation and tourism ................................................................................................................. 51 8.14. Wind and wave energy ................................................................................................................. 52 8.15. Legal mechanisms to achieve coastal region management .......................................................... 53

9. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 55 ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 57 ANNEX 2: OVERVIEW OF STATES/DIVISIONS AND TOWNSHIPS IN MYANMAR ............. 59 ANNEX 3: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS .................................................................... 60

Intervention 1. Land-use policy ............................................................................................................ 60 Intervention 2: Integrated coastal management authority ..................................................................... 63 Intervention 3. Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR)

technique ............................................................................................................................................... 64 Intervention 4. Small-scale entrepreneur development ......................................................................... 66 Intervention 5. Developing fodder and woodfuel farms using native grasses and trees ........................ 68 Intervention 6. Harvesting rainwater ..................................................................................................... 69 Intervention 7. Alternative fuel and energy options .............................................................................. 71 Intervention 8. Skills assessment and capacity building ....................................................................... 73 Intervention 9. Natural resource mapping ............................................................................................. 75 Intervention 10. Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems ........................................ 76 Intervention 11. Coastal resources management, research and extension ............................................. 78



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ACRONYMS

ADB Asian Development Bank

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

BANCA Biodiversity and Nature Conservation

BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem project

CB Cooperative Bank

CBM Central Bank of Myanmar

CCS Central Cooperative Society

CSO Central Statistics Office

CSO Civil Society Organization

DAP Department of Agriculture Planning

DAR Department of Agricultural Research

DICD Department of Industrial Crops Development

DOA Department of Agriculture

DOF Department of Fisheries

DFID Department for International Development

DRD Department of Rural Development

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FD Forest Department

FY Financial Year

GAD General Administration Department

ICAM Integrated Coastal Area Management

IUU Illegal, unreported and unregulated (fishing)

LIFT Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund

MADB Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank

MoAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

MLFRD Ministry of Fisheries, Livestock and Rural Development

MOC Ministry of Cooperatives

MOECF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

MPA Marine Protected Area

MSAM Marine Science Association of Myanmar

NCEA National Commission for Environmental Affairs

NGO Non-government Organization

NAPA National Action Plan for Agriculture

NSPARD National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development

REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

SEE State Economic Enterprises

SEZ Special Economic Zone

SPDC State Peace and Development Council

TBD To Be Determined



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VFV Virgin, Fallow, and Vacant

WRUD Water Resources Utilisation Department

YAU Yezin Agriculture University

1. INTRODUCTION

The Myanmar Government has given high priority to rural development and poverty

alleviation and articulated a National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural

Development (NSPARD). This strategy has recognized the need for formulating several

sectoral strategies and plans, of which one would be for agriculture and rural development.

It is in this context that the Government of Myanmar requested the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN) to provide technical support for the

formulation of the NSPARD’s National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA). This

programme is multifaceted and includes coastal resources management.

2. BACKGROUND

Myanmar, since ancient times has been famous for its wealth of natural resources. The

Sanskrit name Suvarnabhumi, meaning ‘Golden Land’ has been associated with Myanmar

for over two millennia. Myanmar’s natural resources include pristine ecosystems like

mangroves, coral reefs, sea-grass beds, sandy beaches and intertidal mudflats, mountains,

terrestrial and wetland forests; fishery, oil and gas, various minerals, precious stones and

gems, timber and forest products, hydropower potential and so forth. Of these, natural gas,

rubies, jade, paddy, fishery and timber logs are the most valuable and currently provide a

substantial proportion of national income. Unsustainable development in Myanmar has been

damaging the coastal ecosystems (particularly mangrove forests), which provide resilience

against sea-level rise induced by global climate change and exacerbating rural poverty in

coastal areas. Exploitation of coastal resources has increased to such an alarming rate that it

is now time for their improved management and sustainable utilization. Therefore, an

overall strategy, particularly for coastal resources management, is imperative and the NAPA

is an ideal tool to pursue this.

2.1. Basic principles for the National Action Plan for Agriculture

The formulation process for the NAPA will strongly encourage the participation of

stakeholders at all levels to ensure a diversity of inputs to the plan and to foster ownership

by a wide range of stakeholders and the government. Poverty alleviation will be an

overriding focus of the NAPA and this will be reflected through the integration throughout

the plan of such key aspects as social protection, rural employment, women’s economic

empowerment and the strengthening of rural institutions and services as well as equitable

access to resources.

As a result of the fundamental shifts in priorities and policy orientation currently taking

place in Myanmar, the scope of the NAPA must also be broad enough to cover all important

segments and interlinkages within the agriculture and rural development sectors. Agriculture

in NAPA is defined broadly to include crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry as well as

several subsectors of the rural economy closely linked to agriculture such as agro-industries,

product value chains, markets, finance etc.

2.2. Coastal resources management

Coastal resources management includes a wide array of management practices such as: land-

use planning; legal, administrative and institutional execution; demarcation on the ground;

inspection and control of adherence to decisions; solution of land tenure issues; settling of

water rights; issuing of concessions for plant, animal and mineral extraction (e.g. wood and



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non-wood forest products, fishery resources, hunting, peat); and safeguarding the rights of

different interest groups (e.g. traditional and indigenous people, women).

Coastal area management is too complex to be handled by traditional sectoral planning and

management. To be effective, planning for integrated coastal area management (ICAM)

must be coordinated between sectoral implementing agencies. A balanced management

perspective is needed in which intersectoral relationships are fully understood, trade-offs

recognized and anticipated, benefits and alternatives critically assessed, appropriate

management interventions identified and implemented, and necessary institutional and

organizational arrangements worked out. This is the essence of ICAM.

2.3. Myanmar

Myanmar is situated in Southeast Asia and is bordered to the north and northeast by the

People’s Republic of China, to the east and southeast by Lao PDR and Thailand, to the south

by the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal and to the west by Bangladesh and India It is

located between 09 32' north and 28 31' north latitudes and 92 10' east and 101 11' east

longitudes.

The country covers an area of 677 000 km2 ranging 936 kilometres from east to west and 2

051 kilometres from north to south. It is a land of hills and valleys and is rimmed in the

north, east and west by mountain ranges forming a giant horseshoe. Enclosed within the

mountain barriers are the flatlands of the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin and Sittaung River

valleys where most of the country's agricultural land and population are concentrated.

Climatically Myanmar has summer, rainy, and winter seasons. Summer lasts from the end of

February to the beginning of May, with the highest temperatures occurring during March

and April, in Central Myanmar sometimes exceeding 43.3°C, in Northern Myanmar about

36.1°C and on the Shan Plateau between 29.4°C and 35°C. The rainy season extends from

mid-May to the end of October with annual rainfall of less than 40 inches in Central

Myanmar while the coastal regions of Rakhine and Tanintharyi receive about 200 inches.

Winter starts in November and lasts to the end of February with temperatures in hilly areas

of over 3 000 feet dropping below 0°C.

Myanmar's population of approximately 54.6 million makes it the world's 25th

most

populous country (ADB 2012); it is the second largest country in Southeast Asia.

Rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, sugar cane; fish and fish products; and hardwood

are the major agricultural products. Currently, agricultural processing; wood and wood

products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement and construction materials; pharmaceuticals;

fertilizer; oil and natural gas; garments; jade; and gems are the industrial outputs of the

country. Natural gas, wood products, pulses, beans, fish, rice, clothing, jade and gems are

the major export commodities and fabric, petroleum products, fertilizer, plastics, machinery,

transport equipment, cement, construction materials, crude oil, food products and edible oil

are imports.

Myanmar claims to have three national parks and 17 wildlife sanctuaries (including two

marine and three wetland environments), which together protect about 1 percent of the

nation's total land surface; the government reports plans to raise protection to 5 percent by

the end of the century.

Since the transition to a civilian government in 2011, Myanmar has aimed at attracting

foreign investment and reintegrating into the global economy. The government’s

commitment to reform and the subsequent easing of most Western sanctions, has begun to

pay dividends. The economy accelerated in 2012 and 2013. Myanmar’s abundant natural



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resources, young labour force and proximity to Asia’s dynamic economies have attracted

foreign investment in the energy sector, garment industry, information technology and food

and beverages. Foreign direct investment grew from US$1.9 billion in FY 2011 to US$2.7

billion in FY 2012 and stood at US$4.11 billion during the fiscal year to March 2014

(Central Statistics Organization, Myanmar 2014). Despite these improvements, living

standards have not improved for most of the people residing in rural areas. Myanmar

remains one of the poorest countries in Asia − more than one-fourth of the country’s

estimated 54.6 million people live in poverty. Key benchmarks of sustained economic

progress would include modernizing and opening of the financial sector, increasing budget

allocations for social services and accelerating agricultural and land reforms

2.4. Coastal regions of Myanmar

Myanmar has a rich and diverse coastline, a fertile coastal plain, productive offshore waters

and a tropical climate that provides a strong basis for integrated sustainable development

that will support both a prosperous society and healthy ecosystems and biodiversity.

One-third of Myanmar’s total perimeter of 1 930 kilometres forms an uninterrupted

coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.

Myanmar’s coastline can be divided into three major coastal regions and portions of the

three divisions viz., Yangon, Bago and Mon also fall under the coastal region:

The Rakhine coastline is about 740 kilometres long and extends from the Naff

River to Mawtin Point. It is shallow and deltaic in the northern section and

rocky in the southern part.

The Deltaic coastal region extends about 460 kilometres from Mawtin Point to

the Gulf of Mottama (Martaban) and consists of the entire river-mouth areas

of three major rivers, the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Thanlwin.

Sedimentation at a rate of about 250 million tonnes per year results in seaward

delta growth at a rate of about 50 metres per year. The southeastern portion of

the central deltaic area comprises the coast of Mon State. Here, the Thanlwin

River opens into the Gulf of Mottama (Martaban) and ‘Balu- Kyune’ (Giant

Island) lies at its mouth.

The 900 kilometre-long Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) coastline extends from the

Gulf of Mottama south to the mouth of the Pakchan River. It is fringed in the

southern part by the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago island chain. There are

many estuaries and islands along these coastal regions.

2.5. Topography of the coastal regions of Myanmar

In the northwest, the coast has rocky ridges with deep channels. South of Cape Negrais, the

southern delta coast is formed by silt from the Ayeyarwaddy and other rivers. From the

mouth of the Sittang River, the coast stretches to the south, studded with inlets, rocky cliffs

and coral reefs.

The Rakhine coastal plain forms a narrow strip, mostly between 5 and 20 kilometres wide,

but up to 60 kilometres in places, rising to the Rakhine Yoma mountain range parallel to the

coast to the east. It is traversed by a number of short, fast-flowing rivers. The Ayeyarwaddy

Delta and its adjoining coastal plains form an expanse of fertile alluvial land with a network

of small rivers and streams extending northward inland to varying distances of some 80 to

320 kilometres. The Tanintharyi coastal plain in the south is similar to the Rakhine plain,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_Sea



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being narrow, crossed by short rivers and rising to the Tanintharyi Yoma mountain range

parallel to the coast.

Many rivers flow into the coastal zones such as the Mayu and Kaladan rivers in the Rakhine

coastal area, the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Thanlwin rivers in the Delta coastal area and

the Ye, Dawai, Tanintharyi and Lenya rivers in the Tanintharyi coastal area.

Offshore, there are many large islands and hundreds of smaller ones. The islands off

Myanmar's western coast and delta have been formed by erosion of the shoreline. Just off

the northwest (Rakhine) coast, the large islands of Ramree (1 350 km2) and Cheduba (523

km2) support volcanic activity. Bilugyun is a large island on the southwest coast. Also in the

southwest is an undersea ridgeline that forms the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago, with islands

ranging in size from Kadan Island (440 km2) to small rocks. The Myeik Archipelago extends

from Mali Island to Similan Island and includes about 800 islands covering an area of about

34 340 km2 lying up to 30 kilometres offshore. Coral reefs surround the outer islands and

mangroves cover many of the inner islands.

In terms of Myanmar’s territorial sea zone, it has limits of 12 nautical miles (nm), the

contiguous zone is 24 nm and the continental shelf is 200 nm or to the edge of the

continental margin (0-200-metre depth), covering an area of approximately 2 30 000 km2; it

is relatively narrow off the Rakhine coast, widest (and still growing) off the central delta and

there is a relatively wide portion off Tanintharyi to the south.

The oceanographic conditions of Myanma marine waters are governed by the monsoon

regime and the influence of the Ayeyarwaddy River reaches far out to the coastal waters

around Myanmar. Inland waterbodies like natural lakes, reservoirs, river systems and ponds

cover a total area of about 13 327 km2. Inland water systems together with the high annual

rainfall provide vast water resources for the country. Wetland fauna and flora are found in

many parts of the country. The principal wetlands are mangroves, swamp forests, lakes and

marshes.

Information on corals is scare mainly due to limited funds and tools essential to access

present coral status. Rakhine, and Tanintharyi coastal areas are favourable grounds for both

hard and soft corals. In particular, the offshore islands of the Myeik Archipelago are most

abundantly distributed with diverse coral communities. The reef formation in the

Ayeyarwaddy coastal zone is restricted to Coco and Preparis islands which lie far off the

influence of river runoff.

The mangroves are still relatively pristine compared to those in the neighbouring countries

such as Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Estimated total mangrove forest cover was 531

000 ha in 1980, but in 2010 it was around 312 000 ha according to Forest Department

statistics. Again in 2010, Forest Statistics indicated it was 659 033 ha, however this also

included encroachments by agriculture, fisheries and others inside the mangrove forests of

around 346 590 ha. Mangrove forests in Myanmar cover 494 584 ha, that is 3.6 percent of

the global total (Giri et al. 2011), using earth observation satellite data.

Table 1: Description of the coastal regions of Myanmar

Coastal region Agriculture Resources Tourism

Rakhine State*

Rakhine State is

located between

17o 21'N and

21o 24 'N

latitudes and

92o 10 'E and

94o 54 'E

longitudes

bordering

Bangladesh to

the northwest,

Chin State to the

north, Magway

Division, Bago

Division and

Ayeyarwaddy

Division to the

east and the Bay

of Bengal to the

west and south

Agriculture is

the main

economic

activity:

principal crops

being paddy,

chili, Myanmar

tobacco,

coconut, betel

nut and dhani.

Groundnut,

maize, rubber,

matpe, bocate

bean, soybean,

and gram are

also cultivated.

The

Kissapanadi

River runs

through the

state, giving

water for

plantation

Oil exploration is in progress

along Rakhine offshore.

Rathetaung Township,

Baronga Island, Cheduba

Island, Ramree Island and

Muwe island produce some

oil. Coal is found in Sittwe

Township and marble in

Taungup Township. There is

a four-mile-long limestone

hill on Ramree Island. Half

of the state is covered with

forests that yield valuable

woods and bamboos. Solar

salt making is another

occupation in Thandwe,

Taungup and Kyaukpyu

townships

The main lines of

communication to Rakhine

State are by sea and by air.

Kyaukpyu port is a good

international freighter port

The famous

unspoiled Ngapali

beach is in Rakhine

State, stretching

along the Bay of

Bengal. It is famous

for its clean aqua

blue water and the

sandy beach. There

are many luxury

hotels for tourists

and locals for

accommodation. The

southern beach of

Kanthaya is reached

from Ayeyarwaddy

Division by road.

Mrauk U, or the

ancient city of the

Rakhine Dynasty is

also a popular

destination in this

state

Ayeyarwaddy

Region*

The

Ayeyarwaddy

Region covers

the deltaic coast

of the

Ayeyarwaddy

River. On the

northwest and

west of this

division are the

Bay of Bengal

and Rakhine

State, on the

north and east is

Bago Division,

on the east is the

Yangon Division,

and on the south

is the Andaman

Sea

The division is

the top paddy

producer in the

country and is

commonly

known as ‘the

granary of

Myanmar’.

Agriculture is

the main

occupation of

the people.

The fertile

alluvial soil of

the delta

enables

cultivation of

paddy,

groundnut,

sesame,

coconut,

banana, jute,

tobacco, chili,

onions, pulses

and tapioca

The division is criss-crossed

with rivers and lakes and is a

major producer of fish paste,

dried fish and dried prawns.

The Inyegyi Fishery is

famous for its scenic beauty.

In addition to freshwater

fishery, the division is also

engaged extensively in sea-

fishing and salt-making

industries

The capital city of

Ayeyarwaddy Region is

Pathein, which is famous for

the Pathein umbrella and

Pathein Halawar (greasy rice

cakes). Now the new road

linking Pathein to Sagaing

division (Monywa, Kale,

etc.) has been developed.

The road passes the plain of

Magwe Division between the

Ayeyarwaddy River and the

western hills of Rakhine and

Chin states

Relaxing spots like

Ngwe Saung Beach

and Chaung Thar

beach are in this

division. These

beaches are along the

coast of the Bay of

Bengal. It is about

only 4 hours’ drive

from Yangon, and

easily accessible by

car.

Yangon Region

Yangon Region

has the main port

Yangon. The city

Yangon Region

is one of the

major paddy

production

areas. Main

For regional development,

272 state-owned factories

have been built and four are

under construction. The

Myanma pharmaceutical

Yangon is the main

port by air and sea.

All other places can

be visited from

Yangon. The main



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lies where

16o 19'N latitude

intersects

96o 52'E

longitude.

Yangon Region

is located at the

eastern extremity

of the

Ayeyarwaddy

Delta area with

the Andaman Sea

to the southeast,

Bago Region to

the north and the

Ayeyarwaddy

Region to the

west

crops are

paddy,

groundnut, jute,

pulses, rubber

and sugar cane.

The whole

region is

engaged in

implementing a

special high-

yield paddy

cultivation

project

industry, steel mills,

tarpaulin, aluminium, tile,

soap, glass, rubber ball,

shuttle-cock, umbrella and

footwear factories are

located in Yangon Region

Yangon Region is

economically developed as it

is at a strategic spot in the

communications network.

Roads, railways, waterways

and airways connect Yangon

City with the whole country.

Yangon's ports are always

busy with international sea

and air traffic

Yangon Port is the main

gateway to the country for

all imports and out of the

country for all exports. It is

handling 85 percent of the

nation's overseas trade

There are microwave

stations with automatic

telephone exchange for

inland communications.

Twenty-four-hour overseas

telephone and telex services

connect Myanmar with 114

world nations via a satellite

ground station. The national

TV stations and radio

stations are in Yangon

landmark of Yangon

is the Shwedagon

Pagoda. Other

famous pagodas are

Sule, Kabaraye, Ko

Htat Gyi, Chauk Htat

Gyi and so on. The

Bogyoke Aung San

Market is a tourist

destination. There

are over 40 colonial

buildings in Yangon.

Nearby places such

as Thanlyin, Dalla,

Twante, Bago can be

accessed easily from

Yangon

Bago Region

Bago Region is

located between

Mandalay Region

and Magwe

Region in the

north, Rakhine

State and

Ayeyarwaddy

Region in the

west, Yangon

Region in the

south, Kayin

State and Mon

State in the east.

Its capital is

Bago City

Its main

occupation is

agriculture,

growing paddy,

sesame,

groundnut,

pulses, jute,

rubber, tobacco

and sugar cane

Bago Region's forests

produce valuable woods

such as teak, pyinkado,

ingyin and the plywood mill

in Swa produces high-

standard plywood.

Zeyawaddy Sugar Mill, No.

3, the Heavy Industries

Corporation Mill at Sinde of

the Ministry of Industry (2),

the textile mill at Shwe

Daung, Jute Baling Mills at

Taungoo, Pyay and

Tharyarwaddy, Ceramics

Factory at Tharyarwaddy are

well known factories. The

North Nawin Dam on Nawin

Chaung in Pyay Township is

the biggest dam in Myanmar

Bago Region is an

economically

strategic region with

a network of roads

and railways. Bago

Shwemawdaw

Pagoda is one of the

most famous

reclining Buddha

images in Myanmar.

The Kanbawza

Thardi Royal Palace

of the Bago Dynasty

is not far from

Yangon



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Mon State

Mon State is

located between

14o 52'N and

17o 44'N latitudes

and 96o 53'E and

98o 13'E

longitudes

bounded on the

north by Bago

Division, on the

east by Kayin

State, on the

south by

Tanintharyi

Division and on

the west by the

Gulf of Martaban

Principal crops

are paddy,

groundnut,

pulses, rubber,

sugar cane,

coconut, betel

nut, dhani,

durian,

rambutan and

mangosteen

The state is the top producer

of rubber. Tin, antimony and

white clay are some of its

natural products.

Manufacturing-wise, there

are the Sittang Pulp and

Paper Mill, Billin Sugar

Mill, Thanbyuzayat Rubber

Factory, Mudon Textile Mill

and Mupon Ceramics

Factory

Tobacco pipes, hot water

bottles, rubber balloons,

plaster figurines, feather-

brooms, coconut-shell

handicrafts are successful

products in Ywalut village of

Belugyun. Zeebyuthaung is

Myanmar's first sea-fishing

cooperative village. Salt-

making is another reliable

economic activity.

Kyaikhtiyo Pagoda

or the Golden Rock

is located in the state

Tanintharyi

Region*

Lies at the

southern end of

Myanmar. The

region has

common borders

with Thailand to

the east and

southeast, Mon

State to the north,

and the Andaman

Sea to the west.

Out of about 1

000 islands along

Myanmar's

coastline over

800 are off the

Tanintharyi

coast. Dawei is

the capital

The main crops

are paddy, betel

nut, coconut,

rubber and

dhani. Tapioca,

rambutan,

durian and

mangosteen are

also grown on a

large scale. Oil-

palm is being

grown under a

special project

The region is rich in natural

resources. The famous mines

of Heinda, Hamyingyi,

Kanbauk, Yawa,

Kyaukmetaung, Nanthida

and Yadanabon produce

many metals. Pearls cultured

at Pearl Island earn a great

amount of foreign currency

at the Myanma Gems

Emporia. Arrangements are

being made for the sea-

fishing industry along

Tanintharyi coast to supply

domestic consumption and

exports. Birds' nests are also

being gathered from offshore

islands. This part of the

country is the main fishery

product market of Myanmar

The Salone tribes

inhabit the Myeik

Archipelago, and

yearly there are

festivals. Diving trips

can also be arranged.

Kawthaung is the

southernmost point

of Myanmar and the

border check point to

enter Thailand

2.6. Special economic zones in Myanmar

The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is about 486 000 km2 (World Fact Sheet 2014 and

http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/nat_Myanmar.pdf).

