word-processing hazards rejected

Word-processing hazards rejected The experience of a UK local authority in the implementation of a word-processing system is described by Frank Jones

Arguments put forward against the use of word processing by local authorities in the UK have included those of health hazards and reduced job satisfaction. The effects of posture, eyestrain, fatigue and radiation are rejected as hazards. Behaviouml aspects are considered in the light of experience with the City of Bradford system, for which detailed equipment specifications are given..Savings and improvements in efficiency were achieved, with a reduction in errors, employee turnover and turnaround time, and a favourable reaction from operators.

After the second anniversary in 1979 of the largest shared- logic word-processing system in Europe at the City of Bradford Metropolitan Council, UK, (which incidentally went live on 4th July, the celebrations in America being unconnected), other Authorities have yet to invest in word processing on the same scale. It was believed that, with the recent cut backs in UK rate-support grants, any proven method of saving money would attract sufficient attention for large scale investment. However, if anything, local authorities appear to be slowing the progress of investment in word processing. The success of the Bradford installation attracted support from local branches of the UK National Association of Local Government Officers (Nalgo) to slow the ;ntroduction of word processing by including a number of red herrings into the argument against widespread use of screen-based shared- logic systems. The two major arguments against introduction were health hazards and reduced job satisfaction.

H E A L T H H A Z A R D S

The first spurious charge against the use of screen-based systems was in an article in the Nalgo publication Public Service entitled 'Watch out for VDUs like th is . . , they can be a health hazard a . Nalgo distinguishes four kinds of hazard to health from VDUs: posture, eye strain, fatigue and radiation. Unlike the unnamed author of the article, I am unqualified to comment, but several specialists have published papers on the topic. To quote from The VDU Eye Test (VET) Advisory Group report published in

Business Information Techniques, 15 Devonshire Street, Keighley, West Yorkshire BD21 2BH, UK.

November 19782 'Despite a considerable amount of research, there is at this time no evidence that using a VDU is likely to damage eyes or eyesight'. The British Opthalmic Institute published a report in 19783, to quote: 'the VDU is an agent affecting mental procedures more than optical ones: it is hard to see what objective reasoning has turned it into an ocular whipping-boy'.

According to Tom Stewart, Chairman of the VET Advisory Group, 'If VDUs are used incorrectly because of preconceived ideas of the methods of operating the system then they are likely to cause harm, but so are other forms of office equipment.' The message is quite clearly to examine the work being done, whatever type of equipment is being used, and design appropriate operating procedures. Poor posture and fatigue result from the incorrect use of products and poor management of systems, just as much as badly designed products.

Radiation emissions all fall well below the safe levels, and there is no known harm from using a VDU due to radiation. The UK National Radiological Protection Board has been making measurements of X-ray emissions from VDUs for a number of years. X-ray leakage has been found to be below the level agreed internationally for domestic television receivers: 0.5 mRh -~ , measured at 5 cm from an accessible surface.

It would appear, if anything, that the ergonom ic aspects of work are more likely to improve, not reduce, using a VDU, as they will be examined more closely than they have been for current methods of working. But beware of ill-informed advice from interested parties merely using ergonomic concern to prevent the use of word processing. To requote the Nalgo article, the best colour for a screen is supposed to be orange. However, Gillian Shaw, in the report for the Institute of Ophthalmology 3 quotes 'green and cyan' as the optimum colours. Perhaps the unnamed author of the Nalgo article would care to support his alternative colour choice by establishing his credibility with some evidence of expertise and research on this topic.

B E H A V I O U R A L A S P E C T S

The second more widely quoted reason for not introducing word processing is more difficult to measure - human behaviour. Luddites argue that the introduction of word processing reduces job satisfaction. The experience of the Bradford authority will be examined.

210 0141-3406/79/070 210 - 06502.00 © 1979 IPC Business Press computer communications

r , , - -

Organizational implications Typists were grouped together in four typing pools, three in Jacobs Well and one in City Hall. There was generally no specialization, and typists were called upon to do a number of miscellaneous tasks such as photocopying, reception work, collating, etc. Typists were located geographically near to some authors and although they regarded themselves as working exclusively for these, in theory, the typing pools were supposed to distribute the work evenly. An organization structure is given in Figure 1.

