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WP 3 D3.1 Analysis of exemplary use cases 06.05.2012

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Work Package (WP) No: 3

Title:

Editor: Eva Szczechowicz

Date: 06.05.2012

Version: v12

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh

Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013).

D3.1

Analysis of exemplary LCA use cases


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Table of contents

1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3

2 Analysis of relevant use cases ......................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Use cases for stakeholders in the context of EGCI .................................................................. 4

2.2 Use cases based on an analysis of existing LCA ....................................................................... 7

2.3 Input from the workshops regarding the use cases ................................................................ 9

2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 11

3 Development of relevant LCA applications ................................................................................... 12

3.1 Choice of applications ........................................................................................................... 12

3.2 APP1: LCA for an electric vehicle ........................................................................................... 13

3.3 APP2: Battery......................................................................................................................... 17

3.4 Applications chosen for the different use cases ................................................................... 20

4 Use cases ....................................................................................................................................... 21

4.1 Scope definition – Functional unit ........................................................................................ 21

4.2 Consumption (APP1) ............................................................................................................. 24

4.3 Electricity mix (APP1) ............................................................................................................ 29

4.4 End of Life (APP2) .................................................................................................................. 31

4.5 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) ...................................................................................... 33

5 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 35

6 Annex ............................................................................................................................................. 36

6.1 Extract of analysed LCA studies (Overview) .......................................................................... 36

6.2 Abbreviation .......................................................................................................................... 43


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Table of figures

Figure 1: EV components....................................................................................................................... 14

Figure 2: Exemplary system flow chart for application 1: Electric vehicle ............................................ 15

Figure 3: EV model in a LCA software (UMBERTO) - example............................................................... 16

Figure 4: Description of Unit Processes for the Lithium ion battery as part of the foreground

systems (Notter et al. 20102) ................................................................................................. 18

Figure 5: Exemplary system flow chart for application 2: Battery as a part of an EV ........................... 19

Figure 6: Preliminary result: Impact of the choice of the life time driving distance on the LCA

results (Exemplary calculation for APP1) ............................................................................... 23

Figure 7: Consumption values from the field test (Source: Smart Wheels) .......................................... 25

Figure 8: Left: Consumption in dependence of the driven distance; Right: Quantile assessment

(Source: Smart Wheels, IFHT) ................................................................................................ 26

Figure 9: Exemplary comparison for LCIA (impact assessment) (GWP) for the different quantiles

compared to the usage of existing driving cycles (NECD) without real world correction ..... 26

Figure 10: Result from the eLCAr guideline example: “Example for energy consumption

calculation” (Source: eLCAr guideline) ............................................................................... 27

Figure 11: Exemplary results for a variation of the consumption values for APP 1 .............................. 28

Figure 12: Modeling of the power consumption mix (Source: ELCD:

http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasets/html /processes/83c1f02c-f2ef-4ac4-

9a57-ac2172c38d15_02.01.000.html) ................................................................................ 29

Figure 13: Comparison of the influence of the chosen consumption mix for APP1, preliminary

results .................................................................................................................................. 31

Figure 14: Recycling process: Umicore Battery Recycling, Environmental aspects, process

description ........................................................................................................................... 32

Figure 15: Differences in LCIA methodologies for APP1 (examples) ..................................................... 34


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D3.1 - Analysis of exemplary use cases

1 Introduction

The assessment of new LCA guidelines is a difficult task that requires an approach for analysing the

impacts of the guidelines on the quality of LCA studies. One important topic is the validation of the

usefulness of the guidelines in comparison to existing guidelines. This can be achieved by using a

limited number of exemplary LCA use cases and conducting them with and without the new

developed guidelines.

These use cases are short extracts of LCA studies such as LCAs from electric vehicles (PHEV or BEV),

or selected vehicle components or charging stations. The examples are chosen in a way that they are

able to highlight specific unclear aspects of the ILCD guidelines that are clarified in the eLCAr

guidelines and that are relevant for the stakeholders.

The use cases comprise parts of Life Cycle Assessments and have been prepared to allow a flexible

adaptation to different guidelines. Each use case focuses on different parts of the guideline.

This document provides an overview about the use cases and first results. The final results are

presented in D3.2.

•Based on WP 1

•Literature review

•Stakeholder analysis with focus on the ECGI

•Inputs and discussion results from the eLCAr workshops

•Determination of use cases

Analysis of relevent use cases

•Based on the previous analysis relevant applications are chosen

•The applications are described and presented within chapter 3 as the basis for the use cases

Development of LCA applications

•Presentation of the chosen use cases for the relevant applications Use cases


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2 Analysis of relevant use cases

The choice of the use cases has to consider two different aspects: First, the relevance for the

practitioners and the EGCI projects is presented and second, the usefulness of the examples to

illustrate benefits of the eLCAr guidelines is highlighted. Therefore, we started with an analysis of LCA

studies of relevant stakeholders to choose adequate use cases and used afterwards the first drafts of

the guidelines to verify if the use cases are able to support the comprehensibility of the guidelines.

2.1 Use cases for stakeholders in the context of EGCI

Projects from the EGCI are a main stakeholder for the eLCAr project. Therefore, the aspects of the

LCA conducted in these projects are the basis for the research for use cases. In this chapter, EGCI

projects with a task conducting a LCA are presented and afterwards analysed.

2.1.1 Projects of the EGCI including a LCA

AMELIE

The objectives of project AMELIE are to develop batteries with a cell capacity of more than 200

Wh/kg and an improved lifetime of >1000 cycles. Also, these newly developed batteries should have

a high recyclability. The project aims additionally to reduce the cost of the battery. In order to

accomplish these objectives, the project team will work on utilizing higher performing “inactive”

organic materials. At the end of the project a complete LCA of the new battery components will be

performed.

APPEL

The aim of the APPEL project is to develop an innovative multi-material modular architecture

specifically designed for electric vehicles. To manage this, the project must perform research on

modularity of components, ergonomic designs, and innovative safety concepts. Furthermore, they

are trying to create better aerodynamic performance and decrease the weight of the architecture,

which will then decrease the overall power consumption and consequently will increase even the

range of it.

E-LIGHT

The focus of the E-LIGHT project is to integrate an innovative distributed propulsion system of

electrical vehicles; therefore, the energy saving probability is about 10 - 20%, and cost reduction is

about 25% (TBD) with respect to present propulsion systems. Also, the project aims to increase

safety due to traction properties and improved integration into drive applications. The mileage

improvement of 15 -20% is at least due to higher efficiency and less weight.

ELIBAMA


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The goal of the ELIBAMA project is to enhance and accelerate the creation of a strong European

automotive battery industry structured around industrial companies already committed to mass

production of Li-ion cells and batteries for EVs. The focus is on the development of eco-friendly

processes for electrode coating and production, electrolyte manufacturing, fast and homogenous

electrolyte filling processes, and cell design and assembly. The research findings are validated by a

consistent life cycle analysis in the course of the ELIBAMA project.

EUROLIION

The objectives of the EUROLIION project are to develop a new Li-ion cell with the characteristic of a

high energy density of at least 200 Wh/kg and thus lowering costs to a maximum of 150 Euro/kWh.

Improved safety is also an objective. In order to validate the research findings, the project team will

do a scale-up testing and benchmarking of optimum formulations. The outcome will be a newly

developed cell manufactured and tested by end-users.

GreenLion

The GreenLion project focuses on the manufacturing of greener and cheaper Li-Ion batteries for

electric vehicles via the use of water soluble, fluorine-free, high thermally stable binders. The aim is

to develop batteries with a specific energy higher than 100 Wh/kg and specific power higher than

500 W/kg with respect to the overall weight of the system. A cycle life of 1,000 cycles with 20 %

maximum loss of capacity upon cycling between 100 % and 0 % SOC is an additional goal. At the end,

the project will evaluate the integration in electric cars and renewable energy systems.

SOMABA

The SOMABAT project aims to develop more environmentally friendly, safer, and better performing

high power Li polymer batteries by developing novel breakthrough recyclable solid materials to be

used as anode, cathode, and solid polymer electrolytes. A focus on new alternatives to recycle the

different components of the battery is an additional objective. In order to accomplish these

objectives the team invented low-cost synthesis and processing methods in which it is possible to

tailor the different properties of the materials. An assessment and test of the potential recyclability

and revalorisation (re-use) of the battery components are developed to help achieve this. A life cycle

assessment of the cell will allow the development of a more environmentally friendly Li polymer

battery in which approximately 50% of the battery's weight will be recyclable and a reduction of the

final cost of the battery to 150 €/KWh.