Following economic reforms, Myanmar soon began to further facilitate the establishment of

special economic zones (SEZs). In 2011, Myanmar established the Central Body for the

Myanmar Special Economic Zone, a regulatory body responsible for overseeing foreign



4

investment in the country. The Myanmar SEZ Law and the Dawei SEZ Law were also

passed in 2011, which established several SEZs throughout Myanmar to encourage

economic growth and foreign investment (ASEAN Briefing, June 28, 2013).

A primary draw of the SEZ laws includes several incentives, such as:

A five-year tax holiday;

50 percent income tax relief on items exported overseas for five years;

50 percent income tax relief on reinvested profits from overseas exports for

five years;

A five-year exemption on customs duties on approved products;

The granting of 30-year land leases;

SEZs which offer tax exemptions for different sectors (five years for

production, eight years for high-tech, two years for agriculture, livestock

breeding and forestry, and one year for banking) are undergoing preliminary

establishment in Sittwe Township and Kyaukpyu Township in Rakhine State.

The six free trade zones will be Thilawa Port in Yangon, Maw-la-myine in Mon State,

Myawaddy and Hpa-an in Kayin State, Kyaukphyu in Rakhine State and Pyin Oo Lwin in

Mandalay Region. According to the country's Special Economic Zone Law's Act 7, Section

36, homes and farming properties located on a proposed SEZ must be duly relocated and

reimbursed. There are currently three SEZs under development in Myanmar: Dawei SEZ,

Thilawa SEZ and Kyuakpyu SEZ. An international-standard airport is also to be constructed.

Investment into Myanmar’s SEZs has been steady; with companies hoping to take advantage

of the burgeoning economy and friendly investment incentives it offers. Despite some

worries over existing infrastructure deficiencies in Myanmar, investors continue to see a

positive outlook for the region. Most recently, India has offered US$150 million to begin

establishing a fourth SEZ in the city of Sittwe. India has completed Kaladan Port and shortly

will hand it over to the government.

2.7. Dawei Special Economic Zone

A deep-sea port and industrial estate spanning 250 km2 are currently being built in the

Dawei SEZ located in Southeast Myanmar along the Andaman coast. The area will be home

to several industries, including steel, fertilizer, power and petrochemical plants. There will

also be a shipyard for construction and repair of vessels using the port, which is expected to

see 100 tonnes of freight each year upon completion.

The project has received funding and support from several nations and international

companies. Most recently, Thailand has joined Myanmar in contributing capital to the

Dawei SEZ project, and it has taken part in an infrastructure development plan for the area.

Thailand will contribute 35 percent of the costs for the construction of the deep-sea port.

Also, the Italian-Thai Industrial Group will contribute US$300 million to develop the

industrial estate project, and will be given a 25 percent share of the project’s management in

return.

Japan, China, and Republic of Korea (ROK) will also participate in the development of the

SEZ. Tourist, recreational, and residential developments are also planned.

http://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/author/asean-briefing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sittwe_Township

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyaukpyu_Township

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhine_State

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thilawa_Port

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myawaddy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hpa-an

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyaukphyu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyin_Oo_Lwin



5

2.8. Thilawa Special Economic Zone

The Thilawa SEZ project is located in Myanmar’s southern Yangon region and shares its

border with Dawei. The project is in the early stages of development, but has already

received significant financial commitments from Japanese companies. The SEZ will be

home to textile, manufacturing and high-tech industries, as well as a deep-sea port.

Myanmar and Japan will jointly develop the area, with Japanese companies holding a 49

percent stake in the project.

The Thilawa project has been attractive to investors due to its proximity to Myanmar’s

commercial hub and existing ports. The first phase of construction is expected to cost

US$205 million, and it will be completed in 2016.

2.9. Kyaukpyu Special Economic Zone

The Kyaukpyu SEZ is located along the central western coast of Myanmar on Ramree

Island. The area already serves as a port for export and transportation of Myanma goods,

such as rice.

An oil and gas terminal financed by the China National Petroleum Corporation is in the final

stages of construction, and a pipeline linking Myanmar and China is in the works in the area

as well. Furthermore, a container port and gas-turbine power plant are also under

development.

Plans for the SEZ are being finalized this year, and completion of the first phase is expected

in 2016. The area will be home to industrial, logistics and service industries, and will focus

on processing local resources, such as agricultural goods and minerals.

The Kyaukpyu SEZ has been attractive to Chinese investors due to its strategic location as

the quickest trade route by sea between India and China. Also, extensive rail and air

infrastructures are currently being developed in the region to increase linkage between China

and Kyaukpyu.

The area is expected to rival Singapore as the region’s petrochemical hub upon completion.

2.10. Sector history

Coastal regions, which are home to a large and growing proportion of the population, are

undergoing environmental decline. Because there is no common definition of what

constitutes a coastal region, estimates of coastal populations vary. Most are based on an area

within 60 to 200 kilometres of the shoreline and may include evergreen forests, coastal

floodplains, mangroves, marshes, and tide flats (coastal areas affected by the rise and fall of

the tide), sandy beaches, dunes, sea-grass beds and coral reefs. The term ‘coastal regions’

also covers marine fisheries because the bulk of the world's marine fish harvest is caught or

reared in coastal waters.

Coastal areas help to prevent erosion; filter pollutants; and provide food, shelter, breeding

areas, and nursery grounds for a wide variety of organisms. Coastal regions also provide

critical inputs for industry, including water and space for shipping and ports; opportunities

for recreational activities such as fishing and diving; and other raw materials, including salt

and sand.

The challenge for policy-makers and coastal resource managers is to figure out how to reap

the economic benefits of coastal resources while preserving them for future generations.

Addressing population issues is key to achieving such balance.



6

2.11. Overall sector scope, status and performance

The coastal waters of Myanmar have been heavily exploited since the introduction of

trawling in the 1970s. Several signs of overfishing are visible and there is considerable

concern, particularly because of demand for fish for local consumption and because the vast

majority of fishers are artisanal fishers dependent on coastal waters for their livelihood. The

trawl fisheries are considered the most destructive. The need for managing the coastal

fisheries has been recognized and several efforts have been undertaken. Licensing of vessels

and banning trawl fishing within a five-mile limit in Rakhine and Tanintharyi coastal regions

and a 10-mile limit in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta coastal region have not been successful due to

inadequate monitoring and enforcement and this needs to be addressed. Environment

degradation, especially in the estuarine regions, is also a concern.

The role of the government in coastal wetland ecosystems’ destruction cannot be ruled out.

The Ayeyarwaddy Delta consists of the extended and fertile plain of the southern part of

Myanmar, around 180 miles long and 150 miles wide. When the British occupied the lower

part of the country in 1852, the delta was tall jungle and high grass. During the period,

native colonists from the parched fields in the formerly Upper Burma became attracted by

the delta and started clearing the jungle because of the regularity of its fertilizing rain and

unfailing monsoon. Many of those pioneers died due to harsh conditions but their

descendants benefited by staying. The colonial government encouraged the immigration

from Upper Burma by adopting the ‘dama-u-gya’ system, which had allowed any person to

clear and cultivate any land to which no previous occupant laid claim. Thus, the cleared

mangrove land became the private property of the cultivator, which could be mortgaged,

sold or bequeathed to descendants (Furnivall 1957).

Two dominant types of land system out of the five introduced during the period of British

rule were the patta system and squatter type (Furnivall 1957). Under the patta system, the

government granted tenure before the cultivator cleared the land. On the other hand,

‘squatter’-type land was similar to the dama-u-gya system in the feudal days in which most

cultivators became landholders by clearing and cultivating a patch of jungle or scrub. Either

form of tenure gave the landholder a permanent and heritable title to the land, which could

be sold, mortgaged or transferred. To promote immigration into the Delta, the government

waived payment of the capitation tax for the first two years after a migrant’s arrival.

The cultivated land in the Delta increased from 600 000 acres in 1852-1853 to 6.7 million

acres in 1902-1903 and then to 8.9 million acres in 1922-1923, therefore, 8.9 million acres

of mangroves were reclaimed for paddy cultivation in 70 years’ time. The area of rice by

clearing mangroves grew to 11.6 million acres in 1926. The density of population clearing

mangroves in the Delta rose from 45 per square mile in 1852 to 152 in 1930 (Christian

1942).

The Working Plan, 1958-1970 states that in the past the yield from mangroves was 1.68

tonnes/acre/annum from the annual coupe of 33 280 areas, but the out-turn was fixed

conservatively at 50 000/tonnes/annum. In the Ayeyarwaddy Delta on average there were

11.66 trees per acre of 2.0′ girth that yielded 4.42 tonnes/ha; however, in the mangroves of

Rakhine there were only 9.5 trees per acre. Ayeyarwaddy Delta mangroves were then

destroyed to accommodate 62 percent (432 200 hoppus tons of charcoal) of the demand for

charcoal by Yangon (700 000 hoppus tons of charcoal).1

1 1 hoppus ton = 1.8027 m

3.



7

The military government (1962-2011), since 1963 introduced four laws and decreed the

abolition of landownership by tenanted owners. As in the 1948 Constitution, the 1974

Constitution confirmed that ownership of the land was vested in the state. However, the

slogan of the agrarian reform in the military government changed from ‘Land to the tiller’ to

‘Right to cultivate to the tiller’ as the land belongs to the state (Mya Than 1984).

The government started the land reclamation programme in 1998 to develop large tracts of

land of about 22 million acres to be farmed by private entrepreneurs. The land includes deep

water or wetland, coastal land and Dry Zone land not under cultivation. In the Delta, which

comprises Ayeyarwaddy Division, Yangon Division and Bago Division, there are two types

of such land, wetland and coastal land. As of June 1999, a total of about 1.2 million acres

had been allocated to some 80 business groups in the whole country and 35 percent of the

total leased land was in the Delta, mostly in Yangon and Ayeyarwaddy divisions. Most

holdings were around 3 000 to 5 000 acres and the largest was 72 000 acres. Under the

Myanmar’s Land Reclaiming Scheme (Warr 2000) in the Ayeyarwaddy Division the total

coastal wetland forests leased out for land reclamation was 246 366 acres and total land

developed was 65 456 acres in June 1999.

From the mid-1970s most of the coastal forests were completely cleared for paddy

cultivation. Until 1978 fishery was also plentiful in mangroves and later in 1982 the decline

in fishery was realized by the fishing stakeholders.

In 1995 the introduction of the Community Forest Instruction (CFI) paved the way for

overexploitation of particular allotted patches and subsequent degradation. Under the CFI

mangrove areas were demarcated and handed over to the community for utilization and

management.

Up to 1999, 3 500 acres of mangroves had been handed over to communities under the CFI

scheme. However, in several cases only degraded mangrove patches and shrubby secondary

vegetation mixed with invaded or introduced terrestrial tree stands were evident in the

mangroves of the Delta. The Forest Department now needs to provide attention and

technical support to these communities; it should also have regular short- and long-term

monitoring schemes to follow up on the CFI programme and rectify shortcomings, if there

are any. No periodic monitoring will doom the unique concept followed by the Forest

Department to failure. It was understood from the director-general that the Ministry of

Forests is developing a management plan and committee to follow up evaluation and

monitoring of CFI-allotted forest land.

From 1979 to 1985 the World Bank funded land reclamation for paddy which resulted in

blocking of several canals inside the mangroves which helped the ecosystem to survive

through long peripheral tracts of earthen bunds. Disruption of hydrology has destroyed and

is still destroying larger expanse of mangroves in the Delta and Rakhine Region.

From 1979 to 1985 the World Bank funded a land reclamation project for paddy cultivation;

it constructed long peripheral bunds which resulted in obstruction of several canals flowing

inside the mangroves, destroying the mangrove vegetation. Disruption of hydrology has

destroyed and is still destroying larger expanse of mangroves in the Delta and Rakhine

Region.

In Myanmar aquaculture in mangroves has been introduced since 1980 on a pilot scale. The

expansion of aquaculture has increased fisheries production. Based on shrimp pond

operations in 2000, this was about 28 000 ha then, increasing to 49 000 ha in 2003 and a

significant leap in 2013 to 87 248.84 ha with shrimp production of 56 982.02 tonnes. In

2003 about 16 400 acres were expanded for shrimp farming in Ayeyarwaddy mangroves

damaging sensitive ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands.



8

During the last 15 years, many reefs south of latitude 11 north have suffered much

destruction. Especially within the island ecosystems of Tanintharyi coastal zone, coral reefs,

mangroves and fisheries resources have been heavily exploited. Stringent rules and strict

enforcement cannot control the resources of Tanintharyi coastal and marine areas because

the coast is about 1 200 kilometres long. In addition, the huge area of approximately 34 34

km2 of the Myiek Archipelago that consists of about 800 islands makes any effective

administration and law enforcement almost impossible under the present situation.

Myeik Public Corporate Limited and Myeik Future Development Public Company Limited

have plans to destroy thousands of acres of mangroves and Nypa colonized areas for

development activities.

The land-use policies, utilization and management practices conducted from 1852 to 2014

are detrimental to the huge areas of mangrove wetlands in the country and have resulted in

total destruction of mangrove ecosystems, with untold damage to brackishwater ecology and

coastal fisheries, as well as heavy erosion of Delta lands due to the constant shift of the

river’s channels.

2.12. Contribution to overall economy and livelihoods

Marine and coastal ecosystems are a vital economic resource and their health and

sustainability depend on good governance, sound environmental policies and effective

management. Coastal ecosystems generate a variety of goods and services that benefit

people. Myanmar has an estimated population of 54.6 million (73 people/km2).

Approximately 66 percent of the population lives in rural areas with 33 percent living in

urban areas. The population that lives within coastal villages is yet to be estimated for ideal

planning and management.

However, quantifying the economic contribution of Myanmar’s coastal resource remains a

challenge because this ecosystem lacks official boundaries and definitions. These goods and

services, often referred to as ecosystem services, provide outputs that are commercially

important (e.g. commercial fish stocks, tourism that depends on wildlife viewing) and some

that are both commercially important and that provide important recreational opportunities

(e.g. recreational fishing). These ecosystems also support many ecological functions that are

essential in the support of human life (e.g. oxygen production and carbon capture and

storage). Coastal ecosystems have proved to be places that abound in genetic diversity and

biological compounds that may yield new chemical and medicinal products. The total

marine fishery catch from Myanmar’s coastal zone was reported to be 2 702 240 tonnes per

annum, worth US$10.27 billion or 10.81 trillion kyat and aquaculture produced up to 964

260 tonnes worth US$2.00 billion and 2.11 trillion kyat in 2014 according to the Department

of Fisheries.

Fishing and carbon sequestration are two of the 15 ecosystem services (ES) associated with

seas and oceans, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by the Global Ocean

Commission for 2014. In the case of carbon sequestration, the Global Ocean Commission

estimates its global economic value ranges between US$74 billion and US$222 billion per

annum, which underlines not only its economic benefit but also shows its essential role in

efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Basic information about the potential economic magnitude or nature of ES is lacking from

Myanmar and highlights critical knowledge gaps that need to be filled to help inform

management of coastal zone.



9

3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

3.1. Integrated coastal management

The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) provided

significant support for integrated management of coastal areas. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21,

‘Protection of oceans, all kinds of seas including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, coastal

areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources' outlines a

commitment by coastal nations to ‘integrated management and sustainable development of

coastal areas and the marine environment under their national jurisdiction'. Paragraph 17.5

of Programme A of Chapter 17 sets out the objectives of integrated coastal area management

as being to:

Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process to promote

compatibility and a balance of uses;

Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their interactions;

Concentrate on well-defined issues;

Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in planning and

implementation;

Promote the application and development of methods that reflect changes in

value resulting from uses of marine and coastal areas, including pollution,

marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction; and

Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals, groups and

organizations to relevant information and opportunities for consultation and

participation in planning and decision-making at appropriate levels.

Sustainable development has been defined as development that meet the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (The World

Commission on Environment and Development 1987).

The distribution or redistribution of rights to own and use coastal resources can have a

significant impact on coastal management. Some of the legal mechanisms used in this regard

include:

Reasserting public ownership and control over coastal areas or initiating

expropriation or acquisition programmes to bring important areas under public

ownership or control;

Recognizing customary or indigenous rights over resources and devolving

certain powers to manage those resources to traditional authorities or local

organizations representing users; and

Imposing restrictions on private ownership rights, for example, by providing

for public servitudes or easements over private land to facilitate access to the

seashore and requiring landowners to obtain official authorization for

undertaking certain activities, particularly where these are likely to have a

significant impact on the coastal landscape and environment.

The present status of integrated coastal management is as follows:

Existing legislation and policy frameworks for management of coastal

resources are fragmented, ineffectively implemented and only provide limited



10

mandates to regulate or control activities that may impact upon the coastal

zone;

Poor implementation and enforcement of management regimes within the

coastal zone;

Lack of clarity of existing mandates and delineation of responsibility between

agencies and ministries related to coastal zone management;

Little plan of action to bring together all the parts of government for integrated

coastal management together and to work in a cohesive fashion;

Human, financial and technical resources available for coastal resource

management, particularly enforcement and monitoring of activities, are

overburdened with multiple responsibilities and insufficient to support a more

coordinated framework for coastal zone management;

Absence of effective, routine intergovernmental coordinating mechanisms for

information sharing, alignment of programmes and collaboration for overall

environment management; and

Limited capacity of staff to provide sound legal, social, economic and

biological advice to support well-informed decision-making related to coastal

zone management

The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to ensure sustainable and

community-based coastal management:

The government is currently involved in the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Programme, which promotes sustainable marine

ecosystem management and sustainable coastal livelihood development. The

programme aims to improve the lives of coastal populations through effective

regional management of marine biodiversity and fisheries;

Four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been established along Myanmar‟s

coast, including i) Moscos Island; ii) Thamihla Kyuun; iii) Mainmahla Kyuun;

and iv) Lampi;

The Department of Fisheries in collaboration with the Biodiversity and Nature

Conservation Association (BANCA) and Fauna and Flora International (FFI)

are planning to establish an MPA Network System that will incorporate

existing MPAs, for example, the Shark Reserves in the Myeik Archipelago

(Lampi MPA);

A number of different agencies and organizations, including Japan

International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Forest Resource Environment

Development and Conservation Association (FREDA) and UNDP’s Mangrove

Environmental Rehabilitation Network (MERN) are undertaking mangrove

and coastal forest restoration efforts following damage from recent cyclones in

Myanmar’s coastal areas; and

The Department of Marine Science within the University of Maw-la-myine

has established an aquaculture research centre.

Actions required are:

Clarify and evaluate roles and responsibilities, institutional arrangement

options and coordination mechanisms among relevant ministries,



11

organizations and the private sector in order to develop a harmonized

approach to coastal zone management;

Within the context of an integrated resource management framework,

establish an appropriate legal and institutional framework, including integrated

and consolidated legislation with clear delineation of mandates and

responsibilities, focused on the sustainable use of limited resources in coastal

areas and managing human activities in coastal and adjoining areas to

maintain, restore or improve the quality of coastal zone ecosystems and the

societies they support;

Ensure that development activities within the coastal zone are coordinated

amongst responsible agencies, meet clearly defined standards, do not cause

harm to human health or the environment and that all activities are within the

‘carrying capacity’ of fragile coastal resources;

Legislation developed or amended should empower appropriate agencies to

undertake by a specified date, and regularly update a comprehensive inventory

of marine and coastal resources and conditions, which should provide baseline

information for coastal zone management and development decisions;

Strengthen working relationships of MOECAF with other organizations

responsible for environmental health and quality issues;

Develop Coastal Atlases and an Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Plan

to address land and water management problems affecting the coastal zone,

through broad-based consultation at the community level, and ensure

necessary legislative frameworks to implement and enforce the management

plans;

Establish guidelines and standards for the siting, construction, development

and operation of residential, tourism and industrial structures in the coastal

area;

Develop human technical capacity to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate

ICM programmes and activities;

Develop training manuals and courses related to coastal management at

different levels, drawing on institutional knowledge from experienced staff for

capacity development and empowerment of relevant agencies, organizations

and communities;

Develop capacity of relevant ministry and agency staff to provide sound

advice (legal, social, economic, biological) for coastal resource and


Establish or identify appropriate intergovernmental mechanisms to facilitate

regular information sharing and coordination of activities related to

management of the coastal area.

3.2. Coastal vulnerabilities

Coastal infrastructure is extremely vulnerable to coastal erosion, and the impacts of climate

change such as sea surge, sea-level rise and extreme events. Current planning procedures

and the environmental impact assessment process look at the impact of development on the

environment but do not sufficiently take into account the impact of the environment on a

project or development. An integrated approach to adaptation and coastal resource



12

management is lacking, including preventative infrastructure planning to adjust to the

possible increased risks from climate change impacts. Data gaps and technical capacity

issues limit detailed information about coastal vulnerabilities including the impacts of

climate change, extreme events and sea-level rise, and the lack of consensus on appropriate

or suitable technology to use.

The present status of coastal vulnerability is as follows:

Outdated or unenforced policies and legislations regarding land zoning,

infrastructure and building standards;

Limited capacity of regulatory agencies to incorporate climate change

considerations into the development approval process;

Limited information available for preventative infrastructure planning and

climate proofing of infrastructure and development to accommodate climate

change impacts;

Vulnerability and adaptation assessments carried out were restricted and did

not have national coverage;

Limited studies on, or vulnerability assessments of, existing infrastructure and

properties along coastal areas likely to be affected from natural hazards and

climate change;

Limited available data or access to data for mapping of coastal vulnerabilities

including of coastal infrastructure to flooding and sea surge, or the

vulnerability of inland and all islands to periods of drought and flooding;

Limited capacity, including technical expertise and equipment to properly

assess hazards, risks and vulnerability;

Solutions or technology for coastal protection can be site-specific and need to

be tailored to suit local conditions;

Insufficient data and research to identify appropriate adaptation technologies

that can be employed at suitable locations to mitigate coastal vulnerabilities,

including coastal protection mechanisms;

Lack of programmatic approach and mandate for the collection and collation

of data on coastal resources to support scientific research and decision-

making;

Limited local capacity to conduct studies of risks and locally appropriate

adaptation technologies including coastal protection mechanisms;

Inadequate capacity of vulnerable communities to cope with onset of droughts

and flood events; and

Awareness about the future risks to property from climate change and coastal

erosion or potential climate- and cyclone-proofing best practices are limited at

best.