I I I i

Secretary / s u p e r v i s o r City Hall

I I I I

A s s i s t a n t s u p e r v i s o r

I I f I

4 Typists i Junior c l e r k

Chief administrative o f f i c e r t I I I

Principal administrative o f f i c e r I I I I

i I I I

A s s i s t a n t supervisor

I I I I

II T y p i s t s R e c e p t i o n i s t

i I i I

Supervisor Jacobs Well

7 Typists

i I I I

A s s i s t a n t s u p e r v i s o r

I I I I

14 T y p i s t s I Receptionist

Figure 1. Organization structure 1975 (total staff = 44)

C h i e f management Chief administrative services officer officer

t ', i , 1

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for training, Principal administrative m a i n t e n a n c e and o f f i c e r t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

operational aspects

I I I

Word- processing Word- processing manager manager/secretory

I 1 I I I I

A s s i s t a n t A s s i s t a n t word-processing word -processing

manager m a n a g e r , , I

I I Senior Word -processing

w o r d - processing o p e r a t o r o p e r a t o r i

I I i i t t

II Word-processing Trainee o p e r a t o r s o p e r a t o r

I I i

Trainee o p e r a t o r

i Administrative

support manager

2 Reprographic assistants

Figure 2. Organization structure 1978 (total staff = 22)

The problems associated with a large reduction in staff and specialization of certain functions of text production required the structure to be fundamentally changed. The organizational structure implemented is shown in Figure 2. Note that the two receptionists were allocated to the divisions they served. Significant changes were made as follows:

• nontyping work was allocated to an administrative support section,

• each building had only one geographical location for typists,

• work was even more specialized through a further subdivision of the typing process,

• management services provided technical support.

EQUIPMENT

A shared-logic system (Wordplex 7) produced by AES Wordplex, UK, was selected, technical specifications for which are shown overleaf. Figure 3 represents the layout in the two word-processing centres. The CPU has two processors and two direct memory access (DMA) channels, with one processor used for I/O work functions, the other for editing and file manipulations. A means for the two processors to send sequential messages to each other via the interprocessor module is provided through a F I FO (first-in/first-out) device.

Keyboards are separate from the VDU screen, and are connected via a self-coiling cable, with audible confirmation of key depression and a Querty keyboard with separate pads and strips of functional keys. The flexible disc-drive assembly contains a microprocessor controller capable of buffering and reading or writing one 128 byte sector with a single command, which will permit a seek to any track.

During the early days of implementation, an onsite engineer was supplied but high equipment reliability rendered this unnecessary. A number of software changes were made to the system to meet requirements, and after a short settlement period'these performed well. Inclusion of four flexible-disc drives in the configuration gave the confidence of a continued service in the event of CPU failure, which has only happened once in for a total of approximately 2 h in over 2 years. Another advantage has been the facility to return discs to authors who do not want confidential work to be stored on the system.

"U-turn" shared-logic system The attraction of specialization was to optimize the use of equipment, so that the 'U-turn' shared-logic system was adopted. Designs of applications and stationery were implemented and maintained by Management Services personnel. Essentially, instructions for completion of applications (typing jobs) appear on various input forms,

vol 2 no 5 october 1979 211

E Q U I P M E N T S P E C I F I C A T I O N S

One central processing unit

64K high-speed semiconductor memory (using 4K RAM technology) Dual processors interleave memory cycles Inline hardware diagnostics 4.8 Mbit/s direct memory access facilities interleave memory cycles with processors Processor accesses up to 64 I/O channels Multiplexer permitting 32 full-duplex asynchronous communication channels to be operated at 9.6 kbit/s 16 384-65 536 byte addressable memory Memory cycle time of 550 ns Transfer rate of up to 4 800 000 byte through DMA to/from memory Power 240 V AC, 50 Hz Weight 181 kg (400 Ib) Maximum Floor Loading 8.8 kg/cm z (125 Ib/in 2) Size 34.0 in X 48.0 in X 18.0 in

(height X width X depth)

Keyboards (one per VDU)

Key switches Solid State Hall effect type MTBF = 1M h MTBF = 20 G operations

Keyboard enclosure High impact, flame retardent ABS plastic

Key depression interval 0.4 ms Total number of keys 83 Keyboard control keys 4 Cursor control keys 7 Software assigned keys 2 Editing keys 25 Shiftlock Indication LED Delay before repeat 0.6 s Slow repeat rate 15 character/s Fast repeat rate 30 character/s Flexible cable length 5 ft Weight 5 Ib Power Supplied by VDU Size 3.3 in X 18.5 in X 8.0 in