LABOHR

The aim of LABOHR project is the development of green and safe electrolyte chemistry based on

non-volatile, non-flammable ionic liquids (Ils) with the use of novel nanostructured high capacity

anodes in combination with ionic liquid-based electrolytes. The developed battery system concept

as well as prototypes of the key component specifics will have energy and power higher than 500


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Wh/kg and 200 W/kg as well as a coulombic efficiency higher than 99% during cycling. Furthermore,

a cycle life of 1,000 cycles with 40% maximum loss of capacity cycling between 90% and 10% SOC is

hoped to be achieved. At the end of the project, the integration into electric cars and renewable

energy systems is going to be evaluated.

OPERA4FEV

The OPERA4FEV project focuses on the development of thermoplastic battery racks on two

functional demonstrators: one for a large-scale vehicle from FIAT and one for a niche car. In order to

achieve the objective, the team invented easier mounting and faster connections of cells, reduced

the assembly time, and the improved dismantling processes. The outcome is 25% cost, 50% number,

and 30% weight reduction on components (cells excluded), the new eco-design, and an easier end-

of-life based on LCA.

AUTOSUPERCAP

The AUTOSUPERCAP project seeks to develop supercapacitors of both high power and high energy

density at affordable levels for the automotive industry. Also, an additional objective is higher

sustainability than many current electrochemical storage devices. Various groups of scientists and

engineers in an integrated framework need to address, how to achieve this high performance/low

weight power system and are seeking to develop these supercapacitors.

2.1.2 Analysis of research field within the EGCI

Most of the previously mentioned projects are working on the development of batteries or battery

components. The goal is to reduce the cost and weight of these batteries while also raising the

specific energy and specific power. Thus, the type of LCA is in most cases a production or well-to-

wheel LCA. One project focuses on the implementation of a strong European battery industry

structure in order to give the developed batteries a good background system in which to operate.

Another project aims to improve the architecture. In this case, the team desires to upgrade the

aerodynamic performance and decrease the weight. Additionally to add value to the research

outcome, they have to do a full LCA but with main focus on the tank to wheel-part. Furthermore, two

projects are researching supercapacitors or propulsion systems of the electric vehicle. The goal is

high performance and a higher sustainability. Therefore, they should also do a full LCA.

In order to establish electric mobility, the problem of the delimited range has to be solved.

Therefore, several of the projects of the EGCI are researching batteries and their components. The

previously mentioned topics of cost, weight, and specific energy/power in relation to batteries are

major components of battery research. Also, there are additional projects, which focus on concepts

in which EV battery storage could be integrated into vehicles. Environmental compatibility and highly

reduced safety hazards are very important topics.


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The second big field is the architecture. Some projects are working on the development of optimal

structural solutions for superlight electric vehicles or are trying to improve overall vehicle dynamic

performance.

Another main part of the EGCI research is the completely integrated car system. Main focus include

systems like a new energy manager coordinating control strategies to maximize real world energy

saving as well as innovative efficient air-conditioning system for electric vehicles. In addition to this, a

specific project aims to integrate intelligence and learning functionalities to on-board systems for

FEVs, enabling autonomous as well as interactive learning through V2X interfacing.

The driver/car interaction is also a big topic. There is some research on the optimisation of this

energy usage and its influence on the vehicle/driver. Another project concentrates on the topics of

energy efficiency, safety and the interaction between the vehicle, the optimized systems, and the

driver. Of course, propulsion system research is another large area of interest and project

development.

To achieve a major role in the EV sector, the EU needs to optimize manufacturing of EV segments and

establish an infrastructure to accomplish this. Hence, another project is focusing on high-current fast-

charging EVs and their independent branding, which focus on price-adaptive charging/reverse-

charging at optimum price with the real-time grid balancing according to spatial and temporal needs.

Another project aims to develop a V2G system consisting of a smart grid of charging stations.

Additionally, one project will demonstrate the integration of electromobility into electrical networks

and contribute to the improvement and development of new and existing standards for electro-

mobility interfaces.

In addition, a turnkey project is working on raising awareness of job opportunities in Vehicle

Electrification enhancement and thus, accelerates the creation of a strong European automotive

battery industry structured around industrial companies already committed to mass production of Li-

ion cells and batteries for EVs.

2.2 Use cases based on an analysis of existing LCA

Based on an efficient research with on-going and previous LCA studies, topics and critical aspects of

these studies have been analysed and are presented in this chapter. Only the main outcome of the

analysis is presented. An extract over analysis studies can be found in the annex (chapter 6).

Several of the analysed LCAs considered a lot of information about the line of action. However, they

differ in their focus of the study. The analysis found different LCAs analysing the whole vehicle and

studies just dealing with parts of electric vehicles (e.g. the battery). Compared to the studies

conducted within the EGCI a higher percentage of the analysed studies deals with the assessment of

an entire electric vehicle often including a comparative approach.

Similarities and general tendencies of the studies in regard of their conduction according LCA

principles are described below:


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Most of the studies are created according to the ISO 14000 ff. This gives them a structured

composition. However, there are also some of those, which have not mentioned any

guidelines used for conducting the study.

The majority of the studies is comparative between different batteries or drive mechanism

(often Lithium-Ion and NiMh are modelled).

The functional unit is not mentioned in all LCAs, and it differs within the studies (e.g. scope

within 10-15 years of lifetime and 150 000-250 000 km driven). This reduces and complicates

the comparability of the existing studies.

Some studies focus only on the impact category GWP and do not consider any others impact

categories. Therefore, not all studies can be categories as LCA studies but some are only

carbon footprint studies. This distinction should be clarified.

The source of foreground data is mentioned in most studies, but the LCA does not consider

the data itself. This could be helpful for a further research and a better understanding of the

results.

Mostly the source of the background data is not mentioned. This lack of information should

be reduced by demanding a clear statement within the studies.

Cut-off criteria are hardly used or not mentioned. This information should be also

mandatory.

LCAs differ in their number of assumptions. Assumptions are not necessarily examined in the

sensitivity analysis. Moreover, an overview of the assumptions which were made could be

helpful.

Only a few of the studies have a critical review according to ISO 14000 ff.

Difference within the use phase measurement. Data for the use consumption are taken from

o Literature

o Assumptions (in a few studies based on certain statistics)

o Existing driving cycles

Data of the performance of the batteries is not given in all studies. This is important for an

assessment of the electric vehicles (for example driving range).


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2.3 Input from the workshops regarding the use cases

2.3.1 Workshop 1

The attendees of the first workshops participated in a survey answering questions regarding the

workshop and relevant LCA topics (see Workshop 1 documentation). Additionally, work group 3

discussed specific LCA topics during the workshop. The results related to possible use cases are

presented aspects in the following table.

Table 1: Critical areas of LCAs and problems during the conduction of a LCA

Aspects Description

Decision context c neither micro- or macro level, in- or excluding

interaction with other systems

Modelling principles in ILCD Question of application and usability

Functional unit Definition

FU based on the driving range and exact data use

IA methods compulsory for all studies

which: data source (foreground/background, top-

down & bottom-up), electricity generation (temporal,

spatial)

Inventory data Data quality

Bottom-up or bottom down data

Data for e-components and materials

Black box data Confidentiality

Critical review of data Data quality

Documentation

Use phase • Appropriate assessment of energy consumption

• Electricity mix

Specific use phase questions Charging situation of EVs

Charging behaviour

Smart grid application

System flow diagram cutting off (mass, energy, relevance for environment),

life cycle phases, foreground/background, functional

unit, temporal scope, geographical scope

Customer needs (Emobility) Role of EV in mobility

Needs and concepts for the customers

During the workshop 1 the stakeholders mentioned that a bit part studies were done with the goal of

comparing transports or components. Some also were done for ecodesign (hot spot analysis). This

supports the result based on the literature study.


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2.3.2 Workshop 2

Based on the results of the literature analysis and the results of the workshop 1 the main use cases

are chosen. However, to specify, which aspects of the use case could be included in the guidelines

and the learning materials, the discussion and the survey from workshop 2 is included in the analysis.

Therefore, we asked the participants of the second workshop about the most challenging points of

an LCA. However, the participants had different points of view about the most challenging parts that

are presented in the following:

Goal and Scope

o Assumptions on the system

o Functional unit

o Variation of vehicle life time

o System boundary; System boundaries with respect to the EoL

LCI

o The LCI phase, due to the few available data

o Data collection, in particular battery composition and battery efficiency

Use phase

o Evaluation of the use phase

o User behaviour model and predicting changes in user behaviour when confronted

with emobility

o Electricity mix and the cycle of energy consumption

o Maintenance and the differences regarding vehicles, batteries and engines

End of Life (EoL)

o EOL of batteries (2nd use)

o Including and scaling up new technologies for comparison, including recycling/reuse

of components

Specific component

o Battery issues such as weight, EoL, Materials used in batteries etc.

o PHEV specificities

In summary, many of the practitioners have problems with the goal and scope definition regarding

the system boundary and the functional unit. During the LCI, the main problem is to find reliable data

especially for batteries. Moreover, the use phase is also challenging especially regarding the

consumption and the electricity mix. In every LCA phase, the battery is mentioned as a big source of

uncertainty and challenge regarding the LCA modelling.


