word building with esperanto affixes

8/3/2019 Word Building with Esperanto Affixes

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Word-Building with Esperanto Affixes

by Don Harlow

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Copyright Notice

This material is copyright 1995 by Donald J. Harlow. Hard copies may be made for personal use only.

Any user may make one electronic copy for personal use only. All copies must contain this copyright

notice, including the date given below. No electronic copy may be located elsewhere for public access.

Links to this original copy on the World Wide Web are encouraged. Please respect the conditions of this

copyright notice; I simply don't want to have various unofficial (and perhaps not up-to-date) copies

floating around elsewhere. Date: 1995.11.26.

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Table of Contents

Participial Suffixes

Category Suffixes

Noun Suffixes

Adjective Suffixes

Verb Suffixes

Quasi Suffixes

Pseudosuffixes

Adverb Prefixes

Root Prefixes

Prepositional Prefixes

Pseudoprefixes


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True Suffixes

True Prefixes

Quasi Prefixes

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Supersigned letters are shown by a following '^'.

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Herewith follows a short and somewhat idiosyncratic discussion of the theory of Esperanto word-

formation. If you think this is going to bore you, click here to bypass it.

Zamenhof invented the Esperanto word-formation system without bothering to attempt to justify it except

by pointing out that ... it works! Couturat, the prime mover behind the Ido conspiracy, felt that this was amajor failing in the Esperanto word-formation system -- that it had no supporting theory to justify it.

(Though Ido's derivational system did not work as well in practice as Esperanto's, it at least had a

theory...)

To answer Couturat, Ren de Saussure, a member of the Lingva Komitato, began to put together a

theoretical basis for the Esperanto word- formation system. His basic theory was expanded by Klmn

Kalocsay, included by Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien in their Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto, and

eventually adopted by the Academy of Esperanto.

The basic idea behind this theory is that every root in Esperanto -- the root, not the word, is the basic unit

of Esperanto -- has an inherent grammatical quality. For example, the root ton' ("stone") is a noun, the

root kur' ("run") is a verb, and the root ru' ("red") is an adjective. Grammatical endings of -O, -I and -A

respectively are therefore redundant.

Not all Esperanto speakers were particularly happy with this essential "westernizing" of the word-

formation system; some (particularly Kalocsay's countryman Istvn Szerdahlyi) continued to insist that,

in fact, roots have no grammatical category whatsoever.

As usual, the truth probably lies somewhere in between. It is possible to categorize Esperanto roots in a

number of ways, but one of these is into the categories of object roots (ton'), action roots (kur') and

attribute roots (ru'). This leaves some questions floating around -- for instance, where do we put roots

that describe states, and which might either fall into the attribute category or be linked together, as we


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often do in the west, with actions? For the nonce, let's leave them hanging loose -- something we could

not do with the rather rigid grammatical-category description.

Still, there seems to be a nice correlation between our three categories and the three grammatical

categories of the Academy, and we can continue to speak, if we wish, of noun roots, verb roots and

adjective roots -- remembering, however, that we are not talking of word categories but simply using a

shorthand for how certain roots describe the universe. Don't forget, however, that all of these things can

be nouns (that's how we're describing them -- as objects, actions, attributes!), verbs or adjectives -- no

grammatical endings are redundant, they are necessary to determine in what grammatical function the

root is being used.

So we have O-roots, I-roots and A-roots (for convenience). What role does this play in word formation

using affixes?

Most affixes take a certain type of stem (a root or root with affixes) and convert it to another type of stem.

The argument has been made, in fact, that certain affixes cannot be attached to certain types of stem

because they simply don't take a stem of that grammatical type. But remember from above that the

grammatical type is determined not by the content of the stem but by the grammatical ending attached to

it. This means that, in fact, every stem is of potentially every grammatical type. Consequently, when you

add an affix to a stem it automatically converts that stem to the needed grammatical type just as a

grammatical ending would.

Let's try an example. The suffix -EC (a characteristic described by the root) wants to take as input a stem

that is an attribute and output something tangible, an object -- in other words A-stem -> O-stem. When we

create the word rueco ("redness"), the use is obvious. On the other hand, consider the word toneco.