Four dual flexible disc drives

Track-to-track access Time 10 m s Size 10 in X 20 in X 13 in

Disc pack

Usable surfaces 6 (5 data, 1 servo) Diameter 14 in Coating Magnetic oxide Size 10.0 in X 20.0 in X 13.0 in


16 VDUs

Window size

Page size Matrix Colour Brightness Intelligence

Power Weight Size

12 in diagonal 24 lines by 80 characters 83 lines by 128 characters 7 x 9 dot matrix, sans seriff Green on grey Variable 12 VDUs of 8k and four VDUs of 32K 240V AC 50 Hz 55 Ib 12.4 in X 18.5 in X 18.6 in (height X width X depth)

Two storage module disc drives

Capacity Basic unit

Start time Stop time Access time

Pack- rotation period Average rotation latency Cylinder per disc pack Tracks per cylinder

Tracks per pack Track capacity Cylinder capacity Pack capacity Data-transfer rate

Recording method Size

Five printers

Printing speed Printing method Print Wheel

Paper Handling

Width Ribbon Controls

Size

80 Mbyte Single spindle drives using five-high disc packs, CDC 9877 or equivalent 22s 90s 10 ms (1 cylinder movement) 30 ms (average movement) 55 ms (822 cylinder movement) 16.7 ms at 3 600 rev/min 8.35 ms at 3 600 rev/min 822 5 data tracks 1 servo track 4 110 data tracks 20 160 byte/10 080 word 100 800 byte~50 400 word 82.4 Mbytes/41.4 Mword 3600 rev/m in: 1.209 Mbyte/s

9.67 Mbit/s Modified frequency modulation 34.0 in X 19.0 in X 34.0 in (height X width X depth)

45 character/s bidirectional Daisy wheel and servo hammer 96 character ASCII daisy wheel, interchangeable, plastic Bottom-fed continuous stationery, sprocket held 15 in Cartridge Horizontal forms positioning, vertical forms positioning, forms thickness, ribbon advance 7.0 in X 23.5 in X 14.5 in (height X width X depth)

212 computer communications

v w W W v . ~ w ~

S

r j t e a e t ,

Manager

45 chain( printer

64K J CPU

/' v/ ou / ~ Assistant

/ / /

55 character/s / printer /

/ /

/ /

/45 charocter/s ~printer

Spare printer

Trainee operator

City Hall

55 choracter/s I "

45choracter/s printer

Trainee operator / junior clerk

WPX7 ManaGer

Figure 3. Layout o f the two word-processing centres

Input form time stamped ~Text printed ~ Printed text collated with input form

Text Outgo~hg work

~typed ~ Input form numbered < ~negro~rig work batched Input form time stamped allocated

Figure 4. 'U-turn" system of paper movement

some of the information being preprinted, and some being written on by the authors. A typical operational sequence, using the appropriate input form, is given in Table 1, and a figurative example of a U-turn system in Figure 4.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST SPECIALIZATION

Many observers concluded that, though the changes once made would achieve their objective, the resulting effects in staff morale would dissipate the savings. Organizational theorists such as Hertzberg and Maslow, argue that one of the prime motivations in completing a task is job satisfaction. Woodward and others argue that job satisfaction is essentially derived from the completion of a job from its start to its end. Observers therefore concluded that the application of word processing to a secretarial job subdivides a complete job, the typing and clerical operations being allocated to two quite separate people, even separate structures. The effects of the specialization would therefore mean a drop in morale with the following potential byproducts.

• high labour turnover • high error rate • poor productivity • dissatisfaction with job.

Basic correspondence sequence The flaw with arguments that concern overt specialization of typists is that the observer has assumed that the role carried out by secretarial services is a complete job, when in fact it is only a portion of a job. If the basic correspondence sequence below are examined, it can be seen that there are six distinct parts. Only the fourth and fifth parts are normally completed by the typist, i.e. typing of the letter and checking that it corresponds with the authors composition.

• correspondent initiates a response, • author decides on reply, • author composes reply (letter), • typist types reply (letter), • author/supervisor checks reply (letter), • letter answers correspondent.

The skills that enable a typist to justify her existence are the receipt of text (shorthand or audio) and the quick and accurate keying-in of the text on to the keyboard. The second and third parts of the correspondence sequence are unconnected with the secretary's skills, and relate solely to the author, although standard letters or documents at


least allow the elimination of a standard response when one has been recorded earlier.

It may be concluded that to complete the second and fifth step~ in the correspondence sequence, the author must also be the typist. It is therefore a prerequisite of the function of a typist to participate in only a portion of the complete correspondence sequence. So, any increased job

will only be derived from the typist identifying with her specialist role.