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2.4 Summary

One of the main topics within the EGCI is batteries and their components. Therefore, it is very

important to implement case studies concerting the previously mentioned battery facets. Main

points for these battery assessments are weight, needed space for the battery, specific

energy/power, and the environmental impact, such as acidification and greenhouse gas emission.

The presentation of the specific battery data within the use case is not useful because the specific

battery data will be part of the Common Parameter Platform (CPP) that is integrated within the

eLCAr guidelines providing this sort of information. However, the design of the case studies should

cover the other, previously mentioned points that are relevant for the projects of the EGCI.

Furthermore, architecture of the EV plays a big role. Big points are weight, aerodynamic

performance, and production-based emissions. The LCA of the architecture of EV can only be useful if

the whole vehicle with all components is modelled and analysed. This is necessary due to

interdependencies between the vehicle architecture and all other components. The projects, which

are dealing with infrastructure, are less likely to and in most cases, have no possibility of doing a LCA

for an entire vehicle. For that reason, there is no need to create specific use case for this sector.

The outcome of the workshops supports the conclusion from the analysis of the EGCI projects and

the literature research. The stakeholders are interested in different phases of the LCA regarding the

results for electric vehicle. However, they have specific questions regarding the batteries for electric

vehicles.

Table 2: Use cases allocated to an application

Use Case Aspects Reason

Scope definition Functional unit Very different approaches and a low

comparability between studies, high

uncertainty for the stakeholders with a

high impact on the LCA results

LCI Analysis Use phase

- Real world

calculation

- Electricity mix

Often mentioned by the stakeholders;

having a high influence on the results of

the studies; examples necessary. The

choice of calculation method for the real

world consumption is a controversial

aspect and should therefore be analyse

regarding its impact

End of Life Difficult process within the LCA

LCIA Impact example Relevant aspect for the outcome of a LCA


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3 Development of relevant LCA applications

3.1 Choice of applications

Based on the previous analysis two different applications for LCA have been chosen to which the use

cases will be applied.

1. LCA for an electric vehicle (APP1: EV)

Foreground system: Analysis of an electric vehicle (Total vehicle view)

Aiming at problems for the assessment of total vehicles

For comparability reasons based on the CPP as an example.

2. LCA for a battery of an electric vehicle (APP2: Component: Battery)

Foreground system: Analysis of a battery for an EV

Background system: Battery embedded in an electric vehicle

Aiming at specific problems for practitioners conducting LCA for specific

components, supported by the CPP

The reason for two different applications is their differences in the LCA and the use of the guidelines.

The first application of the electric vehicle provides useful information for some projects within the

EGCI and answers many of the questions form the stakeholders which participated in the workshops.

Moreover, it covers a great part of existing LCA studies comparing electric vehicles with conventional

cars. The use cases for this application deal with general aspects such as the use phase for example

the energy consumption and the electricity mix.

The second application analyses a battery for an electric vehicle with a bigger focus on specific

production or end of life aspects. The difference to the first application is that the battery is analysed

as the foreground system. To assess the impact of the battery on an EV, the analysed battery is

included in an entire EV as background system based on the CPP developed in the guidelines. This

example is more helpful for projects of the EGCI focusing on specific components that have to be

embedded into an LCA for an entire vehicle to ensure a comparability of results.

Both applications are situated in Situation A of the ILCD handbook. Situation A is the most used case

within the EGCI and the analysed studies. Moreover, studies belonging to Situation B have to assume

the development of the different LCA phases as well as the development of the environment.

Therefore, they are very complex and cannot easily be covered with smaller use cases. Normally, the

entire system has to be analysed and simulated. Hence, it cannot be part of the short use cases.


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3.2 APP1: LCA for an electric vehicle

This application of an electric vehicle serves as an example to show some difficulties in the LCA of

assessing a compact vehicle (EV). The aim is to provide use cases in this document - on basis of this

application - and to reflect problems in guidelines or accomplished studies. For this analysis, a typical

electric vehicle is chosen just to show the functionality of the guidelines.

The data for this assessment is mainly based on data from the CPP (Type: compact vehicle based on

data from the CPP) and studies1 analysed in WP 1. The extracts presented here cannot be used as

basis for a complete LCA study following all LCA standards because the extracts are too short to

provide all necessary information. The aim of the modelling is rather to exemplary show the LCA

aspects and focusing them in the use cases.

3.2.1 Background (Example)

A research institute wants to conduct an LCA for an electric vehicle, which they produce to use them

for research reasons such as analysing the driving behaviour and measuring the consumption. The

LCA results will be used to analyse aspects such as certain components of electric vehicles producing

high emissions and to analyse afterwards this components regarding their reduction potential as a

basis for future research.

The result should be compared internally to a conventional vehicle and to other LCA studies of EV to

be able to assess the areas with the highest ecological reduction potential.

3.2.2 Technical aspects of an EV based on the CPP

For the analysis of a vehicle, the technical aspects and specific EV components have to be clarified.

Additionally the vehicle with its components has to be divided in a background and a foreground

system. For the background system the data is taken from the LCA database, the foreground system

is modelled individually and primary data has to be used. The recycling processes, the electricity for

the use phase, the materials and the production processes are usually part of the background

system.

For modelling an EV, the product system has to be defined precisely. In this use case, the vehicle is

divided in different components as demonstrated in Figure 1.

1 Mainly extracts from Althaus, Gauch (2010), EMPA.


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Figure 1: EV components

The vehicle sizes of this study is a compact vehicle (Golf type) using a li-ion battery with a total

weight of 300 kg and a specific energy density of 110 Wh/kg leading to an overall nominal battery

capacity of 33 kWh resulting in useable battery capacity size of 30 kWh. The battery’s calendar life is

8 year. This means that two batteries are necessary for a typical vehicle lifetime of around 12 years.

An overview about the main data is given in the following table.

Table 3: Overview about the main used data for the EV application (not complete list)

Part of the vehicle Parameter of the vehicle Attribute

Vehicle Overall weight of the vehicle 1500 kg

Electric motor power 90 kW

Top speed 140 km/h

Acceleration 0 – 100 km/h 8 s

Battery Battery technology Lithium-Ion

Battery weight 273 kg

Specific energy density 110 Wh/kg

Battery capacity (usable) 30 kWh

Deep cycle life time 5000 cycles

Battery calendar life 8 years

-

- - -

Eel

E in


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Glider Body frame 550 kg

Steering, breaking 140 kg

Wheels and tires weight 65 kg

Cockpit 285 kg

Non-propulsion electrical system 60 kg

Drive train E-motor weight 50 kg

Power electronics weight 30 kg

Transmissions system and charger weight 27 kg

3.2.3 Exemplary system flowchart for an EV

The system flow chart including the system boundaries for modelling is shown in Figure 2. The

vehicle itself is part of the foreground system that is divided into the three main life cycle phases:

production phase, use phase and end-of-life. The main components of the vehicle are presented in

specific modules in this figure.

Figure 2: Exemplary system flow chart for application 1: Electric vehicle

System boundary

Materials

Rawmaterials Proceeding

Energy

Production Charging

Infrastructure

Streets Chargins stations

Foreground system

Use phase

Maintanance

Abrasion Vehicle

Energy consumption

Additional energy consumption

Driving consumption

Production

Glider

Chassis

Body

Interiours,

Seats...

Power

electronics

AC/DC

converter

Converter

Wheels and tires

Propulsion

system

E-Motor

Steering

Breaking

Suspension

system

Battery

Cell

Electronics

Body

EOL

Recycling

Waste treatment

Emissions Transport

Processes

Functional unit

Input Output

Infrastructure +

Transport


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Processes and materials relevant for the LCA of the vehicle are included in the background system as

well as the required infrastructure and consumed energy. The data for this processes and input

materials can be used from acknowledge LCA databases.

3.2.4 Extract from the modelling

Figure 3 shows an extract from the modelling of the application of the EV that will be used for some

use cases as well as for the testing of the guidelines within WP 3. Different processes and phases,

such as for example the use phase, are modelled in more detail for the use case or for the testing of

the guidelines if required.

T1: Material

P1: Waste and emissions

P3: Inputmaterial

P2 T2: Distribution

P6

P7

P9

T5: Production vehicle body

T6: Production of e-motor

T8: Production of battery

P10

P14

P16

P17

P20

P21

T11:Use phase

P27

P28

P13 T12: Transport

P19

P22

T14: Production other moduls

P34

P25

P26

P29

T4: Recycling

P12

P18

P4

Figure 3: EV model in a LCA software (UMBERTO) - example


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3.3 APP2: Battery

In the second application, the battery is the main part of the LCA leading to a division of the vehicle

into two main components, the battery and the rest of the vehicle. Both parts are summed up in one

module including all relevant components for the vehicle with the battery system. This approach

might be useful if certain options e.g. the recycling or production of the battery should be analysed.