Here we have input an object word ... or is it? No, we have simply treated the root as an attribute

(represented in English by the adjective "stony"), and have created the Esperanto equivalent of

"stoniness". Or what about kureco? Here I encounter a problem -- there's no English equivalent that I

know of. But the meaning should be obvious -- the characteristic associated with "to run".

With each affix given below I show what kind of input it wants and what kind of output it provides, as A-

>0 = attribute->object (I = action). X-> means that it will accept any kind of input, while ->X means that

it will accept any kind of output; X->X means that it will be transparent to the input.


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Good tables of affixes are to be found in Teach Yourself Esperanto and in Wells' Esperanto Dictionary.

The following list is culled from Kalocsay and Waringhien's Plena Analiza Gramatiko de Esperanto, 4th

edition (1980). Affixes marked with a star (*) are unofficial and need not be learned; though I would

recommend that the student learn to recognize at least -iv and -esk.

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Participial suffixes

-ant (I->A): present active participle.

fali = to fall falanta = falling.

-int (I->A): past active participle.

fali = to fall falinta = fallen.

-ont (I->A): future active participle.

fali = to fall falonta = going to fall.

-at (I->A): present passive participle.

mani = to eat manata = being eaten.

-it (I->A): past passive participle.

mani = to eat manita = (having been) eaten.

-ot (I->A): future passive participle.

mani = to eat, manota = going to be eaten.

In English, the past participle indicates only something that has already occurred; it may be active

("fallen") or passive ("eaten") depending on the category of the verb; in the latter case, it may be treated

as active (in compounds) by preceding it with the helping verb "to have" instead of "to be." In Esperanto,

there are separate active and passive participles (though the latter exist only for transitive verbs).

EXAMPLES

La arbo estis falinta = The tree was fallen (had fallen).

La arbo estis falanta = The tree was falling.


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La arbo estis falonta = the tree was going to fall.

La arbo estas falinta = The tree is (has) fallen.

La arbo estas falanta = The tree is falling.

La arbo estas falonta = The tree is going to fall.

La arbo estos falinta = The tree will have fallen.

La arbo estos falanta = The tree will be falling.

La arbo estos falonta = The tree will be going to fall.

La viando estis manita = The meat was (had been) eaten.

La viando estis manata = The meat was (being) eaten.

La viando estis manota = the meat was going to be eaten.

La viando estas manita = The meat is (has been) eaten.

La viando estas manata = The meat is being eaten.

La viando estas manota = The meat is going to be eaten.

La viando estos manita = The meat will have been eaten.

La viando estos manata = The meat will be being eaten.

La viando estos manota = The meat will be going to be eaten.

Please watch out for one annoying idiosyncracy of the participial affixes. When used with adjective,

adverb and (occasionally) verb endings, they describe a situation; when used with the noun ending, they

describe a person.

manata = (which is) being eaten

manate = while being eaten

manati = to be in a state of being eaten

but


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manato = a person who is being eaten.

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Category suffixes

-ad (I->O): shows an action or process defined by the root.

marteli = to hammer, martelado = hammering

boji = to bark (like a dog) bojado = barking

ada = continual, ongoing

-a (A->O): shows a concrete, tangible manifestation of the root.

ria = rich, riaoj = riches

havi = to have havaoj = possessions

ao = a thing

-ec (A->O): shows a quality or characteristic defined by the root.

ria = rich, rieco = richness

blua = blue blueco = blue (of something)

eco = a characteristic, quality

The noun formed by simply changing an adjective -a to a noun -o ending is slightly different from that

formed by inserting the suffix -ec; the former refers to an abstraction, the latter to a quality associated

with something. rua = red, ruo = (the color) red, rueco = redness, e.g. of paint.

-ul (A->O): shows a person characterized by the root.

ria = rich, riulo = a rich person

bona = good bonulo = a good person

ulo = a guy, dude


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Noun suffixes

-an (O->O): member, adherent, participant of the root.

komitato = committee komitatano = a committee-member

Budho = the Buddha budhano = a Buddhist

ano = a member

-ar (O->O): a collection of things defined by the root.

arbo = tree arbaro = a forest

afo = a sheep afaro = a flock of sheep

aro = a bunch, group, array

-ej(O->O): a place intended for the thing(s) or action(s) defined by the root.

kuiri = to cook kuirejo = a kitchen

prei = to pray preejo = a church

ejo = a place

-er (O->O): the smallest part or element of a collective defined by the root.

sablo = sand sablero = a grain of sand

neo = snow neero = a snowflake

ero = a unit

-estr (O->O): the boss of whatever is defined by the root.