Actions required on coastal vulnerability are:

Ensure as an urgent priority that assessments of the possible impacts of the

environment, including climate change, on a project are a formal part of all

development planning processes, and appropriate changes should be made in

the relevant legal and institutional structures to facilitate such considerations;



13

Incorporate design, construction and building technologies related to climate

change, extreme events and future conditions into current building control

codes and standards, and develop inspection guidelines and regulatory

enforcement systems with appropriate capacity building and training in

implementation, to support preventative planning at the development stage;

Develop and disseminate guidelines and best practices for preventative

infrastructure planning and climate proofing of infrastructure and

developments to accommodate climate change impacts;

Establish and develop effective climate monitoring capacity to provide for

effective climate change risk management physical planning;

Develop a coordinated programme and technical capacity to carry out

vulnerability and adaptation assessments for all islands in the Tanintharyi

Region;

Source necessary data and develop data-sharing arrangements needed to

undertake vulnerability and adaptation assessments for all islands;

Develop a ‘vulnerability atlas’ which identifies areas that are vulnerable to the

impacts of climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss;

Appropriate risk management regimes should be established to reduce the

risks of extreme events associated with climate change/variability;

Assess options to identify appropriate adaptation technologies and solutions

that are suitable and can be employed at specific locations to mitigate

identified coastal vulnerabilities, including technologies such as coastal

protection mechanisms;

Undertake awareness programmes of risks to coastal area property and

development from climate change and coastal erosion and promote and

encourage the incorporation of adaptation technologies and consideration into

the future and, where possible, existing coastal development to mitigate

coastal vulnerabilities;

Develop and update of best practices and lessons learned on technologies

applied and utilized for coastal protection and coastal resource management;

Develop local capacity for risk analysis and research into locally appropriate

adaptation technologies, including coastal protection mechanisms; and

Develop capacity of vulnerable communities to cope with onset of droughts

and flood events though emergency management plans and promotion of

water conservation practices.

3.3. Water resource management

Effective care and management of water resources, which include lagoons, surface and

groundwater, are critical for the economic and social well-being of the coastal regions of

Myanmar. Yet the sector is the most fragmented, is supply-driven and lacks coherent

policies, strategies, legislation, regulation and monitoring. The lack of clarity of the roles

and responsibilities of relevant agencies and organizations related to various aspects of water

resource management is a major contributing factor towards this fragmentation.

The lack of a legal and policy framework to support water resource management in the

Myanmar is a key gap.



14

3.4. Water quality, water demand and supply

Currently, there is insufficient information and resources (including climatic data) to enable

effective preparation and planning for the impacts of climate change and natural disasters on

the sustainability of water supplies. Limited technical capacity and funding issues are major

constraints to the implementation of activities and maintenance of water infrastructure in the

country and need to be addressed.

At the community level, little action is being taken to conserve the available drinking water.

There is limited individual awareness of the long-term potential consequences of water

wastage, and water conservation measures, including traditional knowledge and practices,

are not promoted with any vigour.

Pilot projects for water demand management may provide valuable information to improved

water resource management. However, the lack of determination of the full extent of water

resource demand and supply hinders well-versed decision-making and planning.

A number of agencies and organizations is conducting various aspects of water quality

testing and monitoring with different testing parameters. There is a need to develop

coordinated programmes amongst these agencies, and to ensure that information is

comparable with appropriate facilities and capacity to support testing and analysis.

The present status of water quality, water demand and supply is as follows:

Ownership and management of water resources is unclear and need to be

determined at the national level;

Lack of an integrated national water resource management policy;

No comprehensive national legislation to manage water resources and the

scattered legal provisions that address the supply and quality of water to the

public are conflicting or do not provide sufficient direction;

No management framework for integrated water resource management or to

control pollution of water supplies, or encroachment into water catchment

areas;

Disjointed activities and coordination processes for forestry, water

catchments, wetlands, lagoon environments, water supply, wastewater and

solid waste disposals have also produced mixed results;

Limited coordination and collaboration amongst all agencies/stakeholders

responsible for management of different aspects of water resources;

Limited understanding of the close relationships between water resources and

the total environment at all levels, and the importance and principles of

sustainable water resource management; and

Technical and human capacity for water resource management is insufficient,

staff retention is a problem and retraining is required every time capacity is

lost.

Actions required in the area of water quality, water demand and supply are as follows:

Undertake a comprehensive inventory to determine the current state of water

resources in Myanmar including all freshwater resources (surface and

underground), water intakes, watersheds and water catchments to provide

sound information with a view towards the formulation of plans, policies,

programmes and projects to ensure that freshwater resources are available to



15

facilitate the sustainable development of the country, and to serve as a basis

for planning approvals and environmental impact assessments;

Conduct a legislative review of various acts and regulations that regulate water

resource, water supply or water quality management and implement

appropriate recommendations to address key issues and promote integrated

approaches and institutional structures for sustainable management of water

resources and watersheds;

Develop and implement policies for water governance as an immediate step

towards an overarching policy for integrated water resource management;

Develop and strengthen local capacity for sustainable water resource

management at the national, institutional and community levels, including

capacity to monitor and enforce water resource policies;

Reassess levels of current demand and supply of water resources and the

dynamics of supply;

Investigate alternative water sources and viable options to supplement water

supply, including groundwater and rainwater harvest;

Develop innovative community and educational awareness programmes,

highlighting the finite nature of water resources, the need to protect water

supply sources and promote water conservation awareness programmes

discouraging water wastage or excessive use as well as judicious water-use

technologies such as dual flush toilets and reduced-flow shower heads;

Develop economic incentives to encourage the use of water storage facilities,

including the installation of water tanks and low-energy pumping equipment,

and to encourage investments in alternate water catchment technologies and

equipment, including the installation of roof spouts and gutters for rain

catchment;

Ensure that any regulatory regime for water resource management

incorporates appropriate adaptation strategies to address likely impacts from

climate change/variability;

Strengthen capacity for monitoring the effects of climate change on water

resources including early warning systems for water resource supply and

ongoing monitoring for the onset of drought;

Improve access to relevant regional and national climatic data, including

through the establishment of networks with regional meteorological centres

for information sharing on climate change and regional weather patterns;

Improve preparedness for natural disaster events that could have significant

impact on water resources and water supply; and

Develop capacity and resources for the integration of traditional and modern

water resource management, including water conservation practices, across all

subjects and levels of the school curriculum.

3.5. Waste management and sanitation

Waste management is widely recognized as a major concern for Myanmar with the potential

to cause negative impacts on national development activities, including tourism and trade,

food supplies, public health and the environment. The generation and disposal of waste has



16

direct and indirect linkages to economic development. Poorly managed waste can have

negative effects on tourism, by damaging its image and by association with health warnings

about infectious and vector-borne diseases. There is the potential for contamination of food

supplies, which can have impacts on local markets or revenue from export crops. And there

are numerous health and environmental hazards that arise when waste is poorly managed

and disposed.

In addition, Myanmar lacks the capacity and knowledge to deal with new or non-traditional

wastes, especially hazardous wastes, electronic wastes and white-ware materials. Options for

the application of viable economic incentives to encourage waste management have not been

adequately explored. Public awareness, self-compliance, community cooperation and

appropriate economic incentives are central to the effective management of waste.

There is a gap in current legislation and institutional arrangements in some aspects of solid

waste management, whereby legislation or institutional arrangements are either conflicting

or do not provide sufficient direction. Options for waste minimization should be widely

promoted as part of the solution.

The present status of waste management and sanitation is:

Limited management of activities in water catchment areas and water supply

systems;

Limited plan of action to guide the actions of agencies involved in water

testing;

Definition of roles of individual agencies involved in water testing is unclear;

Institutional arrangements for the monitoring of water resources are

fragmented and lack coordination or a consistent monitoring regime;

Insufficient capacities and resources for ongoing water testing, monitoring and

analysis;

Baseline assessment of in-country laboratory capacity is poor in terms of

technical capacities, resources, data storage and monitoring programmes;

Different testing locations are utilized by the various water-testing agencies

leading to inconsistent results for quality assurance;

Limited research into the causes of high faecal coliform counts in water

intakes and water supply systems;

Lack of acceptable standards for water quality;

Results of water quality tests are not made readily available to the public;

Overlap and lack of clarity in the functions and roles of the respective

agencies in the collection and management of waste, operation of sanitary

landfills and the licensing of waste transporters;

No legal requirement for operators handling and transporting waste to be

licensed;

No waste reception facilities legally established for disposal of solid waste (or

sewage or oil) from visiting vessels;

Recycling and disposal options for motor vehicles, white-ware, computers and

other household appliances have yet to be implemented fully; and



17

No comprehensive assessment of the management and disposal regimes for

solid and hazardous waste on the islands.

Actions required for waste management and sanitation are:

Implement a coordinated monitoring regime for water quality with all relevant

agencies and a centralized testing facility for all environmental testing, and

develop a coordinated monitoring programme to guide water-testing activities;

Strengthen capacity for conducting testing, monitoring and result analysis of

drinking water quality amongst relevant agencies, including the determination

of agreed testing parameters, and the surveillance and monitoring of public

water supplies and source waters;

Undertake capacity building and development for water quality monitoring

programmes;

Involve communities in decision-making regarding water resource

management, including conducting workshops to empower communities to

take more ownership and responsibility of their drinking water;

Prepare annual reports on drinking water quality status and share them among

key stakeholders;

Establish and enforce water quality standards (based on World Health

Organization standards for drinking water, recreational water and irrigation

water) by the Ministry of Health and Rural Department;

Encourage the use of low cost water filters within water intakes and individual

households to increase the quality of water supply technology, infrastructure

and equipment for water supply and to strengthen ongoing monitoring of

drinking water quality;

Revive traditional knowledge and systems for clean water management;

Designate an appropriate existing board or committee to coordinate and

implement the National Waste Strategy and expand its mandate to cover this if

necessary;

Promote the National Waste Strategy to the private sector for private sector

involvement;

Produce island-specific management plans for waste, particularly with an

emphasis on waste minimization;

Ministry of Health and other relevant agencies to continue to update and

implement communication strategies to promote effective management of

waste including public and community engagement;

Strengthen relationships between agencies and organizations involved with

waste management for improved collaboration and coordination of activities;

Clearly define regulatory, management and enforcement roles and

responsibilities for various agencies and councils related to waste regulations;

Establish appropriate legal and institutional frameworks and operational plans

for the management of solid waste;

Recommend that consideration be given to providing other economic

incentives to support the fledgling recycling industry;



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Recommend that appropriate economic incentives be established to promote

the reduction and recycling of aluminium cans, glass and plastic bottles, and

plastic shopping bags;

Encourage reduction of solid waste generation to the minimum practicable

level using the principles of reduce, reuse and recycle and ‘polluter pays’;

Encourage at-source separation to minimize waste accumulation and ensure

the life of the landfill is extended;

Support the private sector goal of ‘Zero Waste’ as an overarching goal for

waste management in the coastal regions;

Strengthen and support education and awareness activities related to waste

management and pollution;

Establish regulatory instruments which will create appropriate economic

incentives to promote the sound management and disposal of hazardous

substances;

Provide fiscal incentives for promoting the phasing-out of pesticides and

chemicals and to encourage the importation of ‘environmentally friendly’

alternatives;

Develop mechanisms to encourage ‘life cycle management’ and the recovery

and recycling of hazardous substances;

Provide incentives for industries to establish sound hazardous substance

management plans and provide training in hazardous substance management,

recycling and disposal; and

Identify and promote alternatives for current chemicals and pesticides that are

effective and proven to be environmentally friendly.

3.6. Integrating environmental management

Outdated legislation on environmental issues has resulted in stakeholders working in

isolation of each other with no clear policy directions. Environmental and economic policies

have not yet been fully integrated, which is a major obstacle as the integration of

environmental issues at the forefront of strategic economic and policy planning is essential

in order to achieve positive environmental outcomes in Myanmar.

The mainstreaming of environmental management issues into national economic and

development planning processes has improved over the years however implementation of

such plans still remains weak.

Environmental management is the responsibility of all stakeholders and it is therefore

important to strengthen capacity to develop partnerships between stakeholder agencies and

the community for implementation and advocacy.

The present status of integrated environmental management is:

Limited capacity to develop and implement national monitoring and

evaluation processes, including tools such as state of the environment reports;

Currently, it is not a legal requirement of responsible ministries and

departments to produce regular state of the environment reports;



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Lack of local expertise in several areas, most notably in the areas of

environmental accounting and economics, environmental law and economic

valuation of resources and ecosystem services;

Weak reporting and monitoring capacities for climate change, biodiversity,

land degradation and cross-cutting environmental issues at all levels;

Insufficient staff, staff expertise and resources within relevant ministries and

organizations to support the implementation of national plan activities; and

Limited awareness and promotion of the limitations of donor funding for

national implementation of environmental management-related activities.

Actions required in integrated environmental management are:

Strengthen local capacity for the development of policies and strategic

planning to support the integration of environmental management activities

within ministries;

Work in collaboration with national and regional agencies to provide focused

training in project proposal report writing, project design, project

implementation and management at all levels;

Increase awareness and understanding of the limitations of donor funding to

project outputs and the need for national-level support for national and local

implementation of environmental management activities;

Improve government capacity to implement environmental-related strategies

and policies in a coherent and effective way, including through training in

planning and programmatic approaches for improved environmental

management;

Combat insufficient capacity within agencies for implementation of

multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and environmental activities

by forming partnerships or resource-sharing agreements where possible

among ministries, the private sector, NGOs and community groups for the

implementation of MEA projects where goals align or are complementary;

Strengthen the partnerships between environmental NGOs, the private sector

and the government including through collaborative efforts on advocacy and

capacity-building programmes;

Utilize existing mechanisms (such as for Head of Ministry meetings), for

information sharing of planned activities and projects within and among

ministries and agencies to promote cooperation and collaboration, sharing of

resources and to avoid duplication of efforts;

Consideration should be given to strengthening the role of customary practices

in environmental and resource management;

Encourage the participation of members of the general public (through

education/awareness and providing simple tools) to undertake systematic

observations of their environment, as part of efforts towards monitoring for


Activities that monitor the environment such as beach profiling and coral

monitoring should be supported and extended to cover all regions of

Myanmar.



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3.7. Environmental education and awareness

Formal environment education continues to be limited. Resources and capacity to support

the integration of environmental issues into formal education are limited.

Strengthening integrated biophysical and socio-economic research is a prerequisite to

improving the long-term protection and management of the Myanmar coastal zone.

The difficulties in inducing and measuring behavioural change also highlight the lack of

formal mechanisms for feedback and evaluation of the effectiveness of environmental

programmes and various forms of media. Linking education at schools with information and

actions at home and within communities is weak and will need to be focused on in order to

achieve education awareness goals and meaningful change towards sustainable

environmental management.

Present status of environment education and awareness:

Technical environmental data and information need simplification and

translation into local languages for broader understanding at all levels;

There is a shortage of training programmes and opportunities for education

planners and environmental educators;

Limited teachers’ professional development programmes to enhance the

education of students on environmental issues;

Localized information in an easy-to-use format is not readily available for

educators, media or the general public;

Limited use of practical applications and fieldwork for environmental

monitoring and education to foster awareness and engage students’ interest at

all levels; and

Lack of effective mechanisms or processes to improve the exchange of data

and information among relevant government agencies, NGOs and academic

institutions undertaking environmental awareness and education activities for

improved coordination and collaboration of activities and resource sharing.

Actions required:

Develop a systematic approach to environmental education and awareness

including development of specific communication strategies, effective

measures at different levels (e.g. national or community), and partnerships

among stakeholders in order to achieve positive behavioural change towards

the environment;

In collaboration with the Ministry of Education, incorporate environmental

education into targeted professional development programmes for educators

and develop curriculum resources, expertise and support to strengthen

capacity to undertake environmental education;

Biodiversity, climate change and land degradation experts need to provide

more assistance to formal educators, especially to help teachers develop and

fully understand their environmental programmes in an educationally useful

format;

Develop capacity of appropriate staff within relevant agencies to act as

information brokers or communicators who are able to undertake the

translation of scientific and technical environmental-related information from



21

conventional texts, international and regional resources into simplified clear

language for dissemination;

Work with appropriate authorities and individuals to develop the Myanmar

language for new environmental information and scientific terms;

Develop capacity to undertake evaluations of education and awareness

programmes and cost-benefit analysis of various mediums for

communications to determine the effectiveness of messages and mediums in

disseminating environmental information for different target audiences;

Continue to support the production of media and educational packages

featuring locally relevant information in a simplified bilingual format,

ensuring that materials for islands are in an appropriate language/dialect;

Establish formal mechanisms to access international, regional and national

expertise and resources to improve availability of resources and local capacity

at government and community levels to produce quality localized media

productions, awareness and educational materials, including through

development and implementation of targeted training programmes;

Develop closer working relationships among government and environmental

NGOs, community-based organizations (CBOs) and academic institutions

involved in environmental awareness and education activities and utilize

effective mechanisms to improve the exchange of data and information for

improved coordination and collaboration of activities and resource sharing;

Develop partnerships, cost-sharing initiatives and innovative communication

tools where possible for the production and distribution of resources to

maximize national coverage;

Identify and source resources that can be shared amongst

communities/villages for access to environmental information;

Where practical, utilize existing events such as expositions, science fairs and

competitions to promote the environment to students and encourage students

to participate in environmental events This is based on the assumption that

these events are actually effective, and this would follow the need to

strengthen capacity in monitoring or evaluation;

Develop and implement programmes to involve students, youth and

communities in environmental monitoring and encourage the

dissemination/extension of similar programmes; and

Continue to support the capacity development of community groups and youth

to act as facilitators and peer educators in community awareness programmes

on environmental issues and conduct training and conservation initiatives for

young people to enhance their skills in environmental management.

3.8. Management of information and knowledge

Inadequate management and exchange of information, including traditional knowledge and

practices in environment management, continue to be a major gap. Technical capacity for

the development and management of information management systems, such as databases

and GIS, is well developed in some organizations but not all. Available datasets are limited

to those produced as part of that organization’s programme of work and therefore sectoral in

nature, or those produced from a project which means they have limited scope. Mobilizing



22

appropriate data for dissemination to all levels of users is poor and this is not helped by the

limited awareness of and access to some sources of data. Appropriate policies, programmes

and mandates to support data collection and information management activities are limited.

Data collation, analysis, data basing and management capabilities in most government

agencies are weak and there is limited support to develop and maintain data and information

management systems. Most government agencies have very limited capacity to utilize GIS,

which can be useful in managing data. There is limited ownership of information and

retention of data collected for project activities and research in Myanmar and no effective

mechanism to maintain information in a cohesive manner. Some of the current data

collection programmes are wasted as information gathered is not being used to aid analysis

and decision-making and highlights the need to reassess the rationale for collecting data and

their usefulness. The ability to interpret and practically use information and data is an area

that needs further development in Myanmar.

Limited local capacity in data collection, data basing, analysis, mapping,

maintenance and utilization of environmental-related data and information;

Lack of policies to support the development and housing of environmental and

natural resource data in national databases/clearing houses;

Limited legal and policy recognition of the need to organize proper

information in a central repository;

Limited number of individuals nationally with the technical background in

databasesand IT development activities;

Limited capacity to utilize GIS technologies of benefit to relevant ministries

including insufficient GIS resources such as relevant equipment and

software; and

Limited coordinated and ongoing programmes to collect information for the

creation and maintenance of GIS data layers and maps necessary for

biodiversity, climate change and land degradation planning and monitoring

Actions required:

Integrate into the national policy and make provisions for enforcement;

Promote mechanisms to involve communities and schools in the collection of

environmental data;

Provide training and training resources for national institutions, NGOs and

community groups on data collation, administration and management of

databases and data analysis;

Develop a multisectoral approach to data analysis as well as mechanisms to

seek advice from other sectors or relevant expertise;

Encourage all ministries/organizations to promote awareness of available data

through the use of mechanisms such as Web sites, newsletters and information

expositions;

Strengthen the capacity of existing agencies responsible for natural resources

in data collection, analysis, reporting;



23

Undertake an assessment of available data to determine data gaps and

information needs for natural resources, ecosystems and sustainable land

management;

Develop and implement monitoring and data collection programmes for

natural resources, ecosystems and land information;

Include identification of appropriate personnel and training as part of a

programmatic approach to database and inventory development, data collation

and analysis, mobilizing information and dissemination;

There is a need to develop cooperation in sharing database development

expertise among government agencies;

Investigate the potential for individuals in key ministries to collaborate and

develop their skills in database development and support this collaboration;

Designate an agency to facilitate and manage a central land and resource

information system that is accessible by all stakeholders;

Formal and informal training and skills development of national- and

community-level personnel for resource-use planning methods, techniques,

approaches and systems; GIS development; resource inventory methods;

multicriteria- and objective-based planning; ecosystem approaches to land-use

planning; land capability/suitability methods; and integrated catchment and

coastal zone approaches;

Identify data needs and benefits or desirable outputs for individual ministries

from a GIS, develop a targeted programme for practical utilization of GIS

data;

Develop training programmes for practical training of relevant agencies and

organizations in data collection, databasing, analysis, mapping, maintenance

and practical utilization of GIS; and

Draw on existing national GIS expertise and experience where possible to

support training and resource-sharing initiatives, particularly for the islands

3.9. Multilateral environmental agreements

A key weakness is the current levels of awareness and participation amongst many

stakeholders in relation to the obligations within each of the UN conventions. It will also be

important to improve awareness of MEA issues in the local context if Myanmar is to build

support for MEA activities at all levels. Having sufficient capacity for monitoring and

evaluation of MEA progress in-country, including good data collection and management

programmes in place, will also be necessary if Myanmar is to fulfill its MEA obligations for

national reporting.

The status of MEAs is as follows:

Limited human and technical capacity to undertake MEA implementation,

monitoring and evaluation;

General deficiency in planning and policy development capacity within key

government agencies;

Weakness of project management skills, as well as limited opportunities to

develop capacity in these areas;



24

Lack of clear national training strategies and human resource development

paths for environmental management capacity;

A number of environmental NGOs operating in Myanmar may undertake

community conservation and education projects in isolation of the

implementation of particular MEAs;

Limited community involvement in MEA implementation, monitoring and

evaluation; and

Information provided by MEA Secretariats for education and awareness tends

to use language that is too technical and of generic global relevance lacking

any localized context through which to engage communities and stakeholders.