Results of specialization Savings and improvements in efficiency can now be considered. One indisputable fact stands out: where 44 members of staff sat before, only 22 now remain, and, what

Table 1. Typical operational sequence

Author Word-processing Word-processing Word-processing Word-processing manager assistant manager operator trainee

1 Completes typing input form and 2 Time stamps and sends to word- incoming input processing centre 4 Divides input forms forms

into batches, according 3 Places incoming to paper type typing in Allocates a document manager's 'in' tray number Allocates a batch of work to an operator, according to daily work programme

5

6

Instructs trainee in load ing of appropriate paper to printers

11 Allocates appropriate paper type to the appropriate printer

Types document and sends for printing according to form type and places draft in 'out' tray

8 Collects input forms from 'out' trays and places in appropriate paper type pending tray

10 Loads printer for next batch of documents

12 Unloads printed documents from printer

13 Trims documents on burster and collates trimmed documents

14 Collates printed documents with input forms from pending trays

15 Time stamps outgoing typing

16 Places typing in appropriate out pigeon hole

214 computer communications

is more, the workload has increased by 19%. Taking everything into account (wages, overheads, equipment costs, accommodation, development and installation costs spread over seven years), the annual savings approximate to £58-59,000. Only three quantifiable criteria enable on objective comparison to be made of the level and standard of service before and after: turnaround time, error rate and quality of print. Unfortunately no data was available in respect of turnaround times before the word-processing system was installed. Accordingly, all that could be done was ask the typing pool supervisors to give their target times for each category of work.

With the installation of the word-processing system an arrangement was introduced for the time and date stamping of each item of work, both in and out. A comparison of the two turnaround times is set out in Table 2. Comparing the actual number of errors made, both before and after the word processing system was installed, was relatively straightforward. Before installation, the number of errors during the typing survey were simply counted - maintaining a regular record of errors made after the installation became operational was a normal part of operating procedure.

Accordingly, the actual number of errors were related to the number of keys indexed (i.e. operated) by the operator, to produce the comparison in Table 3. Finally, the quality on a Qume printer (the type used in the Bradford word- processing centre) is much greater than that of a conven- tional typewriters. This is because the printer varies the intensity of pressure for each character type.

Naturally not all authors will be happy with the change, some will still prefer the type of 'office wife' who fetches the coffee and shopping, and who incidentally happens to type as well. A systematic standardized service will remove these unofficial services, and some authors will complain. However, a survey undertaken independently by the administrative officers demonstrated that authors generally prefer automated word processing.

Table 2. Comparison of tumaround times

1975 1978 Category of Work (before),h (after),h

Corrections and amendments 4 3.27 Letters and memoranda 14 7.59 Labels 37 9.19 Forms 14 11.79 Reports 37 18.43

Table 3. Error rates

Error rate per keys indexed

1975 1978 (Before) (After)

1 : 59 1 : 367

Authors Survey

• 75.3% of authors thought the system operated as well or better than previously,

• 69.4% of authors thought the quality of work was as good or better than previously,

• 51.6% of authors thought the turnaround time was as good or better than previously.

To what avail, though, are such sizeable savings and an immediate improvement in efficiency, if labour turnover rockets and the typists' morale plummets? Although it would be hazardous to draw too many conclusions at this stage, the fact remains that whereas turnover was previously 35% prior to the shared logic system, it has reduced to less than five per cent. An attitude survey ccarried out with Ann Wilson the Nalgo departmental representative (from which the results are reproduced in Table 4) suggests that the operators are much more satisfied than previously. A new behavioural theory may be needed for typists. How about 'specialization groups'?'

Table 4. Attitude survey

Within which Word- Previous environment processing typing pool would you centre prefer to work?

12 1 Nil

Another job

Which type of equipment would you prefer to operate?

Wordplex 7 Electric Manual Typewriter typewriter

14 Nil Nil

Which type of post do you find more challenging and interesting?

Word- processor operator

Copy, audio Secretary or shorthand typist

13 Nil Nil

Note: 14 staff returned survey forms.

R E F E R E N C E S

1 'Watch out for VDUs like th is . . , they can be a health hazard' Public Service Vol 53 No 2 (February 1979)

2 'Eye tests for VDU operators' Discussion document VET Advisory Group, UK (November 1978)

3 'Visual aspects and ergonomics of visual display units' Course documentation Institute of OpthalmoloD/, UK (1978)


word-processing hazards rejected

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