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komitato = committee komitatestro = chairmain of the

committee

urbo = town urbestro = mayor

estro = a boss

-id (O->O): the offspring of the creature defined in the root.

kato = cat katido = akitten

arbo = tree arbido = a sapling

ido = an offspring

This suffix is often used in a very metaphorical fashion. For instance, Israelites in Esperanto is Izraelidoj;

and it is also used to show the salt produced by a halogenic acid (e.g. klorido).

-il (I->O): a tool for doing whatever is defined by the root.

komputi = to compute komputilo = a computer

trani = to cut tranilo = a knife

ilo = a tool

-in (O->O): the specifically female version of whatever is defined by the root.

filo = son filino = daughter

viro = man virino = woman

ino = a woman, female

These days this suffix is used: (1) with the words viro and knabo; (2) with honorifics; (3) with familyrelationships; (4) with animals (see also vir- below). It is rarely used with professional titles, though it has

been in the past.

-ing (O->O): a holder or sheath for an object defined by the root.

kandelo = candle kandelingo = candle-holder

cigaro = cigar cigaringo = cigar-holder


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ingo = a holder

-ism (O->O): a doctrine, movement, system, etc., for the idea defined by the

root.

Budho = Buddha budhismo = Buddhism

Markso = Karl Marx marksismo = Marxism

isma = having to do with doctrine

-ist (I->O): an individual professionally or avocationally occupied with the

idea or activity defined by the root.

urnalo = newspaper urnalisto = newspaperman,

reporter

lingvo = language lingvisto = a linguist

isto = a professional

There is an unfortunate tendency to use -ist where -an should be used, probably because -ist has this

additional meaning in many Western languages; probably the most egregious such misuse is *esperantisto

instead of esperantano for a speaker of Esperanto. Similarly, we have *marksisto for marksano (Marxist),

*budhisto instead of budhano (Buddhist), etc. Fortunately, the word for a follower of Christ in English

(with cognates in other languages such as French) is Christian; so no one has ever had any trouble saying

kristano instead of *krististo.

-uj (O->O): a container for objects described by the root.

salo = salt salujo = salt-shaker

mono = money monujo = a purse

ujo = a container

Traditionally, -uj has been used to form the names of countries occupied completely or mainly by a single

ethnic group: anglo = Englishman, Anglujo = England. Recently the unofficial or pseudo suffix -i has

been replacing -uj in common parlance. There is a good discussion of the question of country names in

Teach Yourself Esperanto, as well as in the Plena Analiza Gramatiko (the latter is, of course, more


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complete).

*-i (O->O): an unofficial suffix with four different uses:

(1) to form the name of a country from a capitol or river of the same

name.

Meksiko = Mexico City Meksikio = Mexico

Alero = Algiers Alerio = Algeria

(2) to form the name of a country from its inhabitants. See note with

-uj.

(3) to form the name of a science, etc., from its practitioner.

astronomo = astronomer astronomio = astronomy

toksikologo = toxicologist toksikologio = toxicology

(4) to form the name of a flower from that of its inventor or the

person to whom it was dedicated.

fuksio = fuchsia, from Fuchs

*-ik (O->O): an unofficial suffix to form the name of a science, etc., from its

practitioner.

poeto = poet poetiko = poetics

lingvo = language lingviko = linguistics

This is identical, and interchangeable, with use (3) of -i.

-ik is also used to show the higher of two valences with which a metal can combine. In this it contrasts

with one use of -oz.


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*-it (O->O): an unofficial suffix to describe an inflamation of the organ

described by the root.

laringo = larynx laringito = laryngitis

hepato = liver hepatito = hepatitis

-it and -at are used as special chemical suffixes to show salts produced by non-halogenic acids (see also

-id).

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Adjective suffixes

-ebl (I->A): suitable for having whatever is described by the root done to it.

legi = to read legebla = readable, legible

fari = to do farebla = doable

ebla = possible

ebli = to be possible

-ebl (able to be done) should not be confused with -iv (able to do), which is essentially a synonym for the

root pov'. Many English-speaking beginners tend to make this mistake and substitute the verb eblas (is

possible) for povas (is able to).