However, it is important to regard the vehicle as a whole. Moreover, different battery technologies

can be compared if this approaches is chosen be the practitioner. In this use case, a Lithium-Ion-

battery is examined in the foreground system. For the background system – the EV – data based on

application 1 is used.

3.3.1 Background (Example)

The background for assessing the ecological impacts of a battery, in this case a Li-Ion battery, could

be a research institute for a research and development department developing a new, more efficient

type of li-ion battery, which is produced using new components or processes such a specific new

recycling process for the end of life phase. In a comparative LCA between the new battery and/or

new specific processes, the ecological reduction potential could be determined. The LCA results

could be used afterwards for marketing reasons to promote the new battery or recycling method or

to determined new research fields.

3.3.2 Technical aspects of an EV based on the CPP

This use case is based on data from Notter et al. 20102. In this study, a battery model for a LiMn2O4

battery is assessed varying the cathode materials containing nickel, cobalt or iron-phosphate in order

to check the sensitivity of the results. Details from the study are presented in Figure 4 using unit

processes including the required energy for each process to produce 1 kg of the battery. The

analyzed battery is included in a compact electric vehicle (VW Golf) in order to determine the overall

ecological impact. The battery data is based on a Brusa EVB13 Li battery packs.

Table 4: Data for an EV battery based from Protoscar3, and Notter et al (2010)

2

Total rated energy 32 kWh

Full charge (EU domestic plug) 12 h

Capacity 0,5 C; 80 Ah

2 Dominic A. Notter, Marcel Gauch, Rolf Widmer, Patrick Wäger, Anna Stramp, Rainer Zah und Hans-Jörg

Althaus (2010) Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impacts of Electric Vehicles. Environ. Sci.

Technol., 2010, 44(17), pp 6550-6556 DOI: 10.1021/es903729a

3 Protoscar Lampo (pure battery EV): Specifications.

http://www.protoscar.com/pdf/LAMPO2/LAMPO2_Technical_Specifications.pdf (accessed March 13, 2010).


RWTH page 18

Nominal voltage 400 V

Weight 300

Battery capacity 0.114 kWh/kg battery

Estimated life time @ 80 % DOD >160,000 km; >800 cycles

Number of cells 216

Battery charger: Type Brusa NLG513 –Sx

Power

9.9 kW

Figure 4: Description of Unit Processes for the Lithium ion battery as part of the foreground systems (Notter et al. 20102)

More information about this application 2 is given, if necessary, in the use cases. The model itself will

be used also for the testing of the guidelines. The given data functions as a first definition and

description of the use case.


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3.3.3 Exemplary system flowchart for a battery

The following flow chart presents the battery as part of the foreground system to clarify the

difference to the first application. The idea is to have a detailed modelling of the battery system

divided into the three LCA phase production, use phase and EOL. For the background system, in this

case the EV without the battery, data from the CPP should be used (see data given in the eLCAr

guideline). The LCI-data for the background system has to be chosen from acknowledged databases.

Figure 5: Exemplary system flow chart for application 2: Battery as a part of an EV

System boundary

EOL

Recycling

Waste treatment

Discharge

Hydrometallurgical

Processing

Further Use

Dismantling &

Separation

Production

Glider

Chassis

Body

Interiours,

Seats...

Power

electronics

AC/DC

converter

Converter

Wheels and

tires

Propulsion

system

E-Motor

Steering

Breaking

Suspension

system

Components Circuit Board

BodyCable

Cell Electronics

Use phase

Maintanance

Abrasion Vehicle

Energy consumption

Additional energy consumption

Driving consumption

Power Demand

Maintanance &

Replacement

TransportEmissions

Processes Infrastructure

Streets Chargins stations

Energy

Production Charging

Materials

Rawmaterials Proceeding

Foreground system: Battery

Functional unit

Output

Infrastructure +

Transport

Input


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3.4 Applications chosen for the different use cases

The applications described before will be used for the use cases defined of the previous analysis in

chapter 2. It is not reasonable to show every use case for both applications. Therefore, we focus on

these specific aspects. The assignment of the applications to the use cases is presented in Table 2. An

overall analysis is conducted regarding various minor aspects during the testing of the guidelines. The

use cases are chosen to show difficulties in the modelling for these specific applications.

Table 5: Use cases allocated to a application

Use Case Aspects Application

Scope definition Functional unit APP1, APP2


- Real world calculation

- Electricity mix

APP1

End of Life APP2

LCIA Impact assessment example APP1

In the following chapter, the main use cases are presented in a comprehensive manner. Additional

information for the use cases and the answers to specific questions are given during the testing of

the available guidelines. During the testing, detailed results will be available and presented in D3.2.

Other aspects mentioned in chapter 2 will be looked at using examples that are more specific in the

guidelines, if this supports the understanding process for the reader.

The use cases will be described in the next chapter. Based on the use cases, the testing of the

guidelines will check the usability and consistence. In the use cases there will be additional detailed

information for the available application as far as these information are relevant for the use cases.


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4 Use cases

In this chapter, the use cases are presented. If necessary for the testing of the guidelines or to

support the development, the use cases can be extended or even changed. The use cases presented

in this chapter are conducted for the two applications described before. Some explanations based on

the eLCAr guidelines are included. Existing examples from the guidelines from WP 2 are taken into

account as a help for the conduction of the use cases.

A comparison of the difference between following the eLCAr guidelines or the ISO 14040 norms is

not presented at this point because it is part of T3.2 – Evaluating guideline impacts. The presented

use cases and other examples, if required, will be used in T3.2 to show the impact of the eLCAr

guidelines.

Nevertheless, the document contains an outlook on the results of the testing based on these use

cases.

The presented LCIA results are based on an exemplary applications - as described before - and

cannot be used as final LCA results for EV or specific components.

4.1 Scope definition – Functional unit

As described before the goal and scope definition is a critical part within every LCA because critical

decisions and assumptions are taken there. The goal definition is extremely specific for every

conducted study. Therefore, this aspect is not presented here because no additional value would be

generated by presenting more hypothetical goal definitions.

The definition of the functional unit is very important for the scope definition. Various components

within an electric vehicle strongly influence its performance and have therefore to be considered in

the functional unit. Especially components influencing the overall consumption of a vehicle have to

be considered. The choice of the functional unit has to ensure that equivalent functionalities are

compared. Hence, it is often necessary during the conduction of a LCA for components to choose a

functional unit taking into account the entire vehicle to ensure an equivalent functionality.

The analysis of the LCA studies from WP 1 and the input from the stakeholder workshops showed

that the functional unit is not always clearly defined. Therefore, the functional unit for both

applications is presented following the eLCAr guidelines with short explanations. The functional unit

will show high similarities in form and data. This is necessary due to the aim of the guidelines to

ensure a comparability of the studies based on the eLCAr guidelines.

4.1.1 APP1: Functional unit for an electric vehicle

The functional unit puts the data of the LCA in a scope definition and so it is a product specified size.

The functional units chosen for EV are often not specific enough because important parameters are

missing. For example, it would not be enough to determine the driven kilometres during the vehicle

life time because the type of the vehicle would not be determined or the specific requirements of the


RWTH page 22

vehicle for a comparison. A precise use phase is especially necessary for LCA studies comparing

different types of conventional and electric vehicles due to differences in the vehicle function

depending on the type of use and, for example, the differences in the driving ranges, the vehicles are

not directly comparable.

Functional unit: EV

This functional unit is able to compare different types of vehicles using different energy sources and

drive trains by determining the specific driving service. The total mass of the vehicle is not relevant

because the size of the vehicle is determined by the “compact car” and the service by the

determined driving range of 120 km per charge.

The real world driving refers to realistic measurement methods of the needed energy for the driving

process resulting in real world consumption values. The definition of the energy generation mix that

should be used for the charging avoids possible influences from country specific energy mixes or the

use of only renewable energy. Especially the determination of the European electricity generation

enables a comparison between LCA studies conducted in different countries in Europe.

This definition of the functional unit contains all aspects mentioned in the eLCAr guidelines, Provision

6.2.1: Functional units for e-mobility applications:

Table 6: Check of the functional unit of an EV using the eLCAr guideline

Life cycle expectancy of the vehicle 200,000 km driving distance

(equivalent to a max. life span of around 13 years)

Life expectancy of components Not necessary in this case

Key links between the component and vehicle performance

To reach the 200,000 km driving distance it has to be ensured that the battery is capable of this distance. If not, two batteries have to be considered. In some case, the battery can participate in a new application (second life).

In this case, we assume that we need 1.25 batteries (battery life driving distance: 160,000 km).