Actions required:

Strengthen national reporting capacity and evaluation processes, including

development of a regularly updated, centralized information management

system for biodiversity, climate change and land degradation to reduce the

efforts required to produce national reports to the UN conventions;

Improve the ability of the government and institutions to intervene on matters

of national environmental importance;

Review the legal and institutional framework to carry out legal and

institutional strengthening for environmental management in Myanmar; and

Promote and improve the awareness of politicians, decision-makers and

government ministries of MEAs, particularly those that Myanmar is a

signatory to, the environmental issues they are trying to address and how this

affects Myanmar in a local context.

As a recommendation, Myanmar should take the necessary steps to further obtain advisory

services in the areas of (i) interagency coordination mechanisms for environmental system

management with the goal of incorporating the environmental dimensions in the

development efforts of the country; and (ii) effective implementation of its commitments to

MEAs, in particular, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

3.10. Access to financial resources

One of the critical constraints to the implementation of environmental management activities

and meeting Myanmar’s obligations and commitments to the UN conventions continues to

be access to financial resources to support such programmes. This is an area that needs to be

addressed as resource mobilization strategies to implement the NAPA, at least in the

foreseeable future, are likely to rely on external financial mechanisms though efforts to

access limited national financial resources will continue.

The capacity, time and resources necessary to identify, develop and access international

funding mechanisms are limited at all levels. Many government departments, NGOs and

community groups do not have the experience and skills to aggressively pursue external

funding options. The preparation of project proposals is usually outsourced to consultants as

application processes can be lengthy and arduous, and place intensive time and work

pressures on staff within government agencies that are often already overextended.

Limited awareness of funding opportunities available to NGOs and

communities;



25

Limited technical assistance to identify Small Grants Programmes (SGP)

projects for communities; and

Limited local capacity at all levels to identify sources of funding and develop

quality project proposals essential for accessing funding opportunities.

Actions required:

Training of planning officers and stakeholders in identification of

environmental funding opportunities, proposal writing and project

management;

Continue to maintain strong working relationships and networking

opportunities with UN convention Secretariats, convention funding

mechanisms such as the Global Environment Facility and regional Council of

Regional Organisations (CROP) agencies to keep up-to-date with funding

opportunities that may be available for environmental projects, activities,

training and capacity building in Myanmar’s coastal states;

Increase capacity of NGOs and community groups in project proposal writing

and reporting (including financial reporting) in order to better access funding

opportunities, including GEF SGP funds;

Utilize GEF operational focal points and local SGP focal points to assist

communities in accessing technical assistance in identifying locally relevant

projects that fit under the SGP funding criteria;

Raise awareness of known funding opportunities for community-based

environmental management activities and projects; and

Strengthen capacity for financial responsibility and accountability in the

management of donor funds, including through the provision of resources and

training opportunities.

4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The establishment of coordinating mechanisms among agencies principally charged with

environmental-related administration, e.g. the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health,

Ministry of Works and Communications, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Local

Governments aside from the MOECAF, MoAI and MLFRD, is imperative to ensure

effective environmental resource management, including that of wetlands.

4.1. Government institutions

Department of Fisheries (DoF): The DoF is part of the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries

and Rural Development (MLFRD) and is responsible for the management of Myanmar’s

fisheries and coastal resources. As of 2010, livestock and fisheries accounted for 7.6 percent

of the country’s GDP (Department of Fisheries 2010). The DoF has a number of directorates

including Capture Fisheries, Aquaculture, Research and Development and Administration.

The DoF national headquarters are based in Nay Pyi Taw and states/regions and districts

have smaller administrative offices.

The DoF’s activities are guided by six key responsibilities, namely:

1. The conservation and rehabilitation of fishery resources;

2. The promotion of fishery research and surveys;

3. Collection and compilation of fishery statistics and information;



26

4. Provision of fishery extension services;

5. Supervision of fishery sectors; and

6. Ensuring the sustainability of fishery resources (Myanmar Ministry of

Livestock and Fisheries 2008b)

The DoF issues licenses, evaluates sites for aquaculture, produces fingerlings for sale to the

aquaculture industry, advises the MLFRD on fishery matters, acts as an inspection body for

trade, administers auctioning of leasable freshwater fisheries and waterbodies for

aquaculture, provides training and communicates with stakeholders.

A Monitoring, Control and Surveillance programme for fishery management generates

statistics that are published in national reports by the Myanmar Ministry of Livestock and

Fisheries (2008 a,b), Myanmar Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development

(2010) and the Department of Fisheries (2010); these are shared with global organizations

who can collate and share the data more broadly (see FAO 2013).

The DoF is involved in research programmes on endangered species and ecosystems such as

marine turtles and Irrawaddy dolphins. They oversee some conservation areas such as the

marine component of the Thamihla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary and the Khaing Thaung Island

Reserve Forest and work closely with stakeholders in managing these areas. They are also

the management authority for two shark protected areas.

Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC). In 2012, the Ministry of Forestry

was reorganized to become the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

(MOECAF) reflecting a growing awareness of the importance of addressing environmental

issues in the country. Soon after, a new department, the Department of Environmental

Conservation (DEC) was created. The DEC will be responsible for an ambitious range of

activities including implementing environmental conservation policies, designing and

implementing monitoring programmes, prescribing environmental quality standards,

conducting activities relating to waste management and conducting environmental impact

assessments (EIAs).

Fishery law enforcement agencies are:

Inspection at sea: Myanmar Navy; and

Inspection authority at shore: DoF; Myanmar Port Authority; Myanmar

Customs; Immigration Department; Department of Marine Administration;

Myanmar Police Force.

Forest Department (FD). The FD also falls under the MOECAF and is responsible for the

management of forests, including mangrove forests, though some mangroves are ceded to

the DoF for possible aquaculture development. The DF is also the key implementing agency

for the designation and management of protected areas in the country.

Ministry of Education (MoE). The MoE oversees all formal education in the country from

basic to higher education. The ministry supervises the implementation of educational

programmes and sets educational policies.

Ministry of Hotels and Tourism (MoHT). The MoHT oversees and legislates aspects of

Myanmar’s burgeoning tourism sector. The MoHT has worked with NGOs, such as the

Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), on developing ecotourism activities.

Navy of the Union of Myanmar. The naval branch of Myanmar’s armed forces operates

more than 122 vessels. The Navy patrols Myanmar’s water and enforces maritime laws for



27

the country. The Navy is mandated to enforce various marine fishery laws, in particular

those relating to offshore fishing.

State/region governments. Six of Myanmar’s 14 states and regions border the eastern edge

of the Bay of Bengal and many who live there have livelihoods connected with marine

systems. These are: Rakhine State, Ayeyarwaddy Region, Yangon Region, Bago Region,

Mon State and Taninthayi Region.

4.2. Research and education

Aware of the fact that the environment and development are interlinked, the government is

paying more attention to environmental affairs. As a result, the National Commission for

Environmental Affairs (NCEA) has emerged as a coordinating agency collaborating closely

with government ministries and departments in matters relating to the environment. It also

acts as the national focal point for environmental matters vis-à-vis other countries and

international organizations, coordinates the work of various relevant ministries and

departments and reports directly to the Cabinet. The NCEA was established with the

following objectives:

To develop sound environmental policies in order to safeguard the

environment and prevent its degradation;

To set environmental standards, rules and regulations for pollution control;

To formulate environmental plans, programmes and strategies; and

To promote environmental awareness and public participation in

environmental activities.

There is neither a specific protection and management body or coordination unit that has a

multidisciplinary approach for coastal and marine ecosystems. However, separate indirect

responsibilities on protection and management of the marine environment are scattered

amongst different ministries.

At the ministry level, the Ministry of Science and Technology is empowered to designate its

directorate to carry out environmental research activities while the Ministry of Forestry

oversees the conservation and management of forest, biodiversity and wildlife. Protection,

conservation and management of coastal and marine areas are under the responsibility of the

DoF.

Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science. The academy was created in 1999 under the

MoE and comprises experts from a range of academic fields. The academy conducts regular

seminars and publishes the Journal of the Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science.

Universities. Under the Ministry of Education, the Marine Science Department of the

University of Mawlamyine is the only educational institution in the country related to coastal

and marine activities. The department carries out research and development activities on

marine ecosystems. The country’s first marine biology programme was established in 1973

at the university. It was upgraded to become a Marine Science Department in 1986. Most of

the senior marine scientists in the country were trained here. The university has a field

station at Setse. This station was established in 1985 as a high-tech aquaculture facility

through funding from the UNDP project, Strengthening of Marine Science Teaching at

Moulmein College (UNESCO 1985). By 1995, the university was no longer able to support

the high maintenance and electrical costs and the facility began its decline into disrepair.

Tanks are now cracked and water filtration and pumping systems are beyond repair so

aquaculture research can no longer be conducted. However, its facilities are still used by the

university as a field station that hosts undergraduate field courses.



28

Two more marine programmes stemmed from the original at Mawlamyine, which allowed

research to expand to other areas of Myanmar’s coast. Pathein University in the

Ayeyarwaddy Region has a Marine Science Department with a field station on the Rakhine

coast just south of Shwe Thaungyan. This station has good access to a range of marine

habitats and hosts seven- to ten-day courses at the end of each semester. Myeik University,

also with a Marine Science Department, is on the Taninthayi Coast, close to the islands of

the Myeik Archipelago. It has a large Marine Science Museum and hopes to host the future

Marine and Coastal Resources Research Centre.

Yangon is the oldest university in the country and its students and staff have conducted

many of the original studies of Myanmar’s marine life. It is home to the Diamond Jubilee

Hall that contains the national repository of PhD theses. Other universities have zoology,

botany and chemistry departments whose staff and students are able to conduct marine-

related research, including the universities of Bago, Dagon, Dawei and Sittwe.

The Phuket Marine Biological Centre (PMBC). Thailand. The PMBC, established in

1966, is one of the older and more established marine research centres in the region.

Regional workshops are often hosted there and, in recent years, Myanmar scientists have had

the opportunity to attend training workshops at the centre. In 2010 and 2012, Myanmar

teachers attended courses on coral and marine mammals.

4.3. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), bilateral aid agencies and

international organizations

Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Myanmar: The WCS was the first international

conservation NGO to work in Myanmar, establishing a programme in 1993. The WCS’s

Myanmar Program has memorandums of understanding with both MOECAF and MLFRD

and has worked with the DoF for over 10 years to develop and manage the DoF’s first

aquatic protected area, the Ayeyarwaddy Dolphin Protected Area on the mainstream

Ayeyarwaddy River upstream of Mandalay. The WCS Myanmar Program has worked with

the Marine Science Association of Myanmar (MSAM) and the WCS Global Marine

Conservation Program to conduct this review.

Fauna and Flora International (FFI): The FFI works in Myanmar through collaborations

with the local NGO, BANCA. Projects have focused on conducting biodiversity assessments

and conservation status reviews and strengthening local civil society organizations (CSOs)

to protect biodiversity through protected area management. The NGO recently conducted

surveys of reefs in the Myeik Archipelago using the protocols of another international NGO,

Reef Check.

Istituto Oikos: This is an Italian NGO that works in developing countries to promote

environmental conservation as a tool for socio-economic development. In 2011, Oikos has

worked in collaboration with the FD and BANCA at Lampi Marine National Park and

recently published a detailed review of Myanmar’s Protected Areas (Isituto Oikos 2011).

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN): IUCN hopes to start

working in Myanmar in the near future alongside the Bay of Bengal Large Marine

Ecosystem (BOBLME) project and in collaboration with the MFF on a multistakeholder

coalition to support and guide national and international conservation efforts in the Myeik

Archipelago. In 2012, IUCN, MFF and MERN hosted the workshop Conservation and

Sustainable Management of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in Myanmar.

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA): JICA has worked in Myanmar on a

range of projects relating to environmental health and economic development. Relevant to



29

the marine realm, the organization collaborated with MOECAF on the Ayeyarwaddy Delta

Integrated Mangrove Rehabilitation and Management Project.

Mangroves for the Future (MFF): MFF promotes investment in coastal ecosystems for

sustainable management and uses mangroves as a flagship ecosystem because of their

important roles in coastal livelihood and security. MFF has not yet started to work in the

country but, as one of its ‘outreach countries’, Myanmar is invited to regional events and

meetings. MFF plans to work alongside IUCN on coastal management issues in Myanmar.

The Wetlands Alliance: This is an association of agencies that view wetlands and aquatic

resources as an entry point for poverty alleviation initiatives in Southeast Asia. It engages

with partner organizations in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia and, in recent

years, has visited projects in Myanmar with an aim to establish a presence in the country.

WorldFish: In September 2012, WorldFish and the DoF commenced the four-year project

Improving Research and Development of Myanmar’s Inland and Coastal Fisheries

(MYFish). The project is first gathering data on the state of fisheries and aquaculture in

Myanmar and then plans to develop management capacity and help develop fisheries and

small-scale aquaculture to increase the productivity of this sector.

4.4. Non-government organizations

Marine Science Association, Myanmar (MSAM): MSAM is open to all graduates of

marine science in Myanmar. MSAM’s work focuses on research, conservation and the

sustainable development of coastal areas. MSAM collaborates with marine science

departments at Mawlamyine, Pathein and Myeik universities along with marine science

alumni. MSAM collaborated with WCS Myanmar in producing this review.

Myanmar Environment Rehabilitation-conservation Network (MERN): MERN is a

network of 16 Myanmar local NGOs with a range of foci and experience including forestry,

environment, community development, capacity building and social mobilization,

agriculture, livestock & fishery and social infrastructure. The projects implemented by

MERN are implemented jointly by member NGOs and focus mainly on environmental

conservation and rehabilitation linked with community development relating to food security

and livelihood development. Member NGOs may collaborate within the MERN network or

run their own projects independently. In the marine realm, MERN instigated the Coastal

Livelihood and Environmental Assets Restoration in Rakhine (CLEARR) project to improve

mangrove forests and livelihoods in villages in the Thandwe District of Rakhine State.

Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA): BANCA conducts a range

of projects relating to nature including surveys, watershed development, establishing forest

plantations and access to drinking water. Currently BANCA is partnering with FFI to

conduct surveys of coral reefs in the Myeik Archipelago.

Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT): LIFT aims to improve the food and

livelihood security of poor and vulnerable people in Myanmar. LIFT works in areas where

food poverty is high, including the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Rakhine State.

Rakhine Coastal Region Conservation Association (RCA): The RCA conducts awareness

raising for the conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable use of Rakhine’s mangroves and

conservation of marine turtles. It also works on community forestry activities and wild

elephant conservation.

Rakhita: Rakhita is an environmental NGO based in the Rakhine coast. In recent months, it

has run a five-day land-planning workshop in Ngapali of Thandwe District.



30

Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association (FREDA): FREDA is an NGO with a focus on the forestry sector of Myanmar. FREDA is composed of

more than 400 members including foresters, botanists, agronomists, zoologists, veterinary

scientists, hydrogeologists, engineers, timber entrepreneurs, journalists and artists. In the

marine realm, FREDA has worked with communities that rely on mangrove resources.

Myanmar Environment Institute (MEI): The MEI provides training courses in

environmental science and management and in conducting EIAs.

The Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI): The

ECCDI works on sustainable forest ecosystem management, which includes the

establishment of mangrove plantations.

4.5. Regional bodies

Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) project: The BOBLME project

engages all eight nations that rim the Bay of Bengal, namely the Maldives, India, Sri Lanka,

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. The project aims to lay the

foundations for a coordinated programme of action designed to improve the lives of the

coastal populations through improved regional management of the Bay of Bengal

environment and its fisheries. The executing agency is the FAO Regional Office for Asia

and the Pacific, based in Bangkok, and FAO is also involvedin project components directly

relating to fisheries and resource management. Principal funding is from the Global

Environment Facility (GEF), the Government of Norway, the Swedish Internal Development

Agency, FAO, participating governments and the National Oceanic and Atmosphere

Administration (NOAA). The project had a total estimated budget of US$31 million for an

initial period from September 2008 to August 2013, though a no-cost extension has been

requested to an anticipated date of 31 March 2015. The National Inception Workshop was

held in Myanmar in early 2010 and since then Myanmar experts have attended and

contributed to a number of workshops focusing on a range of topics including policy

reviews, transboundary issues, Hilsa fisheries, fisheries and aquaculture assessments, fishery

statistics, coastal management, responsible fisheries training and climate change. Partners to

the project who are active in Myanmar include the Government of Myanmar, IOSEA,

SEAFDEC, and WorldFish. A vast number of project reports are available through its Web

site.

Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC): Myanmar is one of 11

SEAFDEC member countries, joining in 1999. The centre, established in 1967, is mandated

“to develop and manage the fisheries potential of the region by rational utilization of the

resources for providing food security and safety to the people and alleviating poverty

through transfer of new technologies, research and information dissemination activities.”

The centre supports training activities, technical assistance, research and publications

relating to fisheries development in the region through four technical departments: the

Training Department, the Marine Fisheries Research Department, the Aquaculture

Department and the Marine Fisheries Resources Development and Management

Department. The centre also aims to be a unified voice for fisheries issues in the region

(Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 2013).

Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) and Food and Agriculture Organization

(FAO): APFIC is FAO’s regional fisheries body. APFIC was founded in 1948 and merged

with the Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission in 1999. Its main objective is “to promote the

full and proper utilization of living aquatic resources of the Asia-Pacific area by the

development and management of fishing and culture operations and by the development of



31

related processing and marketing activities in conformity with the objectives of its

members.” The commission reviews the state of resources and makes recommendations,

carries out programmes and conducts training to increase the efficiency and sustainability of

fisheries and aquaculture. Myanmar is among its 21 members. Many of the statistics

collected by Myanmar’s DoF on the country’s production from marine and freshwater

fisheries and aquaculture are processed, housed and shared through APFIC and FAO (see

FAO 2013). Myanmar is in FAO’s Fishing Area 57 and the subarea 57.1 that encompasses

all of the Bay of Bengal.

4.6. Private sector

Myanmar Fishery Federation (MFF): The MFF, a national-level organization with a

membership of over 700 companies and 27 000 individuals, is mandated to encourage and

promote fishing industries. MFF aims to promote the socio-economic life of member

entrepreneurs and fishery communities, share information on economic policies and fishery

technologies and advocate on behalf of the fishing industry, among other objectives. There

are nine associations under the MFF that deal with particular industries, namely, shrimp,

fish, exporters, aquaculture feed, marine fisheries, freshwater capture fisheries, crabs, eels

and ornamental fish.

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

5.1. Coastal development – major sectors

Coastal ecosystems are highly productive containing high biological diversity, rich fishery

resources and significant sea bed minerals. Coasts also support a diverse array of related

industries (e.g. fisheries and aquaculture, tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which

provide enormous economic productivity. However, the shared demands placed by densely

populated coastal regions impose stresses on finite coastal systems and resources.

Major development activities and opportunities come from the agriculture, forestry, mining,

livestock and fishery, dairy farming, transportation, hydropower, coal-fired and solar power

production, oil and gas, tourism and recreation, infrastructure and construction development

sectors.

The expansion of the Myanmar economy will further increase pressure on the coastal marine

area and its resources. Development of hard structures along the coastline restricts the ability

of intertidal habitats to move landward as sea level rises.

Development will impact on seascapes and landscapes, and will limit traditional public

access to the foreshore. Coastal industries such as fishing, aquaculture, tourism and shipping

play significant roles in support of Myanmar’s large coastal population. However, the many

activities associated with these industries can also have a detrimental effect on coastal

habitats and water quality, in addition to creating conflicts of use among stakeholders.

Developmental pressure on the coastal area continues as a result of socio-economic driving

forces such as urban expansion, retirement, secondary home establishment and the tourism

industry. For example, coastal tourism has led to increases in the numbers of marinas, golf

courses and residential buildings near the coast. There is insufficient information to judge

the current rate and long-term environmental implications of coastal development (EPA

2000).



32

5.2. Infrastructure development, industries, port and harbour development and

transport sectors

There is an urgent need for building and upgrading of most infrastructure sectors in

Myanmar. Myanmar’s construction industry is expected to grow at an annual minimum of

7.8 percent over each of the next five years.

The government also recently announced the construction of over 120 000 apartments in the

Yangon area, with the help of local and foreign investors and developers. The Yangon City

Development Committee (YCDC) is aiming to finish the construction of over 9 500

affordable apartments by 2015.

The increase in the number of investment opportunities in energy and public infrastructure

projects includes:

Development Project for Greater Yangon – 39 townships;

Affordable Housing Project – by The Department of Human Settlement and

Housing Development (DHSHD);

Urban development projects – such as Mindama Secondary CBD

Development;

Thilawa Social Economic Zone Development and Urban Spatial Control

Management projects;

Investment opportunities for foreign firms based on the Build-Operate-

Transfer (BOT) and other suitable public-private partnership (PPP) models;

and

In Myeik two public companies are also involved in development and

infrastructure development.

Myanmar has about 142 395 kilometres of road networks; the lengths of various categories

of road are:

Union highways − 18 740 km;

Township network roads – 19 045 km;

Major city roads & other roads – 26 472 km; and

Village & boundary area roads – 78 183 km.

Demand for port expansion has resulted in loss of various habitats in harbours around the

country. There is increased competition between leisure activities and commercial shipping

in ports. Maintenance dredging in ports can also lead to disturbance and dispersal of

contaminated sediments. The Ministry of Construction is promoting private sector

participation in infrastructure development, on the basis of BOT and other suitable PPP

models for the construction of roads, inland cargo depots, ports and airports.

The governments of India and Myanmar are working on a US$500 million, Kaladan Multi-

modal Transit Transport Project that will facilitate trade between the two nations. The project

includes the construction of the US$120 million deep-water Sittwe Port at the mouth of the river,

dredging of the Kaladan River to enable cargo vessels to navigate the river from Sittwe to

Mizoram, the construction of a river port at Paletwa, as well as the widening and upgrade of

highways between Paletwa and Myeikwa on the Indo-Myanmar border. The project will open up

not only Mizoram but all of India's northeastern states as hinterland for Sittwe Port. Construction

for the port started in 2010 and will be completed and handed over in 2015.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaladan_Multi-modal_Transit_Transport_Project

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaladan_Multi-modal_Transit_Transport_Project

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sittwe_Port

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigability

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paletwa



33

Dawei is also getting a proposed SEZ plus a deep-sea port called the Dawei Port Project. It

is undergoing construction with companies providing road links to Thailand, port

construction and rail connection. It is partly being developed by Italian-Thai Development.