-em (I->A): having an inclination or tendency towards whatever is described by

the root.

ami = to love amema = loving

labori = to work laborema = industrious

emi = to have a tendency to


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-end (I->A): must have whatever is described by the root done to it.

fari = to do farenda = must be done

sendi = to send sendenda = must be sent

enda = mandatory

-ind (I->A): worth having whatever is described by the root done to it.

ami = to love aminda = loveable

fari = to do farinda = worth doing

indi = to be worthwhile

*-al (O->A): used to create the adjective form of a noun formed directly from

an adjective.

varma = hot varmo = heat varmala = thermal

rua = red ruo = red (color) ruala = having to do with

the color red

*-esk (O->A): similar to, or in the manner of, whatever is described by the

root.

japano = a Japanese japaneska = Japanesque

statuo = a statue statueska = statuesque

*-iv (I->A): capable of doing whatever is described by the root.

pagi = to pay pagiva = solvent

fari = to do fariva = able to do


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See the note with the description of -ebl.

*-oid (O->A): with the form of whatever is described by the root.

homo = human being homoida = humanoid

urso = a bear ursoida = ursoid

*-oz (O->A): used with noun roots to show the presence of a large quantity of

whatever is described by the root.

poro = pore poroza = porous

sablo = sand sabloza = full of sand

-oz is also used in a medical sense for several different types of pathology, where it usually corresponds

to the suffix osis in English medical terminology. It need not, however, be used only with Greek roots;

see the Esperanto horzonozo, jet lag. In chemistry it is used in contrast with -ik to show the lower of two

valences with which a metal can combine.

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Verb suffixes

-ig (A->I): to cause something to be in the state described by the root.

rua = red ruigi = to (cause to) turn red

fari = to do (something) farigi = to have (something) done

igi = to cause to

-i (A->I): to become in the state described by the root.

rua = red ruii = to become red

fari = to do farii = to become (done)

ii = to become


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-ig and -i are probably the two most important affixes in Esperanto. It behooves you, as a student, to

devote a lot of time to making sure that you understand their uses perfectly.

*-iz (O->I): to apply something (physically or metaphorically) to an object.

plumo = feather plumizi = to fletch

stano = tin stanizi = to tin (as in soldering)

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Quasi suffixes

These are common Esperanto roots which are relatively short and used so often as the second part of a

two-part conjoined word that they may be treated almost as suffixes.

-art (I->O): the art of whatever is described by the root.

kuiri = to cook kuirarto = cuisine

navigi = to navigate navigarto = navigation (the art)

-am (O->A): loving whatever is described by the root.

gasto = guest gastama = hospitable

mono = money monama = avaricious

-hav (O->A): possessing whatever is described by the root.

flugilo = wing flugilhava = winged

oro = gold orhava = possessing gold

-plen (O->A): full of whatever is described by the root.

oro = gold orplena = full of gold.


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humila = humble humilplena = full of humility

See *-oz.

-pov (I->A): capable of whatever is described by the root.

esprimi = to express esprimpova = expressive

pagi = to pay pagipova = solvent

This is essentially the same as *-iv.

-ri (O->A): rich with whatever is described by the root.

karbo = coal karbria = rich in coal

grasa = fat grasria = fatty

See *-oz.

-ajn (A->A): seeming to be whatever is described by the root.

vera = true verajne = apparently

blua = blue bluajna = blue-seeming

-aspekt (O->A): having the appearance of whatever is described by the root.

reo = king reaspekta = with the seeming

of a king, kingly

hundo = large hundaspekta = looking like a dog

See *-oid.

-simil (O->A): being similar to whatever is described by the root.

floro = flower florsimila = like a flower

tono = stone tonsimila = like a stone


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See *-esk.

-manier (O->A): with the manner of whatever is described by the root.

besto = animal bestmaniera = with the manner of

an animal

hundo = dog hundmaniera = dog-like

See *-esk.