Location and time horizon The production year is 2012 and the location is Europe

Possible reference flow 1 km driving

Figure 6 illustrates the impact on the overall LCA results for APP1 for the choice of the driving

distance during the life time of an EV. It is very important that this value is given in the functional unit

because it influences the final results significantly. (In this exemplary calculation it contains only the

variation of the overall driving distance as a demonstration. Not every aspect within the LCA is

adjusted.)

200,000 km driving in a compact car with a range of 120 km per charge in real world driving

fuelled with average European electricity generation (in 2012-2020) in Europe


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Figure 6: Preliminary result: Impact of the choice of the life time driving distance on the LCA results (Exemplary

calculation for APP1)

4.1.2 APP2: Functional unit for a battery

The functional unit for a battery used within an electric vehicle have to consider a vehicle perspective

because of the interdependencies between the size and capacity of the battery and the function of

the vehicle. Therefore, the functional unit changes slightly compare to the function unit of the EV.

However, the perspective of the entire vehicle is still the same resulting in high similarities between

the functional units.

Functional unit: Battery

The extension of the functional unit defines the mass of the analysed vehicle without the weight of

the battery. This is helpful if different types of batteries are analysed having different specific energy

densities, charging and discharging efficiencies or power densities leading to a variation in the overall

weight of the battery. The excluding of the battery describes the function which the battery has to

fulfil. The other values are the same as for the EV.

Table 7: Check of the functional unit of a battery using the eLCAr guideline

Life cycle expectancy of the vehicle 200,000 km driving distance

Life expectancy of components The life expectation of the battery is around 10 years and 160,000 km life driving distance.

Key links between the component and vehicle performance

1.25 batteries are needed

Location and time horizon The production year is 2012 and the location is Europe

Possible reference flow 1 km driving

200,000 km driving in a compact car with a total mass of 1,200 kg excluding the battery

(comparison of different types) with a range of 120 km per charge in real world driving fuelled

with average European electricity generation (in 2012)


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4.2 Consumption (APP1)

One use cases for the LCI analysis focus on the determination of the consumption for EV due to the

controversial discussion during the workshop and the high interest of the stakeholders concerning

this topic. Moreover, this LCA aspect has a high relevance for the outcome of the studies. Therefore,

in the following chapter different aspects of the determination of the consumption are presented.

The real world consumption necessary for an LCA of a vehicle can be determined in two different

ways:

Measurement on a real vehicle or on fleets

Calculation based on driving cycles

4.2.1 Consumption based on measurement on a real EV fleet (Example)

The usage of measured consumption values based on data form EV fleets, for example from field

test, ensures a high quality of the LCA outcome. The reason for that is that the measured

consumption contains all sources influencing the consumptions:

- Basic consumption (driving from A to B)

- Additional consumption due to

Heating and air conditioning usage

Auxiliaries (Radio, etc.)

- Battery charging losses

- Impact of the driving behaviour (influence of the driver type etc.)

- Ambient conditions (e.g. temperature, geographical influences)

Therefore, the measured values are highly reliable to represent the real world consumption within

LCA studies. However, the usage of measured data contains some difficulties regarding the

representativeness of the data, data quality and the handling of uncertainties. These aspects are

highlighted in the following example regarding the consumption calculation.

Exemplary use case for measured consumption data: EV consumption based on a field test

Table 8: Decision table for the consumption (Example: Measured data)

Scope Use case Consequence

Usage of Real world

consumption?

Yes Standard driving cycles will not

be sufficient for this scope.

Correction required!

Determination of the real

world consumption?

In this use case, measured values

for the real world consumption

are available from a field test.

The measured data can be used

to determine the real world

consumption.


RWTH page 25

In order to verify the energy consumption values and the behaviour of EV, various parameters can be

monitored within a field test. For the following exemplary use case, data from a field test in Germany

has been used. In a field test, 11 EV with a battery capacity of 12 kWh have been monitored in the

project between April 20th and December 31st 2011.4 They have been driving in and around the cities

Aachen and Duisburg. Data from the EV has been measured every second, whenever the vehicle was

driving or charging. Measured data was the consumption (kWh), the speed of the vehicles (km/h),

battery voltage (V), cell voltage (V), battery current (A), state of charge of the battery (%) and the

temperature of the cooling system (°C) and the battery cells (°C).

Figure 7 shows the consumption values for the EV. Note that only those days have been monitored

and analysed, where the vehicle was charged or driven at least once. The measured consumption

varies between 0.00 kWh/km and 0.62 kWh/km with a peak around 0.22 kWh/km. The measured

consumption values vary highly due to different effects such as the driver behaviour, geographical

influences, number of passengers etc. Based on the measured data it is difficult to determined, what

values have to be chosen for the LCA. The range from 0.00 – 0.62 kWh/km leads to a high uncertainty

and variation in the LCA result. Therefore, a more detailed analysis is required.

Figure 7: Consumption values from the field test (Source: Smart Wheels)

One important factor affecting the consumption of EV besides the inclination of streets and the use

of electric consumers like headlights and heating is the driven distance of the considered trip. Figure

8 shows the influence of the trip length on the calculated consumption. Whereas the consumption of

the vehicles strongly scatters at short trips, it approximates the value of 0.2 kWh/km for trips with

more than 20 km. Furthermore, the 95 % and 5 % quantiles also converge against this value for long

trips: At driving distances of 25 km 90 % of the measured values are between 0.18 and 0.23 kWh/km.

The scattering of the results for short trips might be caused by different recuperation phases

depending on the state of charge of the battery or the lay of the land.

4 Project: Smart Wheels. www.smart-wheels.de

0 20 40 60 80 100 1200

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

driven distance per day

freq

uenc

y of

occ

uren

ce

Daily operating distance of EVs

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.70

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

consumption [kWh/km]

consumption of electric vehicles

freq

uenc

y of

occ

uren

ce


RWTH page 26

Figure 8: Left: Consumption in dependence of the driven distance; Right: Quantile assessment (Source: Smart Wheels,

IFHT)

To reduce the uncertainties in the consumption values due to recuperation etc., the values for the

consumption for driving distances over20 km are used for the LCI phase. Figure 9 show the results of

an adapted LCA for APP 1 using the determined consumption values from the field test comparing

them to basic consumption values determined by using the NEDC.

Figure 9: Exemplary comparison for LCIA (impact assessment) (GWP) for the different quantiles compared to the usage

of existing driving cycles (NECD) without real world correction

The comparison illustrates the difference between the measured real world consumption values and

the consumption determined by standard driving cycles. As mentioned before, the results based on

standard driving cycles are always lower than the approach for the use of real world consumption.

The next part deals with the case that no measured consumption values are available.

5 10 15 20 250.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

distance for calculation [km]

consum

ption [

kW

h/k

m]

0.95 Quantile

Mean

0.05 Quantile

0

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

0,3

0,35

GW

P in

g C

O2-

Eq p

er k

m

Driving cycle


RWTH page 27

4.2.2 Real world consumption based on the calculation within the eLCAr guidelines

Table 9: Decision table for the consumption (Example: Calculation method)


Usage of Real world

consumption?

Yes Standard driving cycles will not be

sufficient for this scope.

Determination of the real

world consumption?

No real world consumption

data is available.

No field test data

The calculation method to determine

the real world calculation in the eLCAr

guidelines has to be used

The determination for the consumption used in LCA is a critical value that has a high impact on the

overall results. Therefore, the determination of the real world consumption and the comparison of

this approach to the usage of the standard driving cycles such as the NEDC will be analysed within

this use case.

A detailed instruction for determining the real world calculation based on basic consumption data

from driving cycles is presented in the eLCAr guidelines (Chapter: Use phase: Consumption

calculation methods) including a calculation example and is therefore not repeated in this document.

The example shows a calculation for the consumption of a vehicle driven in the area of Switzerland

focusing on estimating the impacts from a typical use due to real world driving profiles. The result of

this exemplary calculation is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Result from the eLCAr guideline example: “Example for energy consumption calculation” (Source: eLCAr

guideline)

The real world consumption in this use case would be 0.241 kWh/km and is based on a basic

consumption of 0.125 kWh/km. This means that the corrected consumption is around 1.9 times

higher than the basic consumption value. The impact on the final LCIA results due to the correction

of the real world consumption is part of the testing of the guidelines.


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4.2.2.1 Impact of different consumption values on the LCA results

Based on the presented results within the two use cases regarding the real world consumption, the

value for the consumption of electric vehicles can vary within a wide range depending on the goal

and scope of the analysis.

However, for some studies it might be useful to compare EV with other vehicles using the basic

consumption based on standardized driving cycles, while other studies aim at using real world

consumption values. Nevertheless, the usage of real world consumption values should be the

standard approach for the overall LCA assessment of EV because only this approach leads to realistic

LCA results (see provision within the eLCAr guideline).