The proposed completion date is set for 2014.

5.3. Mining sector

Myanmar has a considerable deposits of gold, copper, lead, zinc, silver, nickel, coal and

dimension stones, such as granite, marble and limestone. In 1989, Myanmar embarked on a

policy of encouraging foreign investment and invited foreign companies to participate. The

policy and objective of the Ministry of Mines is to encourage responsible and

environmentally sound commercial exploitation, and the development of abundant but

underutilized mineral resources in the country.

Six granite deposits are located in the country and the estimated ore reserve of deposits in

Mon State is 3.7 billion tonnes. Regarding ornamental stones, the estimated ore reserve in

the whole country is about 563 million tonnes. Rubies, sapphires, coloured gemstones and

jade are being exported. Myanmar is the primary source of top grade Jadeite, with Hpakant

region being one of the richest deposits in the world.

5.4. Hydropower and coal-fired power production sector

Hydropower is a major electricity generator; in this context Myanmar has rich water

resources to feed supply. In December 2009, the government added three hydropower plants,

Saidin, Thahtay Chaung and Laymromyit, at a cost of over US$800 million. The three plants

together can produce 687 MW but the surplus electricity will be distributed to other states

and divisions. In 2007, Myanmar signed an agreement for the construction of

seven hydroelectric dams, yielding a total 13 360 MW, in the N'mai and Mali Rivers,

including the 3 600 MW Myitsone Dam at the confluence of both rivers.

Eight of 12 planned coal-fired power plants, with combined capacity of 12 780 MW, will be

located in Yangon and Tanintharyi regions, with four projects each. Yangon's Thilawa area

will become home to three new coal-fired power plants − one in Thilawa, one in Kyauktan

and one in the Thilawa SEZ. The fourth coal-fired power plant in Yangon Region will be

established in Kyunchankone and is expected to generate 3 270 MW.

The Thailand-based Ratchaburi Electricity Generating Holding recently signed a

memorandum of understanding (MoU) for the feasibility study and development of the 2

640 MW Myeik clean coal-fired power plant project in Tanintharyi Region.

For the generation subsector, foreign direct investment can be made in the form of joint

ventures, BOT and other suitable PPP models for suitable power generation projects. Local

investors are also allowed to participate in schemes of independent power producers for

hydropower projects.

5.5. Oil and gas sector

Myanmar’s petroleum sector is administered by the Ministry of Energy, which takes the

leading role in the coordination, discussion and negotiation of the development of

programmes in the energy sector. Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) under the

Ministry of Energy, is responsible for conducting exploration and production of crude oil

and natural gas, in both onshore and offshore areas.

The Ministry of Energy has invited multinational companies to participate in the exploration

and production of crude oil and natural gas in cooperation with MOGE, on a production-

sharing basis. In the onshore sector, a total of 47 blocks have been demarcated; they

comprise 18 production sharing contract blocks, five exploration and production blocks, 10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawei_Port_Project

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laymro

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dams

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confluence



34

reactivation of suspended field blocks, seven improved petroleum recovery blocks and seven

MOGE blocks; 26 blocks have been demarcated in the offshore sector.

Investment opportunities include:

Exploration and production in petroliferous onshore and offshore Myanmar;

Rehabilitating marginal fields and enhancing declining and suspended fields;

New plant commissioning; refineries, LPG, LNG, fertilizer plants;

Floating storage units, floating storage and offtake facilities;

Compressed natural gas refuelling stations and necessary parts and kits;

Research and development;

Trading, marketing and retailing of petroleum products; and

Indispensable equipment to revamp and renovate drilling rigs, refineries and

plants.

5.6. Tourism and recreational sector

The hotel and tourism sector has been booming in recent years and the country’s unspoiled

scenic and historic places and of course extremely nice local people and very safe travel

experiences are attracting global tourists. Hotel business in Myanmar is allowed 100 percent

foreign direct investment for the development of 3-star + rated hotels. However, tourism is

only allowed under a joint venture system. Myiek Public Corporation Limited and Myiek

Future Development Public Co Ltd have major plans to develop island- and mangrove-based

tourism by building quality hotels, adventure sports complexes, residential complexes and

other facilities in Tanintharyi Region.

Coastal tourism depends on the quality and diversity of the coastal environment; increase in

tourist numbers will have impact and threats on areas of high ecological and resource value

in coastal marine environments. Furthermore, tax relief on property investment schemes or

economic zones aimed at generating economic activity in seaside resorts would also result in

increased ad hoc development without significantly boosting tourism revenues in coastal

locations.

5.7. Coastal agriculture

Myanmar is an agrarian country and the agriculture sector is the backbone of its economy.

The agriculture sector contributes 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings

and employs 63 percent of the labour force. About 75 percent of the total population resides

in rural areas and is principally employed in the agriculture, livestock and fishery sectors to

sustain livelihoods.

Agriculture has been identified as the biggest source of pollution in Myanmar rivers and

lakes, which has implications for coastal water quality. Intensive agriculture will also lead to

a reduction in seminatural habitats and to a decrease in biological diversity.

Tangible progress has been achieved in the sown acreage, production and exports of certain

crops, especially paddy and pulses, however, the performance of agriculture as a whole is far

short of its true potential. Dawei produces rubber, dried fish and teakwood. It also

produces cashew nuts and betel nuts and exports them through local traders to China, India

and Thailand. Dawei is also well known for its variety of tropical fruits such as pineapples, a

variety of mangoes, mangosteens and durian.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teak

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashew

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betel_nut

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangosteen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durian



35

In the coastal regions, the agriculture sector is extremely mechanized and people wanted to

mechanize the sector. Dependency on cattle for draught power and manure has been lost, as

countries like Thailand and Japan have intervened with mechanized agricultural technology

and people have lost jobs as agricultural labourers.

Myanmar has a land area of 676 577 km2 and around 50 percent is available for growing

various crops that are in line with tropical weather conditions. The government has invited

both local and foreign investors to invest, under joint venture schemes or 100 percent

investment, in the following areas:

Establishing agro-based industries;

Assembling and manufacturing light agricultural machinery and small farm

implements; and

Manufacturing agricultural inputs and related support products.

Rakhine Region’s agriculture department has provided a development needs road map for

immediate implementation.

5.8. Coastal livestock and farming

In the coastal regions of Myanmar, there is great potential to develop the dairy farming

sector and Myanmar has been striving to boost production of milk products to meet rising

demand as it imports US$40 million worth of products annually.

To reduce the amount of total imports, the authorities are calling for an increase in the

breeding of milch cows. In the coastal regions there is a demand for the expansion of

imported species of cattle such as Indo-Brazilian, American Brahman and Holstein-Friesian.

The local breeds are almost neglected and forgotten. Water buffalo support agriculture as

draught power in agricultural areas where mangroves have been destroyed or converted in

Rakhine State for paddy farming.

Ra They Taung, Pu Ma Kyun and five more districts are in the livestock expansion zone

identified by Rakhine State Livestock Department. However, there are limitations

concerning artificial insemination of cattle and organized fodder supply.

Opportunities for developing livestock are allied with small-scale and major industries such

as pharmaceuticals, feed, fodder, liquid nitrogen production and others to cater to the

expansion of cattle and poultry farms.

Training the local community in veterinary technical skills was also identified as a critical

need to support the industry.

Myanmar produces annually about 1.5 billion kilograms of milk, and over 226 570

kilograms of condensed milk from about 500 000 milch cows. The industry needs to upgrade

in terms of planning, technology and financing, the limitations of which handicap the

industry.

The government is promoting the development of breeding dairy cattle in order to boost

dairy production locally. Presently, Myanmar has 14 million cows and steers, and some

three million buffalo. Local and foreign dairy firms have been invited to invest in raising

dairy cattle, and the Myanmar Livestock and Fisheries Federation will render necessary

assistance, such as land lease and allocation.

Because of growing export demand and high prices, soft shell mud crab farming has become

a booming industry in the Yangon and Taninthayi regions of Myanmar. Small juvenile

crabs (60 to 80 grams) are collected from the wild and stocked individually into plastic

basket boxes. In one 6 000 m2 pond, 40 000 crabs were stocked, and production was from



36

2.0 to 2.5 tonnes a month with continuous harvesting of 100- to 120-gram crabs. The

farming system is labour-intensive. Scylla serrata and S. olivacea are the dominant species.

Recently, a new government policy on shrimp farming has renewed interest in the

industry. A trial using semi-biofloc technology has been successfully implemented south of

Yangon within a soft shell crab farm. It is a high-risk venture because crabs are known to be

carriers of the white spot virus, but it was the only location with good, clean, earthen ponds

and a stable power supply.

Shrimp and prawn farmers in Myanmar are pleading for financial support to save their

businesses, which are going downhill rapidly because of erratic power supplies and

shortages of ice, cold storage facilities, transportation and laboratories.

Hatchery production of postlarvae dropped from 300 million in 2012 to 30 million in 2013

and will probably drop to 20 million in 2014, mostly because of diseases (recent data

unknown). The number of hatcheries has also fallen from about 20 in 2012 to 15 currently,

and only four or five of them are operational.

According to DoF data, Myanmar has 120 plants that process farmed and wild-caught

shrimp, freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and fish. Twelve processing and

cold storage facilities around Yangon are certified by the European Union.

5.9. Coastal forestry

Myanmar’s forests have been affected by degradation, shifting cultivation and conversion to

commercial oil-palm plantations (the latter is particularly relevant in the lowland forests of

the Tanintharyi Region). Deforestation pressures include:

Fuelwood consumption (the principle source of energy);

Unplanned and unrestricted agricultural expansion;

Aquaculture (e.g. shrimp farming in the Delta and Rakhine Region);

Infrastructure development; and

Commercial clear-cutting.

The main cause of island ecosystem destruction in Tanintharyi coastal zone has been logging

of the uplands and mangrove areas for charcoal production, but recently shrimp culture has

emerged as a potential threat to mangroves despite the forest and fisheries laws that prohibit

mangrove destruction and conversion to aquaculture. Poverty and lack of environmental

awareness amongst indigenous and immigrants has given space for small- and medium-scale

investors of neighbouring countries to harvest coastal marine resources in an unsustainable

manner.

Despite the rules (by the local administrative authority) and nominal penalties, illegal

logging continues to thrive in the island ecosystems in Tanintharyi and estuary mangroves in

Rakhine. In the case of Ayeyarwaddy mangroves, these natural barriers have been denuded

and facing natural catastrophe. Therefore, there is an urgent need to change the resource

management strategy as well as environmental protection law in order to achieve sustainable

resource utilization and management in the coastal areas of Myanmar.

About 85 species of native trees in Myanmar are recognized as being able to produce good

quality timber. Development of the wood-based industry is a crucial aspect of the forestry

sector, and besides, timber forests in Myanmar contain a wide range of NWFPs.

Major forest products include teak and hardwoods such as Pyinkatoe, Paduak, Ingyin and

many others. Also, minor products such as bamboo, rattan, charcoal, beeswax and bird nests.



37

The investment opportunity for the production of teak and hardwood furniture is the most

prosperous area, especially with the input of good design and modern equipment, processes

and packaging. Recently, raw wood has been banned from export; only value-added

products can be exported.

The government has provided opportunities for investors to grow plantations of wood trees

and also in the value-added wood industry.

5.10. Fishing and aquaculture industry

Myanmar has a long coastline of 2 832 kilometers, and the total area of swamps along the

coast is about 0.5 million hectares, which provides a very good basis for the development of

shrimps and prawn culture. Aquaculture expansion has led to the destruction of

mangroves in Myanmar and irreversible damage to both estuarine and offshore fisheries

by introducing biological, chemical, and organic pollutants (such as antibiotics and

pesticides) and by modifying habitats especially in Rakhine and the Ayeyarwaddy

Delta.

According to recent surveys and research, the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is

estimated at about 1.05 million tonnes per year.

Environmental challenges in Myanmar include:

High demand for fish and fisheries products will significantly increase

pressure on living aquatic resources by investors, national and international,

over the next years;

According to stakeholders and recent stock assessments, the abundance and

diversity of marine resources is already in decline;

Offshore vessels (local and foreign), including bottom trawlers operating in

inshore waters, will exacerbate negative impacts on the marine environment;

Without adequate regulations and enforcement, the risk to critical habitats

such as mangroves, mudflats, coral reefs and sea-grass beds will become

greater than the current threat;

Without effective management of coastal and marine resources and

ecosystems, fisheries will become unsustainable; and

Continued unsustainable use of resources could lead to the collapse of

fisheries, damaging Myanmar’s economy and creating abject poverty on a

dramatic scale.

Political factors, issues and challenges of Myanmar fisheries are growth- and production-

oriented. Focused on generating public revenue, i.e. licence fees and export duties, there is

weak collaboration and coordination between different public stakeholders/policy-makers at

central and state/division levels. Overall, sector policies target short-term economic gains at

all levels rather than responsible and sustainable resource utilization and long-term

management.

Organization of the fishing sector indicates social cohesion, in particular in less-stratified

villages; no visible or reported tensions between resident and immigrant fishers, many

different ethnicities; emerging fisher organizations, e.g. gear groups, with group leaders who

were elected democratically and legitimately and with representative leadership. But there

are examples of organizations with non-transparent mandates and questionable

inclusiveness.



38

Offshore fishers in Myanmar include long liners that target pelagic fish all along the coast.

Squid fishers are common along the Tanintharyi coast. Large commercial boats with crews

of several men head out on multiday trips and use lights to lure squid. Bottom trawlers’

primary targets are prawns or finfish. Anchovy and sardine fishers using purse seine nets are

common off areas of the Rakhine coast. The DoF estimated the number of offshore vessels

in Myanmar at 2 205 in 2010 (Department of Fisheries 2010).

Overfishing, including by foreign vessels, is contributing to the declining livelihoods of

fishing villages. Myanmar’s fisheries law explicitly allows for the use of their marine

resources by neighbouring countries. According to official data, from 2004 to 2011, 250 to

300 foreign boats per year fished in Myanmar bringing in an estimated US$12 million per

year in taxes. Fishing rights for foreign boats are due to expire on 31 March 2014 and

recently there have been suggestions in parliament to end these rights, allowing for more

fishing opportunities and local employment in Myanmar (Anonymous 2013). As of 2010, an

estimated 18 percent of the offshore fishing boats were foreign (Department of Fisheries

2010).

Serious concerns exist regarding the sustainability of Myanma fisheries. Some fish stocks

have been seriously overfished including cod and whiting from the Myanma seas. Some

coastal communities have diversified by developing aquaculture industries (particularly

inside the mangroves and converting the reserved forests to aquaculture ponds and soft shell

crab farms by private entrepreneurs). Developments in aquaculture needs to be balanced

with requirements for protecting coastal habitats. Loss of seascape due to the siting of

aquaculture installations can cause potential conflict with the tourism industry.

Economic factors affecting the fishery sector are directly related to sector policies. Sector

policies favour larger scale offshore operations catering for affluent markets, domestic

and/or export, largely excluding low-income consumers; however, the small-scale, artisanal

subsector provides most livelihoods and income and employment, and is the major

contributor of domestic food supplies, food security and nutrition, as well as being a major

engine of local economies and growth.

Social factors include social structure within fishing communities, social infrastructure and

living conditions. Villages and communities visited varied in social structure, from highly

stratified to significantly more homogeneous. In Mon State many villages are difficult to

access, with negative implications regarding social infrastructure and living conditions. In

Tandwe District, Rakhine State, villages were accessible but many were locked in spatial

conflict with tourism.

Technological factors regarding fish capture concern gear used in offshore and artisanal

fishing; in the absence of enforcement of minimal mesh sizes, regulations all are unselective,

with the exception of long lines. Illegal fishing methods reported were use of poison and

explosives and ‘baby bottom trawls’. The main reason for declining resources appears to be

overcapacity of the sum of all fleet segments (including illegal, unreported and unregulated

[IUU] fishing).

Processing technology at the artisanal level, i.e. salting and drying, is economically and

technologically efficient (no discards, all catches are utilized including by-catch from

offshore vessels, with low quality landings being preprocessed for animal feed); appropriate

(no major capital outlays, energy and advanced technical expertise is required); and

immensely valuable and irreplaceable in terms of income and employment creation and

livelihoods for poor coastal dwellers of all ethnicities.



39

Some management attempts target prohibition of dangerous fishing nets, temporary

suspension of activity in spawning seasons and for target species, co-management plans and

allotting marine corridors for protection. Suspension periods are listed below:

Spawning season: June-August (started in 1993);

Lobster and commercial fish spawning season: June-August (started in 2008);

Grouper (2/2006): July-September in all fishing grounds;

Sea bass (2/2006): January-March in all fishing grounds;

Hard clam (9/2008): 20 acres in Myeik, Palaw, Kyae Chaung and Ta Bo

Chaung point;

Set bag net (Bom Kyaung Pike)-(1/2009): January-March; and

Shark (2/2004): April-May in Myeik Archipelago.

5.11. Community co-management

A major shift toward community management of forest resources occurred in the mid-1990s

with the issuance of the CFI by the FD in response to widespread forest degradation and

increased demand for forest products and services. The document guides participatory

resource management and impacts management activities in mangrove and other forest

systems.

The term ‘fisheries co-management’ implies that communities and the state work together

compared to other commonly used terms such as ‘community fisheries management’, which

implies that communities are solely responsible for the management of their fisheries, within

the boundaries of the law.

5.12. High priority marine corridors

In January 2012, over 80 of the country’s environmental experts from civil society and

government assembled to discuss the current state of Myanmar’s biodiversity and used

international criteria to identify and prioritize 132 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs). These

sites are defined as areas holding significant populations of species of high conservation

concern. Because connectivity is required to ensure that the full range of environmental

services continues to function, these KBAs were grouped together within ‘conservation

corridors’. Fifteen conservation corridors were revised and updated taking into account

connectivity among KBAs, safeguarding against the impacts of climate change and

maintaining ecological processes, among other factors. These corridors allow for

conservation planning that considers connectivity and resource impacts beyond the borders

of nationally designated protected areas. Two marine conservation corridors were

highlighted: The Tanintharyi Marine Corridor and the Rakhine Marine Corridor (Wildlife

Conservation Society 2013).

5.13. Water quality

There is a general lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation is a crucial issue

in Myanmar as infrastructure is already extremely limited. Access to safe drinking water

varies significantly among different states and regions in Myanmar. A UNICEF (2012) study

indicated that just 68 percent of households had access to improved water sources, but only

17 percent of households had a safe way of extracting water from sources, thereby

increasing the risk of contamination.

Direct discharges into coastal waters include urban wastewater, domestic sewage and

industrial (trade effluent) inputs. Non-source discharges such as agricultural runoff are also



40

known to have a detrimental effect on water quality. River and lake pollution from sewage,

industrial waste and solid waste disposal in particular are serious problems in Myanmar, but

the only control of water pollution in the country is through guidelines issued in June 1994

by the Myanmar Investment Commission (MIC), which require that new investment

projects have wastewater treatment systems (Kyaw Thi Soe and Mon Mon Yin 2009).

5.14. Natural hazards

Myanmar is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels as a result of its highly populated,

low-lying coastline. An increase in sea level will provide a higher base for storm surges and

other extreme climate events. Therefore, sea-level rise and associated impacts will threaten

coastal ecosystems, agricultural land and infrastructure (roads, property, and businesses).

Certain low-lying coastal zones will be at risk of complete inundation resulting in a loss of

agricultural and residential land. The slope of the land will largely determine the extent of

inundation. For example, the low-lying Ayeyarwaddy Delta is particularly at risk, as even a

small rise in sea level will lead to a large portion of the Delta being inundated. Rising sea

levels will also threaten water tables as saline water enters into groundwater supplies.

According to the UN Risk Model, Myanmar ranks as the ‘most at risk’ country for natural

disasters. Coastal regions, particularly Rakhine State and the Ayeyarwaddy Delta Region,

are at high risk from cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis. Much of the country is also

exposed to flooding and landslides during the rainy season in addition to drought and fire

during the dry season. As Myanmar falls on one of the two main earthquake belts in the

world, much of the country is prone to earthquake. Though fires make up 73 percent of

reported disaster events, storms and cyclones have caused the greatest damage and loss of

life.

Poverty is both the cause and result of natural disasters. Villagers engage in deforestation,

overcultivation and poor resource management, leading to flood, drought or landslides. On

the other hand, natural disasters continually destroy people’s livelihoods, push them into

poverty and prevent them from rising above the poverty line (Oxfam 2014). Weak

infrastructure and poor housing conditions contribute to Myanmar’s susceptibility. High

casualties and economic loss are often related to the collapse of non-engineered structures.

Cyclones: Cyclones have historically caused the most destruction by natural disasters in

Myanmar. Thirty-six cyclones have made landfall on the Myanmar coast since 1947. Strong

winds and storm surges (flooding) associated with the cyclones have caused the most

damage. Of the cyclones that caused the greatest disaster, 11 of them made landfall in

Rakhine State and two in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta region. The most devastating cyclone by

far was Cyclone Nargis of 2008. Cyclone risk is highest during the month of May, though,

during the last 100 years, cyclones also have occurred during April, October, November and

December.

Floods: Flooding has always been one of the major hazards in Myanmar and floods account

for 11 percent of all disasters, second only to fire. Myanmar has an intricate system of rivers

contributing greatly to local economies and transportation of goods. Many cities and towns

are located alongside these rivers, particularly the largest: the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin,

Sittaung and Thanlwin.

The Ayeyarwaddy River Basin alone, the largest in the country, covering 404 200 km2,

exposes over 2 million people to flood hazards. Between 1910 and 2000, there were 12

major floods. There is risk of flooding during the monsoon season, which runs from mid-

May to October every year. Peak flood periods occur during June, August and late

September to October.



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Floods that occur in Myanmar are classified into four categories. For mitigation of damage

caused by floods, flood forecasting and warning systems are recommended as the

responsibility of the central government. In addition, public awareness campaigns and

community disaster preparedness training in flood-prone areas can help communities

strengthen their resilience to floods.

The impacts of climate change and global warming can reduce the water level in the Central

Dry Zone (CDZ), while the water level in the Delta Region may rise due to the change of sea

level. Climate change-related flood issues need to be addressed at the national level. Further

research into climate change influences on flooding in Myanmar also need to be conducted.