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Pseudosuffixes

For etymological reasons (i.e., having to do with the origins of words in Latin and Greek), we often find

what appear to be identical suffixes on the ends of several Esperanto roots. Since the parts before these

"pseudosuffixes" are not themselves Esperanto roots, these are not real suffixes. However, it happens

from time to time that the detached "pseudosuffixes" are attached to real Esperanto words, by analogy,

and therefore they occasionally act like real suffixes. Kalocsay and Waringhien list a number of possible

pseudosuffixes, of which only -logi (showing a science) seems to have any chance at all of being more

widely used.

Kalocsay and Waringhien also point out, under this rubric, the interesting tendency of the pseudosuffixes-ci, -aci and -ici in nouns taken by Zamenhof from Latin's third declension to disappear in favor of

simpler, more purely Esperanto verb forms as time goes on. For instance, Zamenhof's navigacio =

navigation has largely yielded to navigi = to navigate, from which we get the purely Esperanto form

navigado = navigation.

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Adverb prefixes

dis- (I->I): having to do with separation, in all possible directions.

sendi = to send dissendi = to broadcast


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semi = to sow (seeds) dissemi = to scatter (seeds)

disaj = scattered

ek- (I->I): the beginning of an action described by the root.

iri = to go ekiri = to set out

vidi = to see ekvidi = to catch sight of

ek! = move it! get the lead out!

for- (I->I): away.

iri = to go foriri = to depart, leave

lasi = to leave forlasi = to abandon

fora = distant

mis- (I->I): wrongly, incorrectly, off the mark.

kompreni = to understand miskompreni = to misunderstand

eti = to throw miseti = to throw wide of the

mark

misi = to miss, to err

A Japanese friend of mine once told me that she hoped I was right in my use of the word misiloj to

describe nuclear-armed missiles. See also the suffix -il.

re- (I->I): back to the beginning again.

veni = to come reveni = to return

vidi = to see revidi = to see again

venki = to conquer revenki = to reconquer

ree = again


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*retro- (I->I): in the opposite direction.

iri = to go retroiri = to go in the opposite

direction

pai = to step retropai = to step back

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Root prefixes

ef- (O->O): greatest or most important.

ministro = minister (cabinet type) efministro = Prime Minister,

Premier

urbo = city efurbo = capitol

efa = main

vir- (O->O): male equivalent of -in for beings whose sex is usually not

considered important (except, of course, to themselves...),

and whose root form is therefore considered neuter.

kato = cat virkato = tomcat

blato = cockroach virblato = buck cockroach

viro = man, male human

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Prepositional prefixes


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Most prepositions can be used as prefixes, and commonly are. For example, veni = to come, enveni = to

enter; diri = to say, antadiri = to foretell. Worth mentioning here only because it is unofficial and rarely

used:

*cis- (O->A): on this side of.

luno = moon cisluna = cislunar, between earth and moon

limo = border cislima = on this side of the border

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Pseudoprefixes

In this category we find, occasionally, ato- (equivalent of mem-, self-) and pre-. pre- is sometimes

(rarely) used instead of the temporal meaning of anta-.

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True suffixes

Kalocsay and Waringhien distinguish between suffixoids and prefixoids (which is what, up to now, I've

called suffixes and prefixes) and genuine suffixes and prefixes. This is, I am sure, a very important

grammatical distinction for the professional linguist, but not one that an ordinary speaker will be called

upon to worry about.

-a (X->X): gives the word a shading of contempt, detestation.

evalo = horse evalao = nag

domo = house domao = hovel

aa = contemptible, disgusting

This is the affix that may be used to create pejoratives, as nigra = black, nigrulo = a black person,

nigrulao = nigger. Since such words are very uncommon in Esperanto, you will have to create them as

you go along, and accept 100% responsibility for your use of them, not blame them on your upbringing or


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your teachers.

-eg (X->X): augments or strengthens the idea shown by the root.

domo = house domego = mansion

varma = hot varmega = boiling hot

ega = huge

-et (X->X): the opposite of -eg, it diminishes the idea shown by the root.

domo = house dometo = cottage

varma = hot varmeta = warm

eta = tiny

-um (Any to any): the affix equivalent of the preposition je, it has no definite

meaning; words with -um must almost be learned separately.

vento = wind ventumi = to ventilate

aminda = lovable amindumi = to pitch woo

umo = doohicky

*-if (O->I): to turn something into the root.

varma = hot varmifi = to thermalize

-j (O->O): takes a man's name and turns it into an intimate form.

frato = brother frajo = little brother

Johano = John Jojo = Jack

-nj (O->O): the female equivalent of the above.

frato = brother franjo = little sister


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Johana = Joan Jonjo = Joanie

Note that these two forms do not function like ordinary suffixes, but are usually attached after one of the

first five letters of the name or word. The Japanese Esperantist author Miyamoto Masao once described

the "beautiful people" as the jo-njo-popolo -- an interesting use of these affixes.