To show the impact of the choice of the consumption using APP1 for the two presented use cases, a

variation of different consumption values has been conducted. Exemplary, the consumption of

17.2 kWh/100 km has been chosen as a reference value to assess the deviation for a small number of

impact categories (global warming potential, eutrophication, acidification based on CML01). The

results are presented in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Exemplary results for a variation of the consumption values for APP 1

The impact of the consumption on the LCA results is clearly visible for these three impact categories.

Therefore, it is very important that the instructions within the guideline are clear and understandable

and can be used by every practitioner. Moreover, the goal and scope of the study have to contain the

information what consumption type – basic consumption based on driving cycles or real world

consumption either from measured data or calculated values – is used.

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

12,1 14,8 17,2 20,0 21,2

Pe

rce

nta

ge i

n [

%]

(Re

fere

nce

17

.2 k

Wh

/10

0km

)

Consumption values in [kWh/100km]

Global Warming Potential

Eutrophication

Acidification


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4.3 Electricity mix (APP1)

The second use case in the use phase deals with the choice of the electricity mix. The electricity mix

used for the EV charging has, similar to the energy consumption, a high influence on the results of

the use phase. Depending on the chosen energy generation source such as a country with a high

share of renewable energy sources (RES) or RES directly compared with a country using mainly coal-

based power plants, the LCA results can be highly influenced. Moreover, the inventory data for the

electricity vary a lot for different countries depending on the energy carriers used and on the power

plant technology.

According to the ILCD and therefore according the eLCAr guidelines, the choice of the electricity mix

shall be based on a technological, geographical and time-related representativeness depending also

on the scope of the LCA study. In more detail, for the electricity mix, the consumption electricity mix

for a voltage level lower than 1 kV (low voltage) has to be used (see Figure 12). This is important

because the consumption mix contains the final composition for the final customer, in this case for

the EV charging at home or at public charging stations. Only in few cases, it might be necessary to

use a different electricity mix for example a different voltage level as middle voltage.

Figure 12: Modeling of the power consumption mix (Source: ELCD: http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasets/html

/processes/83c1f02c-f2ef-4ac4-9a57-ac2172c38d15_02.01.000.html)

Nevertheless, the system boundaries of the chosen electricity mix have to include the transmission

and distributions grids as well as the electricity productions infrastructure. Available electricity

consumption mixes from acknowledged databases include the infrastructure such as the

transmission and distribution grids. A more detailed analysis of the impact of EV on the grids is not

necessary within Situation A and is therefore not presented.

http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasets/html


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To determine the electricity mix for the use case, certain parameters have to be determined:

Table 10: Decision table for the electricity mix

Scope Use case Choice of the electricity mix (eLCAr)

Geographical

scope

The EV shall be used in

different countries: in

Germany, in Greece and in

Norway.

The electricity mix for each country has to be used

and assessed if the future division is unclear.

- Germany

- Greece

- Norway

Technological

scope

No specific electricity mix

e.g. RES should be used.

The country specific electricity mix will be sufficient.

Time scope The EV is produced in 2012

and will be used the next 10

years.

The inventory data for the time horizon from 2012-

2022 should be chosen or the corresponding data.

Voltage level The EV will be charge at a

home charging stations

(household level).

The consumption mix should be used for the low

voltage level <1 kV including the grid losses.

Specific

infrastructure

The home charging station

is installed for the EV. No

more charging stations and

no fast charging possibility

is planned.

The home charging station has to be included into

the system boundary. No more adjustments needed.

As shown in the assessment before, the use phase has a significant impact on the results of the LCA.

The impact assessment results in this part of the analysis are presented using the impact categories

according to CML 2001 with the focus on the Global warming potential for comparison reasons.

In the following, three examples for the impact of the chosen electricity mix are presented. The used

countries are Germany, Greece and Norway due to their differences in the electricity mix.

Table 11: Electricity mix, consumption (Examples)

Electricity Mix (Consumption) DE GR NO

g CO2-Äq/kWh 640 975 32


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Figure 13 illustrate the influence of the energy mix from the three different countries for the use

case. The GWP results for Norway are very low due to their high rate of renewable energies

especially hydropower. Greece on the contrary has a high percentage of fossil-based power plants

and therefore a high GWP result. Thus, the result of the impact assessment of EV is highly dependent

on the assessed country and the used energy mix.

Figure 13: Comparison of the influence of the chosen consumption mix for APP1, preliminary results

LCA conducted with different countries are hardly comparable if only the country specific electricity

mix will be used. In this use case, the EV would have the lowest emissions if it would be only used in

Norway due to their hydropower based electricity production. Nevertheless, the results for the EV

can be estimated using different distribution between the three countries.

4.4 End of Life (APP2)

Application 2 is very useful to show the impact of the eLCAr guideline regarding the EoL issue. There

are a high number of project and studies dealing with the production and/or the recycling process of

batteries for EV. Due to the low rising of the production of EV, there are nearly no batteries from EV

that have to be recycling yet. Nowadays, the most recycling processes for batteries such as Li-ion

batteries are conducted within the consumer sector disabling batteries from computers or mobile

phones. According to the eLCAr guideline, Li-ion batteries need a special treatment after the EoL, e.g.

they cannot be recycled before they are dismantled. Therefore, the first step is the total discharge of

the battery and disassembling of the individual components:

- Case, frame, cables

o Material recycling

- Battery cells

o Pyrometallurgical process

o Hydrometallurgical process

- Battery management system

o Electronic recycling

0%

50%

100%

150%

200%

250%

300%

350%

NO DE GR

Consumption mix

GWP

Acidification

Eutrophication

Resources


RWTH page 32

Figure 14 shows exemplary a recycling process using a simplified flow chart of the Val’Eas process

from the European company Umicore5 that is able to recycle all types of batteries e.g. Li-ion

batteries. For Li-ion batteries, the company claims a 93 % recovery rate.

Figure 14: Recycling process: Umicore Battery Recycling, Environmental aspects, process description5

This use case will analyse and assess of different types of EoL modelling using at first both

possibilities for the recycling of the materials: Substitution and Cut-off criteria.

Table 12: Decision table for the end of life


Choice of the modelling of

the EoL

Cut-off method and Substitution Both differences have to be

modelled in the analysis.

Do data gaps exist? Yes. Bottom up analysis

preferred.

Worst-case assumption should

be chosen.

The results for this approach will be included in D3.2.

5 Jan Tytgat: Umicore Battery Recycling – Recycling of NiMH and Li-ion batteries a sustainable new business

(accessed: 10.11.2012): http://www.green-cars-initiative.eu/workshops/joint-ec-eposs-ertrac-expert-workshop-2011-on-battery-manufacturing/presentations/2_4%20Jan%20Tytgat_Umicore.pdf


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4.5 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)

The LCIA use case deals with the impact of the choice of the LCIA method for various environmental

impacts. The LCIA methods itself are available in literature or directly in LCA software. The choice of

the LCIA method should be directly mentioned in the scope definition to ensure that all relevant

aspects and data are collected within the LCI phase.

According the ILCD handbook, the impact categories shall be checked and can afterwards be

combined into Endpoints categories.

Table 13: Decision table for LCIA, APP 1


Is the scope of the study

focussing on only specific

impact categories? (e.g.

carbon footprint)

- All LCIA categories mentioned in

the ILCD have to be included in

the assessment.

Chosen LCIA method CML 2001 All aspects have to be included.

For the presented use case (APP1), the following table contains an exemplary LCIA results over the

whole vehicle lifetime based on CML 2001. The results are presented in Midpoints.

Table 14: Exemplary LCIA results for an EV using CML 2001

Impact category Unit EV

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity

MAETP 100a kg 1,4-DCB 109,465.91

Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity

FAETP 100a kg 1,4-DCB 31,978.36

Terrestrial ecotoxicity

TAETP 100a kg 1,4-DCB 5.92

Odour

Odour m3 air 173,809,990.64

Human toxicity

HTP 100a kg 1,4-DCB 7,904.11

HTP unlimited kg 1,4-DCB 25,798.78

Impact of ionizing radiation

Impact of ionizing radiation DALYs 0.00

Global Warming Potential

GWP 100a kg CO2-Eq 24,511.75

Land use

Land use m2a 871.00

Photo-oxidant formation (summer smog)

Low-NOx POPC kg ethylen 1.89

High-NOx POPC kg ethylen 3.41

EBIR kg formed 2.45


RWTH page 34

MIR kg formed 1.29

MOIR kg formed 2.00

Resources

Depletion of abiotic resources kg antimon 178.24

Marine sediment ecotoxicity

MSETP 100a kg 1,4-DCB 122,947.91

Freshwater sediment ecotoxicity

FSETP 100a kg 1,4-DCB 70,840.13

Stratospheric ozone depletion

ODP balance kg CFC-11- 0.00

Acidification

European average kg SO2-Eq 62.06

Generic kg SO2-Eq 62.12

Eutrophication

European average kg NOx-Eq 40.65

Generic kg PO4-Eq 111.18

The mention of the used LCIA methodology within the LCA study is important for the correct

interpretation of the results. Figure 15 shows a comparison of different LCIA methodologies for APP 1

for few impact categories (Midpoints). The impact categories are the same, only the LCIA

methodology differs, resulting in a fluctuation of the final assessment.