Drought: Drought-related hazards are a risk in Magwe, Mandalay and Sagaing regions. The

CDZ includes 53 townships and covers about 10 percent of the country. Farmers in this zone

are mainly commercial, cultivating a variety of crops in a double cropping and rotational

system. Natural resources in this area have been depleted due to soil erosion and

deforestation.

Agricultural production is unstable as a result. The natural resources of the CDZ are being

depleted more rapidly than they can be renewed.

Flash floods occur in mountainous regions in the upper reaches of river

systems. These occur in Karen, Kachin, Shan, Mon and Chin states;

Riverine floods occur along major rivers. These are seen in northern and

central areas as well as southern river delta areas;

Flooding from storm surges during cyclones occurs in Rakhine State and the

Delta Region; and

Localized floods occur in urban areas due to heavy rainfall and poor

infrastructure. Localized floods also occur in rural areas due to breakage or

failure of dams, dykes and levees.

5.15. Offshore resources

The coastal areas, where offshore oil and gas production already comes on shore in Rakhine

and Ayeyarwaddy, are exposed to long-term climatic impacts such as sea-level rise as well

as an increase in cyclones and storm surge/flooding. The country more generally is exposed

to both geological and meteorological hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, cyclones and

tsunamis) as a result of the country’s southwest location within the Bay of Bengal and low-

lying coastal zone.

If not carefully managed, exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves can have negative

impacts on the coastal regions where the reserves are brought ashore, through loss of

landscape and seascape because of terminal developments, to potential for pollution as a

result of accidental spills. Demands for sand and gravel for the construction industry have

extended to offshore resources. The location of wind farm sites is being considered,

particularly off the Tanintharyi coast. The potential impacts of such offshore developments

may include impacts on spawning grounds, migratory routes, migratory birds and cetaceans.

The coastal zone is one of the Myanmar’s greatest assets; its unique coastal values and

resources are vital to the way of life. Within these areas, there is an interacting mix of

terrestrial, estuarine and marine ecosystems that support a wealth of biodiversity. Coastal

biodiversity supports the resource base for a broad range of commercial and non-commercial

activities. Coastal activities dependent on healthy coastal environments include subsistence

fishing and seafood gathering; tourism and recreation; urban development; shipping and



42

transportation; coastal agriculture; and trade. Equally the coastal zone has important social,

cultural and indigenous values, including coastal landscapes, amenities and access.

There are various substantial environmental pressures and symptoms of environmental

decline affecting coastal resources due to development and conservation challenges in

coastal areas. This includes ecosystem degradation (particularly for wetlands and inshore

reefs), land degradation, such as soil and coastal erosion, and declines in marine and

freshwater quality from pollution, sedimentation and saltwater intrusion.

Inadequate local capacity to effectively manage coastal resources leaves the coastal regions

of Myanmar vulnerable to the risk of loss of ecosystem services and the impacts of climate

change, extreme events and sea-level rise. These risks are amplified a hundredfold for small

islands like the archipelago islands in Tanintharyi.

5.16. Coastal issues

Population growth, urbanization, industrialization and growing pollution are putting

increasing pressure on Tanintharyi coastal zone. In addition, the state receives an average of

16 cyclonic storms every year – some of them quite severe.

However, deforestation, large-scale mining, habitat and land degradation and diminishing

water resources are all placing pressure on the environment. The expansion of agriculture

and industry, pollution, population growth, along with uncontrolled use and extraction of

resources, are causing severe environmental and ecosystem degradation. Rubber plantations

have almost doubled from 1990 to 2010 and together with large-scale palm oil plantations

are among the biggest threats to biodiversity. These environmental pressures in turn,

increase the vulnerability of several socio-economic sectors including agriculture, transport

and energy. Although accurate updated estimates are difficult to obtain, illegal wildlife trade

in Myanmar is considered to be widespread. Together with illegal hunting, it is causing a

general decrease of wildlife population. Many Myanmar citizens, and local and international

CSOs, fear Myanmar’s rich biodiversity and natural habitats will be depleted and damaged

by greater investment in the extraction of such resources.

Furthermore, tsunamis in the Bay of Bengal are also of concern. The 2004 Indian Ocean

tsunami greatly impacted the Delta Region of Myanmar. This highlights the importance of

having an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan in place.

1. As part of the ICZM plan, Myanmar should:

Conduct land-use, capability and vulnerability mapping developed through a

Special Area Management Plan (SAMP) and an intersector impact assessment;

and

Prepare land-use, capability and vulnerability maps with high-resolution scale

with land boundaries visible for the entire coastal stretch. All the maps should

run from the coast to 2.5 or 5 kilometres inland, pinpoint village boundaries

and include full administrative units. These maps will benefit various

governmental departments and other stakeholders and help in future planning.

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS

Women usually have different access to and control over land and water in coastal zones.

Coastal rural women depend heavily on fish and fishing. They tend to fish close to the shore

and use the catch to feed their families, whereas men typically engage in large-scale

commercial fishing offshore or in major inland waterbodies. Operating on a smaller scale,

coastal rural women earn only 40-50 percent of what men earn for fishing in Myanmar.



43

Being less visible in their work, women are also less likely to have access to decision-

makers or to be consulted about the management of natural resources.

Gender issues are not evident, except that girls leave school as soon as they

have learned how to read and write while boys mostly complete primary

school; and

In general, women are integrated in the production structures, in particular in

processing and marketing, where they often take a prominent role.

These findings are indicative as best and need more in-depth analysis/participatory appraisal.

7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT

The following high priority areas are recommended for intervention and investment:

Mapping the existing land-use patterns and expected changes in coming years

and evolve a land-use policy for the better management of natural resources;

Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Authority;

Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration

(EMR) technique and other coastal ecosystems with stakeholder participation;

Small-scale entrepreneur development support based on minor and major

coastal forest produce, including that from fisheries;

Expanding integrated farming of livestock, fisheries and forestry and

development of livestock-allied industries;

Developing large tracts of grasslands, fodder and woodfuel tree farms using

native grasses and trees;

Initiating systems for harvesting rainwater for potable and farming water

demands and restoring waterbodies and catchments;

Identification and implementation of alternative fuel and energy options to

reduce dependency and pressure on the coastal forest;

Skills’ assessment and capacity-building programmes in all sectors such as

agriculture, fishery, forestry, livestock; rural employment options for all levels

of stakeholders;

Natural resource mapping, awareness and conservation initiatives through

community participation; and

Economic valuation of coastal and marine ecosystems.

8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS

8.1. Improving management of rural and coastal areas

Land use in rural areas: The rural landscape is an invaluable resource for Myanmar,

providing nature and biodiversity, in addition to economic activities such as agriculture,

forestry, rural housing, recreation, tourism, mineral extraction, energy production

(particularly wind farms), fishing and aquaculture. The interplay of these activities is

important and it should be ensured that:

Change in the landscape is managed, without detriment to its overall quality

and character;



44

Key resources are protected and maintained for future generations;

The potential negative impacts of one activity over another are carefully

considered at planning application stages;

Efforts are directed towards landscaping with appropriate species and the

retention of existing trees and hedgerows; also to screen and integrate new

development in rural areas. A portion of the development costs may be

allocated for complementary tree planting; and

Existing landscape features such as local stone walls, stiles, hedgerows, field

patterns, archaeological features, traditional building groups, native

woodlands and copses are retained.

8.2. Rural development and enterprise

In order to strengthen the provision of services, regenerate rural communities and promote

the economic development of rural areas, there is a need to support rural and agricultural

diversification through a variety of initiatives. These include rural and agritourism

initiatives; promoting rural transport; developing telecommunications in rural areas; and

promoting the development of small incubator units as an adjunct to other rural activities,

such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry, mariculture and alternative energy production.

Projects assisted by these bodies may include farmers’ markets, tourist attractions and rural

incubator units promoting crafts, the arts, pottery, antiques, indigenous manufacturing and

engineering, in addition to agribusinesses. The government has to work with the supporting

bodies, and others, to promote rural development and enterprise.

Support the active involvement of rural communities in the provision of local

services and the development of resources – e.g. integrated organic farming,

equestrian activities, wildlife and bird watching;

Promote the continuance of the Rural Transport Initiative as an essential

service to people in rural areas;

Facilitate the development of e-commerce, IT and broadband

telecommunications, as enablers of rural enterprise, which can counteract the

effects of distance and remoteness; and

Promote the development of appropriately-scaled second-home and holiday

home development as a contributor to a more diversified rural economy.

8.3. Other rural renaissance initiatives

These should offer funding for projects that make the most of opportunities for community

and economic development arising from peace, and includes initiatives such as economic

renewal, cross-border cooperation and locally-based regeneration and development

strategies.

Activities found in rural areas can be divided into three broad categories: On the farm: rice

and other crops, fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, flowers, animal rearing (chicken, pigs,

sheep), sericulture, apiculture, breeding turtles, frogs, aquaculture and others; Handicrafts:

basket weaving, silk and cotton weaving, carpet weaving, pottery, painting, metal work and

others; Other services include motorcycle repair, radio/television/mobile phone repair,

barber shops, beauty salons, traditional massage parlours, food processing and sales of

various products.



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Rural reform will consist mainly of increasing access to high-quality seeds, expanding credit

through a new private agriculture bank and diversifying crops in villages. Farmers should be

encouraged to cultivate a second crop, such as mangos, bananas, or any suitable crop to

create another source of income. Factories should be built in rural areas to produce juice and

other ‘value-added’ products from second crop produce

Apart from agriculture there is a possibility to develop an industrial sector; there is also

some fear that this may encourage big companies to drive small farmers off their land. Two

new bills, namely the Farmland Law and the Vacant, Fallow and Virgin Lands Management

Bill are already facing criticism from farm activists for creating more opportunities for the

state to take over land in Myanmar.

8.4. Forestry

Myanmar is rich in natural forests and approximately half (49 percent or ~317 730 km2) of

the total land area is forested. Forest type and distribution is mostly dependent upon the

landscape of the country (World Bank 2014).

The delta and coastal regions comprise mangrove and estuarine forests;

The arid and semi-arid regions comprise deciduous and dipterocarp forests;

The low rainfall areas (particularly the CDZ and surrounding areas) comprise

dry thorn and scrubland forests;

The high rainfall regions comprise evergreen forests; and

The subtropical high altitudinal areas comprise hill evergreen and subalpine

forests.

Already in the period 1990-2010 Myanmar had lost around 7 445 000 ha (19.0 percent of its

forest cover). Myanmar still remains one of the 10 countries in the world with the largest

annual net loss of forest area and among the five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Myanmar,

Madagascar and Mozambique) with the largest net loss of mangrove area during the period

2000-2010. Similarly, soil erosion is a serious concern in the upland areas on about 10

percent of the country’s cultivated areas, with the government’s land rehabilitation schemes

not keeping pace with new cultivation by upland farmers, sustained by high rates of

population growth.

There are currently 43 officially-recognized protected areas but so far information on their

status has been poor, scattered and not updated; these currently cover 7.3 percent of the

country (Myanmar Forest Information and Data 2014).

The process of establishing community forests over the past decade has been slower than

anticipated, with annual rate of establishment at only about 8 000 acres, despite a national

target of 1.5 million acres by 2030. By 2010, just over 100 000 acres of community forests

had been legally established (recognized and recorded by the central Forestry Department)

in the whole country, over half of which is just in southern Shan State (192 community

forests established by 2010). However, an evaluation and monitoring system is critical to

sustain the objective.

There is a need to support and promote forestry development in Myanmar, subject to the

protection of, inter alia, scenic landscapes and views, water quality, heritage features,

residential amenities and public safety.



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8.5. Aquaculture

Aquaculture relates to the commercial production of fish and shellfish species. The term is

generally used to describe fish farming operations both on inland and coastal (marine)

waters.

Environmental concerns associated with aquaculture include:

Protection of the aquatic environment;

The need to guard against escapees;

The avoidance of any genetic threats, potential disease and parasitic

implications to local fish stocks (there is a need to source seed from certified

disease-free stock); and

Potential conflicts in relation to water supply, which can become critical

during low-flow summer periods.

Major aquaculture projects must be discouraged, unless the government is satisfied that such

proposals will be environmentally sustainable and have a limited impact on the visual

amenity of the area. Hatcheries and breeding techniques are also a major field of importance

in Myanmar.

Net cage culture is operated in the Myeik Archipelago and Gwa Township on the Rakhine

coast. As of 2010 there were six marine net cage finfish culture farms on the Tanintharyi

coast (Department of Fisheries 2010). Primary species for commercial culture are the

duskytail grouper (Epinephelus bleekeri), the orange-spotted grouper, (E. coioides), the

Malabar grouper (E. malabaricus) and the greasy grouper (E. tauvina) (FAO 2003) but other

species of groupers and snappers may be opportunistically reared as well. Seabass (Lates

calcarifer) is similarly farmed in some areas of the Ayeyarwaddy Delta.

Grouper is one of the three main aquaculture exports of Myanmar (after shrimp and on par

with crab). They are exported either live from Myeik for the live reef fish trade to Hong

Kong S.A.R. or chilled. Juveniles are wild-caught by fishers, often around the full moon

using feathered hooks or traps, while fry are lured and collected using rock mounds, brush

piles, brush lures and fish traps. The fish are grown in floating net cages and ponds.

Myanmar scientists have conducted seaweed culture experiments since the 1960s and the

first factory to produce carrageenan and agar from Hypnea and Gracilaria was established in

1979 in Thandwe District of Rakhine coast. Enteromorpha, Catenella and Sargassum have

been grown to produce Japanese nori. Currently there is seaweed farming in the Myeik

Archipelago. Until 1989 it was estimated that at least 1 500 tonnes of dried, raw seaweed

were produced in Myanmar each year, however, this was just 300 tonnes in 2014 according

to the Department of Fisheries.

Commercial seaweed farming near the pristine islands that make up the Myeik or Mergui

Archipelago in southern Myanmar began six years ago. The ROK-based MSC Company

invested millions of dollars in this project by providing technical expertise and agricultural

equipment to growers. The endangered green species of seaweed was widely cultivated in

Myeik Archipelago during previous years but currently only brown species are cultivated.

Seaweed cultivation in the Myeik Archipelago has declined since 2013 because of an

unknown disease. Many seaweed growers are being forced to abandon the cultivation of the

once lucrative Eucheuma or ‘Cottonii’ seaweed and are turning to other sources of income.



47

8.6. Diversification of agricultural activity

It is recognized that agricultural diversification helps achieve food security and improved

human nutrition and increased rural employment; it can also impact favourably on soil

fertility and pest incidence. Myanmar’s agroclimatic regional planning has documented the

zones of maximal opportunity for diversified agriculture on smaller farms. Planning (at local

and regional scales) to utilize those opportunities, and to provide the supportive

agroprocessing and market and communications facilities, must involve farmers’

representatives and cooperatives, administrators, extensionists, researchers, input suppliers

(public and private), and NGOs; it must address on-farm and non-farm features.

Other data from agricultural censuses and various regional microscale studies similarly

demonstrate that smaller (< 2.0-ha) farms practise diversified farming. On quite small

holdings, often fragmented, farmers nationwide allocate their land to seasonal crops, fruits,

and vegetables, dairy cattle, and perhaps poultry to maximize their household-labour

utilization and income. In this context, there is a need to:

Promote agriculture and agricultural diversification, while seeking to protect

and maintain biodiversity, wildlife habitats, water quality and nature

conservation;

Provide infrastructure to serve the needs of agriculture, in cooperation with the

appropriate agencies;

Provide support mechanisms to reduce agricultural pollution and the

eutrophication of rivers and lakes;

Promote and support secondary and tertiary economic activities associated

with the primary activities of agriculture, forestry, mineral extraction, fishing,

aquaculture and mariculture;

Promote farm diversification and possible spin-offs (e.g. biomass and energy

production, poultry, mushroom growing, flower growing, equestrian

facilities), in association with vigorous and adequate environmental controls

upon their development;

Support farm families seeking to establish alternative and/or complementary

economic enterprises to supplement their income from farming, subject to

appropriate scale and intensity of development, taking into consideration

traffic, environmental, landscape and residential amenity considerations.

Where the enterprise is not dependent on a rural location, and the scale and

intensity grow beyond family income needs, it may be encouraged, where

appropriate, to relocate to a nearby town or village; and

Promote the development of niche activities, such as those relating to food

(particularly value-added products), forestry (e.g. wood products), crafts,

ecotourism and agrotourism – e.g. farmhouse accommodation, pet farms, farm

holidays, health farms, equestrian activities, wildlife or bird-watching

holidays, painting or photography tuition, angling tourism, field studies and

hill-walking (with the cooperation of the landowners).

8.7. Coastal zone management

Overview: Information on the current state of the environment onshore and offshore is

sparse to non-existent. From sheltered bays, unspoiled beaches, small islands and wild surf,

Myanmar possesses a varied and spectacular coastline.



48

The coastline, however, is a finite resource that provides environmental, economic,

recreational and aesthetic benefits and access to marine resources such as fisheries and

aquaculture.

The primary attraction of the Myanmar coast is its relatively unspoiled nature. Increasingly,

the coastal zone is coming under pressure from:

Holiday makers and/or surfers looking for unspoiled coastlines;

Tourism providers who may seek to exploit scenic views in the provision of

accommodation or other facilities;

Individual homeowners;

Maricultural developments; and

Wind farm, solar plant operators who wish to avail coastal locations with high

wind speeds and solar energy.

Pressure for development needs to be examined in the context of a coastal environment

undergoing fairly rapid change, as the coastal zone is subject to constant pressures from

various agents of erosion, potential pollutants and conflicting user groups.

Coastal zone management should aim to achieve more efficient and sustainable use of the

coastal resource. The impacts arising from climate change, including changing weather

patterns and rising sea levels, will be most readily discernible at the coast. Flooding of low-

lying coastal areas is likely to become more frequent as a result of increased intensity and

frequency of oceanic storms. This may also cause or exacerbate coastal erosion, which can

have a devastating effect on existing development and infrastructure. The government

should draw up a policy document on Coastal Zone Management, which stipulates “policies

of limitation and curtailment on tourism and leisure development and use are, therefore,

necessary to deal with the increasing pressure”.

8.8. Fishing

Overharvesting to meet global consumers' growing demand for seafood can deplete many

species and alter the biological structure of coastal ecosystems. Many species are

overharvested because the world fishing fleet is larger than it needs to be. Other problems

include destructive harvesting methods such as trawling (dragging weighted nets across the

sea floor to catch shrimp and bottom-dwelling fish), and by-catch (unintended catch of non-

targeted species). Modern trawling equipment scoops through sediment and rock and often

kills the worms, sponges and other species that live on the sea floor.

The present small-scale fisheries support some sport fishing in Thandwe, which has potential

for expansion as a tourist activity:

One of the localized unisectoral development activities that contradict with Myanmar

Agenda 21 in coastal areas is capture fishery. For example, in the past few years, the

Divisional Economic Development Committee has increased issuance of fishing licences in

order to achieve local economic development and to obtain more foreign exchange in

Tanintharyi coastal region, while studies reveal that there is a clear decline in overall fishery

resources in the area. Recent re-estimation of the MSY by the Department of Fisheries

clearly indicated overfishing in Tanintharyi coastal areas and has recommended revoking

demersal fishery awarded to foreign fishing fleets but to allow expansion of local fisheries

that have small individual fishing capacity (DOLF 1999). However, in Rakhine coastal

region, the DoF has recommended increasing capture fishery production by allowing over 80

percent more fishing vessels based only on MSY obtained through the official fish landing.



49

If capacities of illegal poaching by foreign fleets were considered, it would be evident that

current production far exceeds the MSY. Although the volume of illegal poaching is hard to

estimate, already there is a clear indication of decline in fishery resources, according to

unpublished data on the seafood-processing industry. In hot pursuit of economic

development, sustainable marine resources management becomes paralyzed in the absence

of proper infrastructure, sufficient resources and an effective management control

mechanism that is enhanced by multisectoral coordination.

Moreover, fishing of live marine organisms by artisanal fishery poses a great threat to

marine and coastal biodiversity as well as coral reefs, apart from industrialized commercial

fishing. Mud crab fishery and live fish export of coral fish, grouper and black tiger shrimp

breeders would be a prominent example of this issue. According to the Tropical Ecosystem

Research Project survey reports of DANCED (1998-2000), between 80 and 100 tonnes of

live mud crab of both small and large sizes are being exported every month as Tanintharyi

mangroves serve as a major mud crab seed source for soft shell crab farming of a

neighbouring country. Similarly, in Rakhine State, 3 948 tonnes of mud crabs were exported

in the 1998-1999 fiscal year alone through border trade (Latt 1999). Moreover, an

unconfirmed source reported approximately 50 percent of shrimp breeds used in hatcheries

of Thailand come from Myanmar. All these activities, although being operated by mostly

artisanal fishers, have been significantly affecting the stability of coastal marine ecosystems.

Dynamiting coral fish, trampling and boat anchoring by such fishers have contributed

greatly to damaged coral reefs, quite apart from upland deforestation, littering and domestic

sewage. Although the extent of coral reef destruction in the whole Tanintharyi Division has

not been estimated yet, it is evident that large areas of coral reefs within the Lampi Island

Marine National Park boundary have been seriously damaged. Thus,

The legal and regulatory framework for fisheries needs to be reviewed and

revised for central and division/state levels, to facilitate compliance and allow

for co-management and community management of coastal resources;

A National Plan of Action to manage Myanmar’s fishing capacity needs to be

developed and implemented; and

A National Plan of Action to combat and eliminate IUU fishing (including

monitoring, control and surveillance) needs to be developed and implemented.

8.9. Mariculture

Marine fisheries and aquaculture (the controlled cultivation and harvesting of freshwater and

marine organisms) produce fin fish, shellfish and edible plants every year, providing a

livelihood for the coastal community and allied stakeholder community.

There are considerable opportunities for further development in aquaculture, especially

mariculture, in Myanmar. Joint efforts of the government and the private sector would

realize huge aquaculture potential. To do so without adverse side-effects and impacts on the

environment and social harmony, the government is taking measures to encourage, with

appropriate incentives and assistance, investors, farmers and other stakeholders to practise

responsible production practices.

The most common species in that area is E. coioides, but commercial-scale culture is not yet

practised. Regarding Lates calcarifer or Asian seabass farming, improved hatchery

management techniques are needed for its development into commercial culture. Inadequate

seed supply due to lack of skills in hatchery technology is now the major constraint for the

development of marine finfish aquaculture. There is a need to:



50

Encourage and facilitate mariculture development associated with job

creation, in a manner that is compatible with other uses of the Myanmar coast

Work with the mariculture industry to increase environmental sustainability.