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True prefixes

bo- (O->O): related through marriage.

patro = father bopatro = father-in-law

kuzo = cousin bokuzo = cousin-in-law

boa = related by marriage

eks- (O->O): former.

reo = king eksreo = former (abdicated) king

Sovetio = Soviet Union ekssovetio = former USSR

eksa = former

ge- (O->O): both sexes taken together.

patro = father gepatroj = parents

Sinjoro = Mr. gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs.

gea = male+female

Although this is not sanctioned by any grammatical rule, ge- is also used with the singular to show a

human relative of unspecified gender: gepatro = parent.

mal- (X->X): turns a word into its opposite.


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bela = beautiful malbela = ugly

amiko = friend malamiko = enemy

mala = opposite

pra- (X->X): distant in time (usually in the past) or relationship.

arbaro = forest praarbaro = forest primeval

nepo = grandson pranepo = great-grandson

patro = father prapatroj = forefathers

praa = before the dawn of...

*psedo- (O->O): false.

scienco = science psedoscienco = pseudoscience

nomo = name psedonomo = pseudonym

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Quasi prefixes

Many roots can be used as prefixes. This is particularly true of adjectives; Kalocsay and Waringhien list

34 of these. I will not repeat this list here, being tired of typing, but will simply give two examples of how

an adjective can be used as a prefix, and how its use as a prefix differs from its use as an adjective.

nov-: has to do with newness.

edzino = wife nova edzino = new wife novedzino = bride.

The difference between nova edzino and novedzino is that, in the first, the most important idea is that of

wife; the newness is simply a descriptor. In novedzino, however, the idea of newness has come to have

almost equal importance with the idea of wife; a bride is not just a new wife, she is someone who has just

become a wife, who has crossed the threshhold from maidenhood (?) to marriage. In effect, the newness

of her wifehood is so great that it distinguishes her, for the moment, from all other wives, even novaj


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edzinoj.

dik-: thick.

fingro = finger dika fingro = thick finger dikfingro = thumb

Again, the thickness has become so important that it serves to distinguish the thumb from all other

fingers, no matter how thick they may be; it is the thumb's distinguishing characteristic.

Kalocsay and Waringhien also point out that fractions (reciprocals) can be used as prefixes, e.g.

duon-: half.

frato = brother duonfrato = half-brother

In addition to adjective and fractional quasi prefixes, we have the following four:

fi- (X->X): expressing indignation or disgust.

virino = woman fivirino = slut

bildo = picture fibildo = pornographic picture

fia = shameful

fu- (X->X): screwed up.

verki = to write (to compose fuverki = to make it come

a work of art) out all wrong

fui = to screw up

ne- (X->X): creates the negative (not, however, the opposite) of the root.

bona = good nebona = ungood malbona = bad

Many people believed for a long time that George Orwell based his Newspeak -- the thought-control

language of Oceania in the novel 1984 -- on Esperanto, based largely on Esperanto's use of the prefix

mal- to create opposites. The above list should indicate that the spectrum between a word and its opposite


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is not totally empty in Esperanto, as it is in Newspeak; we might, for instance, add boneta and malboneta.

Recent evidence indicates that Newspeak was in fact a parody of Basic English, which Orwell apparently

despised as a corruption of real English.

vic- (O->O): second in rank, acting as regent for.

reo = king vicreo = viceroy

prezidento = president vicprezidento = vice-president

vico = line, place in line

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This list is, I think, more complete than the ones mentioned in Teach Yourself Esperanto and TheEsperanto Dictionary; but you may find those easier to use, since they are completely alphabetized and

don't go into quite as much detail.

There are also a number of specialized technical affixes which are not covered here.

word building with esperanto affixes

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