Figure 15: Differences in LCIA methodologies for APP1 (examples)

During the testing, the impact of the guidelines regarding the LCIA will be analysed and presented.

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

140%

160%

Stratospheric ozonedepletion (ODP balance)

(g CFC-11)

Acidification (Europeanaverage)

(kg SO2-Äq.)

Land use(m2a)

IMPACT2002+ CML01 EDIP2003

EDIP97 ReCiPe TRACI


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5 Summary

In short, exemplary use cases are presented in this document. The approach for this document was

the following: First, an analysis of relevant use cases has been conducted based on literature

research and the input from the workshops. Second, two LCA applications for the modelling – for an

EV and for a battery within an EV - have been developed. Third, use cases, that are relevant for the

stakeholders and that could be modelled and implemented within WP3, have been presented.

Moreover, the use cases include already some examples of their modelling as an outlook for the final

analysis within WP3. However, these results are not final and they will be calibrated with the final

eLCAr guidelines.

Table 15: Summary of the use cases

Use Case Aspects

Scope definition Functional unit


- Real world calculation

- Electricity mix

End of Life

LCIA Impact assessment (Choice and approach)

To present and analyse the use cases, the two following applications for LCA have been developed

and modelled.

1. LCA for an electric vehicle (APP1: EV)

Foreground system: Analysis of an electric vehicle (Total vehicle view)

2. LCA for a battery of an electric vehicle (APP2: Component: Battery)

Foreground system: Analysis of a battery for an EV

Background system: Battery embedded in an electric vehicle

The applications and the use cases will be used for the further approach in WP3.


RWTH page 36

6 Annex

6.1 Extract of analysed LCA studies (Overview)

First Author Title Link Type

of

Study

year guidelin

es used

Comment

Michael Rantik Life cycle assessment of five

batteries for electric vehicles under

different charging regimes

http://www.kfb.se/pdfer/M-

99-28.pdf

Full

LCA

1999 others environmental toxicology and

chemistry guidelines

Christian Bauer, Andrew

Simons

Ökobilanz der Elektromobilität http://gabe.web.psi.ch/pdfs/e

mobility/Oekobilanz_Elektromo

bilitaet_Schlussbericht.pdf

Full

LCA

2010 unspecif

ied

P. Baptista, C. Silva, G.

Goncalves, T. Farias

Full life cycle assessment of

market penetration of electricity

based vehicles

internal-

pdf://Baptista_et_al_2009_EVS

24-

4229744907/Baptista_et_al_20

09_EVS24.pdf

Full

LCA

2009 unspecif

ied

Althaus, de Haan, Scholz Traffic noise in LCA: Part 1: state-

of-science and requirement profile

for consistent context-sensitive

integration of traffic noise in LCA

http://www.uns.ethz.ch/peopl

e/hs/scholzr/publ/1713.pdf

screen

ing

LCA

2009 ISO

14'000

ff

http://www.kfb.se/pdfer/M-99-28.pdf

http://www.kfb.se/pdfer/M-99-28.pdf

http://gabe.web.psi.ch/pdfs/emobility/Oekobilanz_Elektromobilitaet_Schlussbericht.pdf



http://www.uns.ethz.ch/people/hs/scholzr/publ/1713.pdf

http://www.uns.ethz.ch/people/hs/scholzr/publ/1713.pdf


RWTH page 37

Hans-Jörg Althaus,

Marcel Gauch

Vergleichende Ökobilanz

individueller Mobilität

Elektromobilität versus

konventionelle Mobilität mit Bio-

und fossilen Treibstoffen

http://www.empa.ch/plugin/te

mplate/empa/*/104369

Full

LCA

2010 ISO

14'000

ff

Fayçal-Siddikou

Boureima

Comparative LCA of electric,

hybrid, LPG and gasoline

cars in Belgian context

http://www.cars21.com/files/p

apers/Boureima-paper.pdf

Full

LCA

2009 ISO

14'000

ff

also regarding WWT and WTT; range

based LCA

Stefano Campanari Energy analysis of electric vehicles

using batteries or fuel cells through

well-to-wheel driving cycle

simulations

http://www.sciencedirect.com/

science/article/B6TH1-

4TPF4FW-

2/2/bb63bc3632ac52a7316a42

fe60cd47da

TTW 2008 unspecif

ied

also regarding WTT and WTW

Nikolas Hill, Charlotte

Brannigan, David Wynn,

Robert Milnes etc

The role of GHG emissions from

infrastructure construction, vehicle

manufacturing, and ELVs in overall

transport sector emissions

http://www.eutransportghg20

50.eu/cms/assets/Uploads/Me

eting-Documents/EU-

Transport-GHG-2050-II-Task-2-

Report-21April-2011-DRAFT.pdf

other unspecif

ied

the report faces different LCA studies

from literature and deals with the

emissions through infrastructure,

manufacturing and disposals of

vehicles, no self-created LCA

A. P. Bandivadekar Evaluating the impact of advanced

vehcile and fuel technologies in

U.S. Light-duty vehcile fleet

http://web.mit.edu/mitei/rese

arch/spotlights/bandivadekar_t

hesis_final.pdf

other 2008 unspecif

ied

the study analyses the propulsion

systems of light fleet vehicles, also

regarding the greenhouse emissions,

but not as a main focus

http://www.empa.ch/plugin/template/empa/*/104369

http://www.empa.ch/plugin/template/empa/*/104369

http://www.cars21.com/files/papers/Boureima-paper.pdf

http://www.cars21.com/files/papers/Boureima-paper.pdf

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TH1-4TPF4FW-2/2/bb63bc3632ac52a7316a42fe60cd47da





http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/Uploads/Meeting-Documents/EU-Transport-GHG-2050-II-Task-2-Report-21April-2011-DRAFT.pdf






RWTH page 38

Paulina Jaramillo,

ConstantineSamaras,

Heather Wakeley

Greenhousegasimplicationsofusing

coalfortransportation:Lifecycle

assessment ofcoal-to-liquids,plug-

inhybrids,andhydrogenpathways

http://ac.els-

cdn.com/S0301421509001451/

1-s2.0-S0301421509001451-

main.pdf?_tid=dc596351ea441

d5d06b5dbd31e807105&acdna

t=1335343185_00c8de4c96777

6556953be233bf89e54

Full

LCA

2009 unspecif

ied

n/a

S. Plotkin, D. Santini, A.

Vyas, J. Anderson, M.

Wang

Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology

Assessment:

Methodology, Analytical Issues,

and Interim Results

this study is a technology assessment,

not a life cycle assesssment

Gopalakrishnan Duleep,

Huib van Essen, Bettina

Kampman,Max Grünig

Assessment of electric vehicle and

battery technology

http://ec.europa.eu/clima/poli

cies/transport/vehicles/docs/d

2_en.pdf

other 2011 this study is not a LCA, its deals with

the vehicle technology and it

developement; also including

emissions from different components,

but the LCA is from other studies

CONSTANTINE SAMARAS,

KYLE MEISTERLING

Life Cycle Assessment Of

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

From Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles:

Implications For Policy

http://www.epiphergy.com/upl

oads/es702178s-file004.pdf

other 2008 ISO

14'000

ff

the study sums up results from other

studies, also including emissions from

certain components

Jeremy Hackney, Richard

de Neufville

Life cycle model of alternative fuel

vehicles: emissions, energy,

and cost trade-o€s

http://ac.els-

cdn.com/S0965856499000579/

1-s2.0-S0965856499000579-

main.pdf?_tid=a180eb97afc018

708ee20086ec1f5d2d&acdnat=

1335951281_4882075aa87e9e

1777cb7f7703f56679

other unspecif

ied

the study describes a life cycle model

for trade-offs of the emissions, costs,

and energy efficiency considering

alternative fuels

http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0301421509001451/1-s2.0-S0301421509001451-main.pdf?_tid=dc596351ea441d5d06b5dbd31e807105&acdnat=1335343185_00c8de4c967776556953be233bf89e54







http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/vehicles/docs/d2_en.pdf



http://www.epiphergy.com/uploads/es702178s-file004.pdf

http://www.epiphergy.com/uploads/es702178s-file004.pdf

http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0965856499000579/1-s2.0-S0965856499000579-main.pdf?_tid=a180eb97afc018708ee20086ec1f5d2d&acdnat=1335951281_4882075aa87e9e1777cb7f7703f56679








RWTH page 39

A. Elgowainy, A.

Burnham, M. Wang, J.