8.10. Marine/coastal mineral extraction

A potential threat to coral reef ecosystems in Tanintharyi coastal zone is impact from oil, gas

and mineral exploration. The development of natural gas production and mineral deposits in

watershed areas and offshore could have a significant impact in coming years. No effective

measures and sustainable management of coastal marine resources by concerned agencies

exist to date apart from a ban on non-sustainable fishing practices, such as use of explosives,

by the Department of Fisheries.

Aggregate extraction from the coastal zone, particularly from beaches, estuaries and cobble

storm berms, has created many problems in the past, resulting in increased levels of erosion

and flooding in coastal areas.

Any proposals for future coastal/marine aggregate extraction along the Myanma coast shall

only be considered following detailed EIA and consultation with the MOECAF, if

appropriate. The processing and storage of extracted aggregates on lands within the coastal

zone shall be carried out in a manner that minimizes the impact on natural and residential

amenities.

8.11. Coastal protection

Mangrove forests, which are natural barriers protecting the coastal inland and inhabitants,

are also being cleared for timber and to make room for fish and shrimp ponds, human

settlements, and agricultural and industrial development.

Coastal protection works aim to reduce land loss and the frequency of flooding. Hard

structural/engineering options use structures constructed on the beach (seawalls, groynes,

breakwaters/artificial headlands) or further offshore (offshore breakwaters). These options

influence coastal processes to stop or reduce the rate of coastal erosion. Recent coastal

protection works carried out by the government are limited.

In the past, engineering works tended to impose armoured defences along the shoreline,

whereas in recent times, there has been a preference for a ‘softer’ approach, i.e. working

with natural processes rather than opposing them, where possible.

The following actions are to be taken for further strengthening of the coastal region:

Carry out the outlined coastal zone management and protection works;

Identify, prioritize and implement additional coastal protection works within

the coastal zone that are considered necessary, subject to the availability of

resources;

Monitor existing dune management schemes on an ongoing basis and secure

appropriate repairs, improvements and extensions, subject to the availability of

resources;

Examine existing laws and make appropriate amendments, in the interest of

protecting sand dunes from encroachment and damage;

Continue to employ soft engineering techniques (i.e. dune stabilization and

planting) as an alternative to hard coastal defence works, where appropriate;



51

Ensure that regard is paid to visual and environmental considerations in the

design of coastal defence works;

Ensure that any developments permitted within the coastal zone are

appropriately sited, taking into consideration coastal flooding and the

predicted rise in sea levels;

Establish development limits and natural buffers at the coast, particularly in

conjunction with the preparation of local area plans and other land-use plans;

and

Strictly control the nature and pattern of development on all promontories and

headlands, and ensure that, if development is permitted, it is designed and

landscaped to the highest standards. Landscaping will be of a type that is

predominantly native to the area and seasalt spray resistant.

8.12. Nature conservation in coastal areas

Despite the country’s long coastline there are only four marine protected areas and there is

little capacity to conserve and manage marine resources. The government has expressed its

commitment, through international conventions, to put 10 percent of its marine areas under

protection by 2020; however, a range of factors including the lack of biological and socio-

economic data and a lack of financial and technical resources severely constrain the ability

of the government and other actors to meet this target.

Support the management of sites of conservation importance, including

proposed natural heritage areas, candidate special areas for conservation and

special protection areas;

Take into account the potential conservation of all sites of interest within the

coastal zone when assessing development proposals; and

Promote the natural interest of the Myanmar coast as a sustainable tourism,

conservation and educational asset.

8.13. Recreation and tourism

Myeik Archipelago is rich in biodiversity and natural forest. Myanmar has three coastal

regions namely Rakhine State (western Myanmar), the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Tanintharyi

Division’s coastal zone. The Myeik Archipelago located in the Tanintharyi Division, the

most southern division of Myanmar, consists of over 800 islands across Myanmar and Thai

national boundaries. This area is bestowed with abundant natural marine resources.

The main business of local people is fisheries and allied activities. The Myeik Archipelago is

increasingly becoming a major tourist attraction, particularly for recreational dive

operations.

Tourism can offer some environmental benefits, such as greater appreciation of the value of

natural resources. In the Myeik Archipelago, for instance, diving tourism can help raise

awareness about the need for coral reef and biodiversity conservation. But tourism can also

have harmful effects. It can lead to unsustainable coastal development as infrastructure is

built on the shoreline to accommodate tourists.

Coral reefs are major storehouses for biodiversity, providing habitats for several species of

marine animals and plants despite covering only a tiny fraction of the ocean floor. They also

provide food, building materials, shoreline protection and many indirect benefits for people

living near them.



52

More reefs are being degraded and threatened by dynamite fishing, coral

mining and other human activities, as well as by bleaching caused by rising

ocean temperatures.

The reefs are also threatened by inadequate treatment of sewage in the

surrounding area; and

The high nutrient content of wastewater and water contaminated with human

or animal faeces discharged into the sea and other waters adjacent to the reefs

should be also kept in check.

The benefits of marine tourism can be generally defined as economic, ecological and

cultural. Income from accommodation, restaurants and souvenir shops and transportation

services is the most direct economic benefit. There is a need to:

Ensure that future caravan, camping and parking facilities in coastal areas will

not be visually intrusive or impact on sensitive coastal environments (e.g. sand

dune systems), by stipulating, inter alia, appropriate siting, layout, design and

natural screening;

Manage and control car parking and vehicular and pedestrian movements on

beaches and within dunes and other vulnerable areas;

Develop green parking areas in appropriate coastal locations, i.e. soft areas

that can be left in their natural state during out-of-season months and used to

provide overflow facilities during peak periods;

Exclude unauthorized land-based and marine-based motor sports activities

from beaches;

Seek continued compliance on water quality for all bathing beaches;

Provide a number of designated facilities and access points for controlled

water sports activities, in a manner that avoids conflict with nature

conservation activities such as swimming, sailing, fishing and mariculture;

Maintain and develop small piers and harbours along the islands, subject to

funding;

Ensure that golf course development does not damage or encroach upon

vulnerable dune systems;

Give priority to coastal areas within country-wide programmes to signpost and

improve public rights of way; and

Promote awareness of the sensitivity of the coastal environment, amongst

visitors and residents alike, through the provision of educational/heritage

appreciation programmes, public information boards and other appropriate

means.

8.14. Wind and wave energy

The Myanmar coast is endowed with strong winds and is therefore economically suitable for

wind farm development. Most of the coastal zone is relatively flat, providing long open

views. Development proposals should therefore avoid locations that are immediately

adjacent to coastal settlements or significant tourist attractions.

There is also potential for the development of offshore wind farms and energy generated

from the movement of waves. Detailed visual, ecological, archaeological, heritage and social



53

impacts of such proposals should be assessed in determining their acceptability. There is a

need to:

Restrict the location of industrial development within the coastal zone to

resource-based activities that have a clear and demonstrable need, i.e. those

dependent on resources offered at the sea or coast (e.g. maritime industries,

mariculture);

All such proposals should be subject to the strict application of location, siting

and design criteria;

Control and minimize sources of water and land pollution;

Maintain and update the Coastal Emergency Response Plan for Myanmar;

Generally, restrict development in the coastal zone, specifically between

coastal roads and the sea, except where it can be demonstrated that it does not

detract from views or impact on environmentally sensitive areas. Exceptions

will be considered for sustainable tourism development, public infrastructural

works and development that is contiguous with existing towns and villages;

Promote existing degraded coastal areas, i.e. those where quarrying or other

deleterious activities have taken place, as significant development sites,

subject to appropriate environmental mitigation measures and the strict

application of location, siting and design criteria; and

Consider the establishment of a local forum for each of the coastal villages;

involving landowners, local communities and relevant interest groups, to

explore and resolve coastal zone management issues that are specific to each

area.

8.15. Legal mechanisms to achieve coastal region management

Laws related to coastal and marine environments are described in different sectoral laws

under two ministries: the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Forestry.

For instance, the Marine Fisheries Law (1990), the Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991), the

Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels Law (1989) and the Aquaculture Law (1989)

prohibit causing water pollution; harassing fish and other marine organism and using

explosive substances, poisonous chemicals and dangerous material in fishing. In addition,

the Territorial Sea and Maritime Zone Law (1977) provides measures for protection of the

marine environment, prevention and control of marine pollution. It also endorses conducting

scientific research and management of the marine environment. The Pesticide Law (1990)

prohibits the use of pesticides to catch or kill land or aquatic animals. The Pearl Law of 1995

protects and conserves the water area of oyster fishing grounds from destruction and

safeguards oysters from local extinction.

The Forest Law of 1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation

of Natural Areas Law (1994) cover protection and management of mangrove forests in the

coastal zones.

In the fisheries sector, while some of the directives and regulations emphasize assurance of

fishery revenue, others prevent overfishing by declaring closed seasons and territories,

restriction of fishing gear etc. However, those laws and regulations are weak in conservation

measures including protection of aquatic resource habitat. Apart from the laws mentioned

above, there are also several directives from the ministry for protection of marine resources

however, these are more on an ad hoc basis.



54

Appropriate laws promulgated to protect various coastal resources are the Forest Law of

1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas

Law (1994). These laws are considered quite comprehensive in protection and management

of mangrove forests as well as wildlife in Myanmar. However, the Ministry of Forestry

declared Lampi Islands as a Marine National Park under these laws although the island

ecosystem has coral reef ecosystem domination. Logically, the park should be under the

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries; the Ministry of Forestry has no administrative power to

manage the park. In addition, there is no regulation or coordination mechanism to allow

collaboration between the two ministries in this case and hence one needs to be created.

Moreover, fishery laws, protection and management systems of other coastal marine

ecosystems such as coral reefs, sea-grass beds and sand beaches are not prioritized.

Therefore, there is an urgent need to introduce new fishery laws that would ensure the

protection, management and sustainable utilization of coastal marine resources.

Aquaculture can affect land, waterbodies, seed quality and availability but in general, the

level of impact depends upon the type of aquaculture system and level of intensification.

Therefore, regulating aquaculture is also important for coastal and marine environments. In

this case, the Aquaculture Law of 1989 prohibits obstruction of waterways and prevents

water pollution from aquaculture activities. The directives of the Directorate of Fisheries

have more specific regulation on pollution control as aquaculture effluent can have negative

impacts on the water environment. One of the regulations also prohibits clearance of

mangroves for aquaculture. However, currently no specific regulation prohibits mass

collection of natural fish seedlings. Wild shrimp seedlings (postlarvae of shrimp) that supply

almost the entire traditional shrimp farms in Rakhine State are collected from estuary areas

because shrimp hatcheries in Rakhine State have very low production capacity. The

Directorate of Fisheries is trying to regulate the collection of wild seeds with limited

success.

Although no direct coastal resource management legislation could be found in the country’s

corpus of environmental laws, a close examination of its natural resources and environment

related legislations revealed that the legal backbone of wetlands management could be found

in, among others, the Forest Law (Law No. 8/92, 1992), Myanmar Forest Policy 1994,

Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (Law No.

6/1994), Aquaculture Law 1989, Marine Fisheries Law (Law No. 9, 1990), Freshwater

Fisheries Law (Law No. 1/91 1991), Pesticide Law 1990, Agricultural Policy 1992 and

Conservation of Water Resources and River Law 2006.

Relevant to coastal resource management are Myanmar’s National Biodiversity Strategy and

Action Plan (NBSAP) and the National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS). In fact,

they could serve well in formulating a national integrated coastal resources management

plan.

Myanmar is currently in the process of revising its policies and laws on environmental

protection. The Environmental Conservation Law requires MOECAF to put in place a

comprehensive waste and pollutant monitoring scheme. MOECAF has just adopted the

Environmental Conservation Rules 2014 and is in the process of developing environmental

quality, starting with effluent standards.

The updated 2012 Environmental Conservation Law and 2014 Rules, empowers MOECAF

to act as a ‘nodal point’ for business activities. It confers powers on MOECAF to regulate

and to establish a ‘prior permission scheme’ for a range of business activities that “may

cause impact on environmental quality”. Other government departments authorized to

approve business activities may do so only after obtaining relevant permission from

MOECAF. MIC Notification No. 1 sets out the list of economic activities that require an



55

environmental and social impact assessment, and approval by MOECAF, which include the

exploration, drilling and production of oil and gas, although the EIA Procedures under the

Environmental Conservation Law will refine them. In addition, there are basic provisions in

this law, as there are in the Foreign Direct Investment Law that requires basic pollution

control. The Environmental Conservation Law is based on the ‘polluter pays principle’, with

compensation for environmental impacts to be paid to a fund to be set up by MOECAF.

In addition, the law requires that any business that requires prior permission (which includes

oil and gas operations), must have insurance cover for impacts on the environment. The law

provides for criminal penalties (although it is unclear if these apply to business entities) and

payment of compensation for damages (Myanmar Constitution and Foreign Investment

Law).

In addition to the framework Environmental Conservation Law, there are currently 44

existing laws with some form of obligations on operators with respect to pollution, disposal

and other harmful impacts on the environment and local society. The 2006 Conservation of

Water Resources and Rivers Law provides a general prohibition on polluting watercourses

or rivers. The implementation of these laws needs to be factored into new and forthcoming

rules to be developed under the 2012 Environmental Conservation Law.

Special courts are separately constituted by the Supreme Court to achieve swift and effective

trials and they have the power to establish environmental courts or tribunals if it they are

required. However, even the township courts could play a very important role in

implementing environmental-related laws by cooperating with various administrative

institutions where administrative actions are recognized under some laws.

Legal and regulatory issues: The present legal and regulatory framework is in need of review

and revision to facilitate the:

Effective capacity management of all fleet segments;

Enforcement of regulations and to combat IUU fishing;

Co-management; and

Ecosystem and/or depth-specific zoning of territorial waters.

At present, non-enforcement of existing legal and regulatory provisions makes most of the

fishing in Myanmar marine waters IUU fishing by the FAO/UN definition.

9. CONCLUSION

This review of coastal sectors will provide a framework for implementing priority actions to

strengthen capacity for the implementation of activities related to agriculture, fisheries,

forestry, livestock, biodiversity, land degradation and cross-cutting areas while

strengthening the coordination and collaboration of efforts for environmental management

and diversification of livelihood options will ultimately provide sustainable food security

and poverty alleviation

Development of national land-use planning that considers multisectoral aspects and a

sustainable development vision in its concept needs to start with a land-use policy. At the

same time, a more appropriate and workable institutional mechanism that describes detailed

responsibilities for various sectors should be created. In addition, development of an ICZM

body and rapid implementation in cooperation with related sectors of local and international

agencies should also be done.



56

In the case of Myanmar, development of human resources appears to be one of the most

important factors in management strategy. Such resources for protection and management of

coastal marine ecosystems could be acquired by collaborating with NGOs and institutions of

both local and international entities. Using skilled human resources, a wide range of

environmental education activities can be promoted while sustainable development

extension services can be provided in collaboration with all stakeholders. After promotion of

environmental awareness, further steps such as sustainable utilization, protection and

management can properly be taken.

Moreover, as most coastal and marine boundaries are inseparable, transboundary

collaborative efforts in research, development and enforcement activities are necessary at

both local and national levels. Concerned governments should allow simpler and easier

activities at local/microlevels of transboundary nature so that the most urgent issues can be

properly addressed and tackled by the stakeholders; appropriate guidelines and mechanism

are warranted. In pursuing such constructive efforts to protect coastal and marine ecosystems

in Myanmar, political differences amongst all stakeholders should be dropped with a broader

vision in place.



57

ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY

Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2012. Asian Development Bank and Myanmar fact sheet, 30

April 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012.

Christian. 1942. Changing faces of the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Delta (1850-2000).

Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries (DOLF). 1999. Quarterly report. Yangon, Directorate

of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries.

Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Guidelines for preparing economic analyses.

Washington DC, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator.

Furnivall, J.S. 1957. An introduction to the political economy of Burma. Third Edition.

Rangoon, Burmese Advertising Press.

Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J. & Duke, N. 2011. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite

data. Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 20(1): 154-159.

Kyaw Thi Soe & Mon Mon Yin. 2009. Environmental management in Myanmar. Yangon

University of Distance Education Research Journal, 1(1): 264.

Latt, W. 1999. The assessment of CDRT aquaculture projects, aquatic resources profile and

aquaculture potential. NACA Consultant Report of Environment Subproject (ESP), Community

Development for Remote Township (CDRT). Bangkok, Thailand, MYA UNDP, Yangon,

Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Mya Than. 1984. Burma’s agriculture since 1962 – from stagnancy to breakthrough. In Ngo

Manh-Lan, ed. Unreal growth: critical studies in Asian development. Delhi, Hindustan

Publishing Corporation (India).

National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). 2012. Myanmar’s National Adaptation

Programme of Action (NAPA) to climate change. National Coordinating Body: National

Environmental Conservation Committee, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry;

Executing Agency: Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Ministry of Transport;

Implementing Agency: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA). 1999. State of the environment in

Myanmar. Draft report prepared for ESCAP. National Commission for Environmental Affairs.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2003. Coastal zone

management: integrated policies (Paris: OECD, 1993); and Integrated coastal management,

"what is the 'coast'?". Available at http://icm.noaa.gov/story/icm_coast.html. Accessed on 12

August 2003.

http://icm.noaa.gov/story/icm_coast.html



58

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2001. World resources 2000-2001 —

people and ecosystems: the fraying web of life. Washington, DC, World Resources Institute.

Voigt, B. 1998. Glossary of coastal terminology. Available at

www.csc.noaa.gov/text/glossary.html. Accessed on 15 August 2003.

Web sites

http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar

http://www.unicef.org/eapro/Myanmar_Situation_Analysis.pdf

http/data.worldbank.org/country/Myanmar

http://www.csc.noaa.gov/text/glossary.html



59

ANNEX 2: OVERVIEW OF STATES/DIVISIONS AND TOWNSHIPS IN

MYANMAR



60

ANNEX 3: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS

Intervention 1. Land-use policy

Areas of Intervention

and Investment

Mapping the existing land use pattern and expected changes in

coming years and evolve with a Land-use Policy for the better

management of natural resources

Justification Land-use planning is the systematic assessment of land and

water potential, alternatives for land use and economic and

social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use

options. The purpose is to select and put into practice those land

uses that will best meet the needs of the people while

safeguarding resources for the future. The driving force in

planning is the need for change, the need for improved

management or the need for a quite different pattern of land use

dictated by changing circumstances.

All kinds of rural land use are involved: agriculture, pastoralism,

forestry, wildlife conservation and tourism. Planning also

provides guidance in cases of conflict between rural land use and

urban or industrial expansion, by indicating which areas of land

are most valuable under rural use.

Land-use planning does not exist in isolation. It is necessary to

view land-use planning as an integral part of the process of

national growth and development. Among other things, this

process seeks to identify, articulate and satisfy the basic

social/human needs of a country’s population within the context

of available economic/financial resources and technical

knowledge.

The developmental needs such as need housing; jobs; education;

opportunities for recreation; transport; and basic services like

water, electricity, clean air and health care. Social planning and

policies attempt to take care of the basic social needs of the

country’s population. Economic planning and policies seek to

ensure that the country has a sound economic base which

provides revenue to finance government operations and pay for

provision of services to the public while also ensuring that jobs

are available to the country’s labour force.

Land-use planning seeks to accommodate these needs within a

technical and spatial framework. Similarly, economic decisions

to focus on tourism, manufacturing industry or agricultural

development, as the basis of the country’s economic

development must be translated into land-use terms.

Understanding the land use patterns and expected changes in

future is significant in developing a Land use policy for the

rational management of the coastal regions.

Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5

years) interventions



61

Scope In Myanmar, one of the major factors for forest degradation and

habitat and biodiversity loss is a lack of land-use policies and

planning. Moreover, unplanned expansion of commercial

plantations, such as oil palm and cassava, is leading to large-

scale conversion of forest areas. Under the guidance of the

Union President, a Land Scrutinizing Committee was formed in

2013 to steer the development of a comprehensive Land Use

Policy and Land 16 Use Management Plan. The Union Minister

of the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

(MOECAF) chairs the committee.

At the national level, planning is concerned with national goals

and the allocation of resources. A national land-use plan may

cover:

land-use policy: balancing the competing demands for land

among different sectors of the economy food production, export

crops, tourism, wildlife conservation, housing and public

amenities, roads, industry;

national development plans and budget: project identification

and the allocation of resources for development;

coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use;

legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest clearance and

water rights.

Activities Categorize the activities existing and also propose potential

areas for future usage:

Shoreline Access

Recreation and Visitor-Serving Facilities

Housing

Water and Marine Resources

Diking, Dredging, Filling and Shoreline Structures

Commercial Fishing and Recreational Boating

Environmentally Sensitive Habitat Areas

Agriculture

Hazards

Forestry and Soils Resources

Locating and Planning New Development

Coastal Visual Resources and Special Communities

Public Works

Industrial and Energy Development

Undertake an assessment of available data to determine data

gaps and information needs for natural resources, ecosystems

and sustainable land management

Develop and implement monitoring and data collection

programmes for natural resources, ecosystems and land

information

Include identification of appropriate personnel and training as

part of a programmatic approach to database and inventories



62

development, data collation and analysis, mobilizing information

and dissemination

Need to develop cooperation in sharing database development

expertise between government agencies

Investigate the potential for individuals in key ministries to

collaborate and develop their skills in databases development

and support this collaboration.

Designate an agency to facilitate and manage a central land and

resource information system that is accessible by all

stakeholders

Formal and informal training and skills development of national

and community level personnel for resource use planning

methods, techniques, approaches and systems; GIS

development; resource inventory methods; multi-criteria and

objective based planning; ecosystem approaches to land use

planning; land capability/suitability methods; and, integrated

catchment and coastal zone approaches.

Identify data needs and benefits or desirable outputs for

individual Ministries from a GIS, develop a targeted programme

for practical utilization of GIS data.

Develop training programmes for practical training of relevant

agencies and organizations in data collection, data basing,

analysis, mapping, maintenance and practical utilization of

Geographic Information Systems

Develop a land use policy and integrate into the National Policy

and make provisions for enforcement

Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)

Cost TBD



63

Intervention 2: Integrated coastal management authority


and Investment

Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Authority

Justification As populations in coastal areas increase and the economic

activity diversifies, all the impacts on coastal environment are

bound to worsen threatening survival of several species,

productivity of the biota, and render fishing an unsustainable

proposition. It is, therefore, clear that unless governments and

resource users take appropriate action, the degradation of the

coastal and marine environment will become uncontrollable and

there will be no possibilities for sustainable use of resources

from these waters.