Molburg

Well-to-Wheels Energy Use

and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Analysis of Plug-in Hybrid Electric

Vehicles

http://www.transportation.anl.

gov/pdfs/TA/559.pdf WTW 2009 unspecif

ied

only well to wheel and factors which

affect the generation mix are analysed

Anonymous Environmental Assessment of Plug-

In

Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Volume 1:

Nationwide Greenhouse Gas

Emissions

http://miastrada.com/yahoo_si

te_admin/assets/docs/epriVolu

me1R2.36180810.pdf

WTW PHEVs are analysed considering the

greenhouse gas emissions; not a whole

LCA, only well-to-wheel and gasoline

well-to-tank (for that reason some

fields are not filled)

Jason J. Daniel, Marc A.

Rosen

Exergetic environmental

assessment of life cycle emissions

for various automobiles and fuels

http://ac.els-

cdn.com/S1164023502000766/

1-s2.0-S1164023502000766-

main.pdf?_tid=6cf046b9401d6

ded40ebeb728eb75b25&acdna

t=1336402066_058c6f722ad2d

cf32f15ef31b3337a93

other none the study mearures the exergy which is

created through the emissions, to do

so different LCA studies are faced

Karbowski, Haliburton,

Roussau

Impact of component size on plug-

in hybrid vehicle energy

consumption using global

optimization


gov/pdfs/HV/460.pdf

other 2007 unspecif

ied

the global optimization algorithm is

used, variating different variabels to

see how the fuel and energy

consumtion is influenced; the study

deals with the GWP emissions in a

small part

G. Duleep, van Essen, B.

Kampman,

M. Grünig

Impacts of Electric Vehicles -

Deliverable 2 Assessment of

electric vehicle and battery

technology

http://ec.europa.eu/clima/poli

cies/transport/vehicles/docs/d

2_en.pdf

only analysing LCA results from other

studies

http://miastrada.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/epriVolume1R2.36180810.pdf



http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1164023502000766/1-s2.0-S1164023502000766-main.pdf?_tid=6cf046b9401d6ded40ebeb728eb75b25&acdnat=1336402066_058c6f722ad2dcf32f15ef31b3337a93







http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/HV/460.pdf






RWTH page 40

Buchert et al. Ö obilanz zum „Recycling von

Lithium-Ionen-Batterien“

(LithoRec)

Full

LCA

2011 ISO

14'000

ff

W.P. Schmidt, E.

Dahlqvist, M. Finkbeiner,

S. Krinke, S. Lazzari, D.

Oschmann, S. Pichon, C.

Thiel

Life Cycle Assessment of

Lightweight and End-of-Life

Scenarios for

Generic Compact Class Passenger

Vehicles

http://www.springerlink.com/c

ontent/j61l16r47378714x/fullte

xt.pdf

screen

ing

LCA

2004 ISO

14'000

ff

Notter, Dominic A. ;

Gauch, Marcel ; Widmer,

Rolf ; Wager, Patrick ;

Stamp, Anna ; Zah,

Rainer

Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to

the Environmental Impact of

Electric

Vehicles

http://www.newride.ch/docum

ents/forschungsprojekt/Notter

_Contribution_of_LiIon_Batteri

es_final_online_es903729a.pdf

Full

LCA

2010 unspecif

ied

Basis case for APP 2

In Environ. Sci. Technol., 2010, 44 (17),

pp 6550-6556 DOI:

10.1021/es903829a

Zhang, S. S.; Ervin, M. H.;

Foster, D. L.; Xu, K.; Jow,

T. R.;

Fabrication and evaluation of a

polymer Li-ion battery with

microporous gel electrolyte

http://144.206.159.178/ft/641/

206455/5191265.pdf

other 2003 none

Shiau, C. S. N.; Samaras,

C.; Hauffe, R.; Michalek,

J. J.

Impact of battery weight and

charging patterns on the economic

and environmental benefits of

plug-in hybrid vehicles

http://www.cmu.edu/me/ddl/p

ublications/2009-EP-Shiau-

Samaras-Hauffe-Michalek-

PHEV-Weight-Charging.pdf

WTW 2009 unspecif

ied

Andersson, B.; Rade, I. Large-scale electric-vehicle battery

systems: long-term metal resource

constraints

http://www.ifu.ethz.ch/ESD/ed

ucation/master/PEA/Andersson

_1999_Large_scale_electric_ve

hicle_battery_systems.pdf

Produc

tion

LCA

1999 none

http://www.springerlink.com/content/j61l16r47378714x/fulltext.pdf



http://www.newride.ch/documents/forschungsprojekt/Notter_Contribution_of_LiIon_Batteries_final_online_es903729a.pdf




http://144.206.159.178/ft/641/206455/5191265.pdf

http://144.206.159.178/ft/641/206455/5191265.pdf

http://www.cmu.edu/me/ddl/publications/2009-EP-Shiau-Samaras-Hauffe-Michalek-PHEV-Weight-Charging.pdf




http://www.ifu.ethz.ch/ESD/education/master/PEA/Andersson_1999_Large_scale_electric_vehicle_battery_systems.pdf





RWTH page 41

Santini, D; Vyas, A How to use life cycle analysis

comparisons of phevs to

competing powertrains


gov/pdfs/HV/501.pdf

Full

LCA

2008 none This study examines the implications

that C-B organizational principles could

have on methods for designing future

variations of LCA techniques to use for

comparing hybridized powertrains to

evolving conventional vehicle (CV; i.e.,

gasoline-fueled vehicle) powertrains

Rydh, C. J.; Sanden, B. A. Energy analysis of batteries in

photovoltaic systems. Part I:

Performance and energy

requirements

http://www.apmaths.uwo.ca/~

mdavison/_library/natasha/bat

terytechnologies6.PDF

Produc

tion

LCA

2005 unspecif

ied

The goal of this study is to assess the

indirect energy requirements for

production and transportation

of different battery technologies when

used in a stand alone PV-battery

system at different

operating conditions

Rydh, Carl Johan ;

Sanden, B. A.

Energy analysis of batteries in

photovoltaic systems. Part II:

Energy return factors and overall

battery efficiencies

http://www.apmaths.uwo.ca/~

mdavison/_library/natasha/bat

terytechnologies3.PDF

Full

LCA

2005 unspecif

ied

The goal of this study is to analyse the

energy efficiencies of different battery

technologies when

used in stand alone PV-battery

systems and to compare two different

measures of energy efficiency

Benjamin BoSSdorf-

Zimmer; Dr. Stephan

Krinke; Dr. Tobias

Lösche-ter Horst

Die Well-to-Wheel-Analyse

Umwelteigenschaften

mess- und planbar machen

http://www.atzonline.de/Artik

el/3/14297/Die-Well-to-Wheel-

Analyse-%E2%80%93-

Umwelteigenschaften-mess--

und-planbar-machen.html

WTW 2012 ISO

14'000

ff



http://www.apmaths.uwo.ca/~mdavison/_library/natasha/batterytechnologies6.PDF






http://www.atzonline.de/Artikel/3/14297/Die-Well-to-Wheel-Analyse-%E2%80%93-Umwelteigenschaften-mess--und-planbar-machen.html






RWTH page 42

Hinrich Helms, Julius

Jöhrens, Jan Hanusch,

Ulrich Höpfner, Udo

Lambrecht, Martin Pehnt

UMBReLA

Umweltbilanzen

Elektromobilität

Full

LCA

2011 others eLCAr (Electric Car LCA)

J. Van Mielo, F.

Boureima, N. Sergeant, V.

Wynen, M. Messagie, L.

Govaerts, T. Denys, M.

Vanderschaeghe, C.

Macharis, L.Turcksin, W.

Hecq, M. Englert,F.

Lecrombs, F. Klopfert, B.

De Caevel, M. De Vos

CLEVER

Clean Vehicle Research: LCA and

policy measures

CLEVER

CLEAN VEHICLE RESEARCH: LCA

AND POLICY MEASURES

screen

ing

LCA

2009 others In this study a LCA methodology is

being developed with per-model

applicability instead of an average

vehicle LCA. This will allow taking

into account all the segments of

the Belgian car market and

producing LCA results per vehicle

technology and category


RWTH page 43

6.2 Abbreviation

BEV Battery electric vehicle

CPP Common Parameter Platform

DE Germany

EGCI European Green Cars Initiative

eLCAr E-Mobility Life Cycle Assessment Recommendations

EOL End-of-Life

EV Electric vehicle

GR Greece

GWP Global Warming Potential

ICE Internal combustion engine

ILCD International Reference Life Cycle Data System

LCA Life Cycle Assessment

LCI Life Cycle Inventory Analysis

LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment

NO Norway

OEM Original equipment manufacturer

PHEV Plug-in hybrid vehicle

RES Renewable Energy Sources

SOC State of charge