A separate authentic body “Integrated Coastal Management

Authority” to regulate the resources would be appropriate with

defined set of regulations.



Scope Existing legislation and policy frameworks for management of

coastal resources are fragmented, ineffectively implemented and

only provides limited mandate to regulate or control activities

that may impact upon the coastal zone

Poor implementation and enforcement of management regimes

within the coastal zone

Lack of clarity of existing mandates and delineation of

responsibility between agencies and ministries related to coastal

zone management

No plan of action to bring together all the parts of government

for integrated coastal management together and to work in a

cohesive fashion

The authority can declare coastal stretches as Coastal Regulation

Zones (CRZ) and regulate certain activities within the zone.

The provisions of the act are to be implemented by the coastal

states and Islands. It also envisages the creation of an

appropriate authority at the state level to be responsible for

enforcement and enactment of these provisions.

Activities Establish an independent coastal management authority with the

implementation objectives of developing directives and decide

the management strategies for:

Protecting natural resources,

Managing development in high hazard areas,

Giving development priority to coastal-dependent uses,

Providing public access for recreation,

Prioritizing water-dependent uses, and

Coordinating state and federal actions.


Cost TBD



64

Intervention 3. Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove

Restoration (EMR) technique


and Investment

Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological

Mangrove Restoration (EMR) technique and other coastal

ecosystems with stakeholders’ participation

Justification The mangrove deforestation rate is now the highest of all forest

types for which data is available; over the past 30 years the

country lost around 58% of its mangrove forests.

Over the past two decades, the natural resources in Wunbaik

Reserved Forest have been severely degraded, due to

unsustainable levels of wood collection and land conversion. In

2011, 25 per cent of the reserve had been encroached for paddy

and shrimp cultivation while degraded forests covered 17 per

cent. And encroached and degraded area was achieved through a

combination of high-resolution satellite imagery at 0.3m

resolution and inventory techniques (FAO-

UN/TCP/MYA/3204).

The Ayeyarwady Delta—also called the Irrawaddy Delta—is a

vast alluvial floodplain. The delta spans over 35,000

km2 (13,500 mi2) and was once home to an extensive tract of

mangrove forests, but deforestation has changed the landscape.

One scientific study estimated that the delta lost 1,685 km2 (651

mi2) from 1978 to 2011. This 40-year sequence of Landsat

images shows the relatively rapid loss of mangrove forest.


years) and continuous interventions.

Scope Approximately 5 644 hectares of land encroached for agriculture

and aquaculture within the reserved Wunbaik mangroves,

Rakhine state are degraded and could be taken for restoration

initiatives through EMR technique.

Note: Already a successful EMR demonstration exists in Hlang

Kaung, adjacent to Wunbaik, Rakhine State for replication

(TCP/MYA/3204, FAO-UN).

Ecological Mangrove Restoration method recommends the

following steps, to be undertaken using healthy mangroves of

the surrounding area as a reference:

Assess the ecology, especially reproduction and distribution

patterns, of the mangrove species at the disturbed site;

Map the topographical elevations and hydrological patterns that

determine how seedlings should establish themselves at the site;

Assess the changes made to the site that currently prevent the

site from recovering by itself;

Design a restoration plan that begins by restoring the normal

range of elevations and tidal hydrology at the site; and



65

Monitor the site to determine if the restoration has been

successful in light of the original objectives

No Nursery development required for this technique; it depends

on hydrology restoration and natural recruitment.

Activities The actual planting of seedlings is a last resort, since it fails in

many cases; it should be considered only if natural recruitment

of seedlings fails to reach the restoration objective.

Encroached areas are restored to mangrove cover

Design and implement community based mangrove restoration

plans for abandoned areas (cash for work).

Allocate resource use rights in restored areas to local

communities.

Educate and train stakeholders including local Forest

Department and line agency staff to increase awareness of the

need for forest protection and conservation.

Mangrove management is improved at the national level

Provide training in mangrove restoration to organisations

working in different mangrove areas in Myanmar

Periodical evaluation and monitoring and documentation is

inevitable

Review management of other mangrove reserved forests in

Myanmar and provide recommendations/concept notes for

project support

Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) and should be continuous

Cost TBD



66

Intervention 4. Small-scale entrepreneur development


and Investment

Small scale entrepreneur development support based on the

minor and major coastal forest produce including fishery

Justification The coastal region is bestowed with plenty of natural resources

including the minor and major forest produce and the fishery

resources. These abundant resources are either unutilized or

overexploited.

Coastal region based wood produce, nuts and fruits, sap and

honey, shells and fish, could create a base for the livelihood of

the community dependent. Currently there are several small-

scale entrepreneur activities in operation, which could be

strengthened by the cooperatives, technologies for value addition

and support systems.

People could be supported with seed fund and technical support

and to reach the marketing linkages.

Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)

interventions

Scope Small entrepreneurs cover a wide range of business activities.

The range of products manufactured by small-scale industries is

very wide:

Manufacturing Industries:

Village and Cottage Industries

Handlooms and Handicrafts:

Modern Small Entrepreneurs:

These industries are:

(a) Small Entrepreneurs:

(b) Ancillary Industries:

The manufacture of parts components, sub-

assemblies, tooling or intermediaries, or

The rendering of services supplying for the

production

Tiny Units: include undertakings providing services

such as laundry, zeroing, repairs and maintenance of

customer equipment and machinery, hatching and

poultry etc.

Trading Industries: These types of small

entrepreneurs are engaged in sale and purchase or

exchange of goods and services. These industries act

as middlemen between producers and consumers.

This type of units includes wholesaler, retailer and

commission agents.



67

Service Industries: These small entrepreneurs’

establishments are engaged in personal or household

services in rural areas and towns and having fixed

investment in plant and machinery. These industries

include:

Professional services e.g. services of law, accounting

medicine, consultancy etc.

Commercial services e.g. transport, constructing

warehousing, real estate, repair shops etc.

Personal services e.g. fashion shops, dry cleaning

restaurants, etc.

Activities Establish an apex body for assisting the Government in

formulating and overseeing the implementation of its policies

and programmes/projects/schemes.

The apex body may be developed with a view to give a new

orientation and strength to the development of Small Scale

Industries in the coastal states of Myanmar. The main objective

should aid, counsel, assist, finance, protect and promote the

interests of Small Industries.

May play a vital role in revival, development and growth of

traditional skills of Myanmar by responding to the diversified

need s of entrepreneurs and marketing their products in

Myanmar as well as abroad.


Cost TBD



68

Intervention 5. Developing fodder and woodfuel farms using native grasses and trees


and Investment

Developing large tracts of grassing lands, fodder and wood fuel

tree farms using the native grasses and trees

Justification Improved/imported breeds of livestock have become the choice

of animal breeding and pasturing.

The existing grassland and fodder grounds remain the cheapest

form of animal feed.

Concentrates are only required at very high level of

management. Pasture grasses and legumes however, vary in their

nutritive value and productivity. Good animal production

requires pasture and fodder species which give a high yield of

palatable and digestive herbage, containing adequate nutrients;

The dependency for energy on trees is also extremely high



Scope Fodder crops may be planted specifically to provide feed for

cattle farms. Plenty of native fodder, palatable grass and wood

fuel species are available in the coastal regions

A well maintained fodder tree plots can continuously produce

fodder for 10 – 20 years. It is important to keep it free of weeds

and fill the gaps in the early stages.

Other uses include fuel woods, stakes, poles and bee forage, as

well as helping in soil fertility improvement and soil erosion

control, and serving as an ornament tree.

Activities Analyse the demand and supply

Identify the native species and techniques of propagation

Linkages for production and marketing linkages

Technical and fund support through government schemes

Cooperative management for sustainable operation of enterprise

1. Choosing where and how to plant grass and trees

2. Nursery and management

3. Managing practices for trees/grass

4. Management for harvest

Involve the community in these interventions to become small,

medium and large scale entrepreneurs


Cost TBD



69

Intervention 6. Harvesting rainwater


and Investment

Initiating systems for harvesting rainwater for potable and

farming water demands and restoring the water bodies and

catchments.

Justification Appropriate management of water resources is important to have

socially and environmentally sustainable development, in the

increasing water related economic activities.

Harvesting rain is a practice that has been around for centuries.

Cisterns and other rain harvesting systems are widely used.

Small steps can make a huge impact. Uses include water for

garden, water for livestock, water for irrigation, water for

domestic use with proper treatment, and indoor heating for

houses etc. In many places the water collected is just redirected

into a deep pit with percolation.

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply

during drought, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas,

and reduces demand on wells that may enable ground water

levels to be sustained. Rainwater harvesting is possible by

growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the income

from the used /submerged land. The main purpose of the

rainwater harvesting is to utilize the locally available rainwater

to meet water requirements throughout the year without the need

of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate availability of

uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial and irrigation

needs.



Scope The percentage of people covered by safe drinking water

facilities is still very low in the country compared to the global

status.

Water is strongly linked to the overall socioeconomic

development of Myanmar as it has large water resources related

subsistence sectors, energy and agriculture. There are plans to

intensify water usage in Myanmar in order to achieve economic

growth through increased hydro electricity and agricultural

exports.

The catchment area of Myanmar's ten principal river basins

comprises about 737800 km². Potential water resources volume

is about 1082 km³ for surface water and 495 cubic km for

groundwater.as well constitute national water resources

annually.

As an agro-base country of Myanmar, water utilization for

agricultural sector stands for 90% while industry and domestic

use is only about 10% of the total water use.

There is always a high demand and scarcity for potable water

during summer and for agriculture.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestock

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest



70

However, with the increase of population and enhanced need for

water for economic activities, there is increasing pressure on use

of surface water and extraction of groundwater. Control and

management of surface water and groundwater is therefore

important for sustainable development of the country in future.

Activities Institutional Mechanism: Collaboration among several

government agencies. Central Water Board or committee,

Information System for both surface and groundwater

Legal Instrument: Comprehensive Laws and Acts for Water

(Drinking and Irrigation water supply)

Technical measure for water conservation

Economic measures: Application of water saving devices (eg.

Sprinkler, drip); Reuse of water

Non-economic measures: Enhancement of water supply

efficiency

Water Quality Protection: Infrastructure improvement &

Management improvement; Appropriate National Standard for

drinking water and waste water; Restriction on import of toxic

pesticides and chemical fertilizers; Encouragement of utilization

of natural fertilizers; Reforestation

Public Awareness on Water Use and Efficiency and

Conservation:

Role of education sector

Media campaign

Community Base to Community Manage System

Although the conservation of natural water resources is taken

into account in the government policies, the comprehensive legal

mechanism for governance of groundwater is still needed.

Expected duration TBD

Cost TBD



71

Intervention 7. Alternative fuel and energy options


and Investment

Identification and implementation of alternative fuel and energy

options to reduce dependency and pressure on the coastal forest.

Justification Wood fuel accounted for some 80% of total energy consumption

in Myanmar, equivalent to about 20,000 tons. Since then, the

consumption of wood fuel has increased, and this trend is likely

to continue in the coming years. Though the country is known

for its vast forest resources, in populated areas scarcities of wood

fuel are severe and basic fuel needs are not satisfied, particularly

in the Dry Zone. The flow and trade of wood fuels in the country

may be a key element of balancing supply and demand.



Scope Wood fuels have long been a major source of energy and are

expected to remain so for some time. Firewood use is expected

to remain relatively level over the next 20 years, while charcoal

use is expected to increase considerably. This increase in

charcoal demand correlates with the expected increase in

urbanization, as urban dwellers use more charcoal than rural

ones. There may also be increased competition for wood

products if the demand for industrial wood fuels and other

advanced bioenergy increases. Given that charcoal production

can lead to forest degradation, such an increase is cause for

concern.

Activities Review the present system of wood fuel production, distribution

and marketing, demand supply chain in Myanmar

Recommendations on appropriate policies and strategies to

improve the wood fuel plantation situation in the country

Developing strategies by which small- and medium-scale

charcoal production controlled and regulated by local

communities to make the charcoal trade more sustainable

Certification of wood fuel Forest Management in the coastal

region

Using fast-growing native plantation species rather than slow-

growing hardwoods, increasing efficiencies of charcoal kilns and

stoves, and finding alternative sources of energy can reduce the

impact of charcoal production.

To implement programs for use of wood fuel saving device the

extension arms of some projects have introduced the use of new

fuel-efficient stoves.

Rural communities are also encouraged to overcome fuel wood

scarcity through the use of crop residues.

Rice husk gasifiers and rice husk / sawdust briquettes are being

produced and distributed

Mechanisms to distribute proportions of Oil and Gas from the

local fields for the local utility



72

Wave and tidal energy, Solar energy harnessing


Cost TBD



73

Intervention 8. Skills assessment and capacity building


and Investment

Skills assessment and capacity building programs in all the

sectors such as Agriculture, Fishery, Forestry, Livestock, rural

employment options to all levels of stakeholders

Justification Skills and knowledge are the driving forces of economic growth

and social development for any country. Countries with higher

and better levels of skills adjust more effectively to the

challenges and opportunities

Coasts also support a diverse array of related industries (e.g.

agriculture products, fisheries and aquaculture, major and minor

forest produce, tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which

provide enormous economic productivity.

The Myanmar Government has invited both local and foreign

investors to invest, under structures of Joint Venture or 100%

investment, in the following areas:

Establishing Agro-based Industries; Assembling and

manufacturing light agricultural machinery and small farm

implements; Manufacturing agricultural inputs and related

support products; Developing livestock allied small scale and

major industries such as ice, cold storage facilities, laboratories,

pharmaceuticals, feeds, fodder, liquid nitrogen and others to

cater the expansion of cattle and fowl farms; The investment

opportunity for the production of Teak and hardwood furniture,

input of good design and modern technology equipment,

processes and packaging; Value added products for export

market; Construction of wharfs, ports and jetties are in progress;

several infrastructure developments are also in progress.

Above sectors need skilled manpower to cater the development

activities and also to sustainably utilize the natural resources.


interventions

Scope Skill building can be viewed as an instrument to improve the

effectiveness and contribution of labor to the overall production.

The quality of employment in organized sectors is generally

high. Significant employment generation occurs in the tertiary

sector, particularly, in services industries. Self-employment and

small business continue to play a vital role in this regard. It is,

therefore, necessary to train the people to cater the main

employment opportunities in (a) agriculture, (b) labor intensive

manufacturing sector such as food processing, leather products,

textiles (c) services sectors: trade, restaurants and hotels,

tourism, construction and information technology and (d) small

and medium enterprises.

Concerns related to society are covered under social education,

personality development, and vocational education which

consists of technical education that further deals with sectors



74

such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, livestock, medicine,

engineering and commerce.

Technical education is a skill-based education that provides

training to the individual in a specific field and increases the job

prospects.

The personal skill and capacity development is critical for the

people to accept the opportunities created through development

and management

Activities Specific laws and regulations for skill development of the

populace

Increasing capacity & capability of existing system to ensure

equitable access to all.

Promoting lifelong learning, maintaining quality and relevance,

according to changing requirement particularly of emerging

knowledge economy.

Creating effective convergence between school education,

various skill development efforts of government and between

government and Private Sector initiative.

Capacity building of institutions for planning, quality assurance

and involvement of stakeholders.

Creating institutional mechanism for research development

quality assurance, examinations & certification, affiliations and

accreditation.

Increasing participation of stakeholders, mobilizing adequate

investment for financing skill development, attaining

sustainability by strengthening physical and intellectual

resources.

Coordinating with the existing agencies and government to

identify locations and strategies for skill and capacity building

with all stakeholders

Introducing both the structural streams formal and informal of

technical education to cater the small to medium technology-

based enterprises;

Vocational trainings and technical education and main stream

education with life skills


Cost TBD



75

Intervention 9. Natural resource mapping


and Investment

Natural resource mapping, awareness and conservation

initiatives through community participation

Justification Natural resource managers, policy planers, administrators,

biologists, botanists, ecologists, environmental regulators,

hydrologists, planners, miners, petroleum engineers, foresters,

and farmers rely on the analytical power of RS-GIS mapping for

help in making critical decisions to manage the coastal

resources.


interventions

Scope For conserving and restoring habitats, planting crops or forest

trees, exploring oil and gas, or monitoring endangered species

there is increasing optimism that the application of GIS is

considered to be the inevitable tool.

Activities Form Project teams including stakeholders multi faculties and

community

Obtain necessary land parcel data set

Determine base map content and layout

Modify ranking system

Produce draft base maps for review

Survey standards, forms, calibration baselines, permanent survey

marks and other resources

Revise ranking system as necessary

Generation of Geo-database

Zones and Community wise Soil resource development plan,

Water resource development plan, Vegetation resource

development plan, Land use and Land cover plan can be

developed

Contact key landowners and provide land protection

Plan and conduct outreach to town boards, citizens and

landowners

Awareness and training programs with stipulated objectives of

conservation and sustainable utilization


Cost TBD



76

Intervention 10. Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems


and Investment

Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems

Justification Ecosystem functions are the physical, chemical, and biological

processes or attributes that contribute to the self-maintenance of

an ecosystem; in other words, what the ecosystem does. Some

examples of ecosystem functions are provision of wildlife

habitat, carbon cycling, or the trapping of nutrients. Thus, the

processes, or functions, that occur within them, can characterize

ecosystems, such as wetlands, forests, or estuaries.

Some examples of ecosystem services are support of the food

chain, harvesting of animals or plants, and the provision of clean

water or scenic views. In order for an ecosystem to provide

services to humans, some interaction with, or at least some

appreciation by, humans is required. Thus, functions of

ecosystems are value-neutral, while their services have value to

society.

Human-induced changes in the natural environment are affecting

the provision of ecosystem goods and services

Land use plans rarely include the value of public ecosystem

services such as climate regulation and biodiversity due to

difficulties in valuing these services


interventions

Scope The ecosystem functions of the Myanmar coastal zone and their

role in producing and sustaining ecosystem services are still

poorly understood, as are human impacts on the ecological

health and function of the Myanmar sea, which affect ecosystem

services and thus people.

To understand the value and economic impact of better

management will require better economic and ecological data

and a more holistic scientific understanding of the integrated

relationship between people and the Myanmar coastal

ecosystem.

Ecosystem valuation can help resource managers deal with the

effects of market failures, by measuring their costs to society, in

terms of lost economic benefits. The costs to society can then

be imposed, in various ways, on those who are responsible, or

can be used to determine the value of actions to reduce or

eliminate environmental impacts.

Data on economic valuation of the coastal and marine

ecosystems substantiates the coastal region management and

land use policy

Activities Economic valuation for important ecosystem goods and services

under five future land-use scenarios using varying levels of

costs, prices and discount rates.

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77

Economic evaluations can be undertaken at the individual level

(e.g. individual farmer), sectoral level (e.g. farming sector) or

societal level (e.g. single country)

Cost/Benefit Analysis (CBA) provides a systematic assessment

of the costs and benefits associated with an intervention

Cost-effectiveness analysis – CEA

(Sometimes also known as least cost analysis) is used to identify

the most cost-effective option for achieving a pre-set objective

or criterion that is not measurable in monetary terms

Valuing the benefits of interventions

These costs generally fall under five headings that must be

included in social cost analyses (EPA, 2010):

(1) Real-resource compliance costs: these are the direct costs

associated with purchasing, installing and operating new

pollution control equipment; changing relevant production

processes by using different inputs or different mixtures of

inputs; and, capturing the polluting wastes and selling or re-

using them.

(2) Government regulatory costs: these include the monitoring,

administrative and enforcement costs associated with regulation.

(3) Social welfare losses: these are the losses in welfare

associated with the rise in the price (or decreases in output) of

goods and services that occur as a result of policy.

(4) Transitional costs: these include the value of resources that

are displaced because of regulation-induced reductions in

production and the private real resource costs of re-allocating

those resources.

(5) Indirect costs: these other costs include the adverse effects

policies may have on product quality, productivity, innovation

and changes in markets indirectly affected by the policy.

The importance of both the data and the understanding is

underscored by the potentially large amount of economic

activity and value that may be tied to the health of the Myanmar

coastal ecosystem and by the potentially large economic benefits

of improved management.


Cost TBD



78

Intervention 11. Coastal resources management, research and extension


and Investment

Advanced Coastal Resources Management Research and

Extension

Justification Research and Extension studies are vital to the understanding

and management of these crucial ecosystems.

Advanced Coastal Resources Management Research and

Extension provide educational & outreach activities that advance

marine coastal, and estuary literacy and engage educators,

students and the general public to practice coastal stewardship.

Coastal Management Stewardship programs integrate science,

monitoring and communities to protect, manage, and restore

coastal habitats.

The Coastal Training Program provides science-based

information and training to support those who make decisions

that affect coastal resources.


years) interventions, owing to the need to address the

restructuring and financing of R&D and extension at various

levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions

Scope Very little natural resources research has been carried out in

Myanmar due to the country's self-imposed isolation from the

rest of the world since independence. Most of the studies

available date to the British colonial era and are not reliable by

today's standards. Tertiary education in the country, which has

never approached an international level, has further declined in

quality since the 1970s, hence native research is even more

scant, but indications are this may soon change.

Advanced research and monitoring programs provide a robust

foundation for effective national, regional, and local coastal zone

management.

Activities The research and monitoring program should include (1)

ensuring a stable environment for research through long-term

protection of coastal resources; (2) addressing coastal

management issues through coordinated coastal and estuarine

research within the System; and (3) collecting

information necessary for improved understanding and

management of marine, coast and estuarine areas, and making

the information available to stakeholders.

Understand how estuaries function and change over time, to

predict how coastal systems respond to changes in climate and

human-induced disturbances

Provide up-to-date scientific information and skill-building

opportunities to the people who are responsible for making

decisions affecting coastal lands and waters

Organize regular Coastal Training Programs to stakeholders to

provide up-to-date scientific information and skill-building



79

opportunities to individuals who are responsible for making

decisions that affect coastal resources

Establish Research Centers and Institutes with different faculty

and academic units.

Centers/Institutes could serve as a focus of scholarly activity and

intellectual creativity, focal points for interaction with research

sponsors, and serve to amplify competitiveness in obtaining

research funding in the designated areas


Cost TBD

working paper - 6 coastal resources management

Documents