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In war and peace Women and conflict preventionJolynn Shoemaker aaThe Regional Advisor for Southern and East African Affairs in the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights andLabor, The US Department of State,

Online Publication Date: 01 March 2002

To cite this ArticleShoemaker, Jolynn(2002)'In war and peace: Women and conflict prevention',Civil Wars,5:1,27 54To link to this Article DOI 10.1080/13698240208402494URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13698240208402494

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In War and Peace:Women and Conflict PreventionJOLYNN SHOEMAKER

Conflict prevention is not a new concept, but it has generated newinterest in recent years among both academics and policymakers.Despite a significant amount of discussion and analysis relating toconflict prevention strategies, there has been minimal attentionfocused on the capacities of wom en in this area. The purpose of thisarticle is to examine the frameworks that have been proposed forconflict prevention, to survey some of women s recent conflictprevention-related activities around the world and to consider howwom en s initiatives can be incorporated into the development ofeffective conflict prevention policies at the regional and internationallevels.

Despite periodic calls to abolish war, to promote peace and to co-exist inharmony, the international community has been less than successful inpreventing the outbreak of violent conflict. This has becom e particularlyevident in recent years with the failure to prevent the escalation of brutalcivil wars, ethnic violence and in some cases, genocide . In the wake of theconflicts that erupted after the Cold War, academics and policymakers havere-examined the concept of conflict prevention. There is increasingrecognition that conflict prevention is an important policy goal; the debatenow centers on the most appropriate policy tools to accomplish thatobjective.

The missing component in this debate is the role that women play inconflict prevention efforts within their societies. Although there has beenrecognition in recent years of the effects of conflict on women particularlyand some emerging discussion of women's roles in the conflict resolutionand peace building stages, there has been less emphasis on women'spotential contribution to conflict prevention efforts. Women's perspectives

The views in this article are the auth or's own views and do not necessarily reflect those of the USDepartment of State or the US Government.

Civil Wars, Vol.5, N o.l (Spring 2002), pp.2 7-54PUBLISHED BY FRANK CASS, LONDON


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28 CIVIL WARSwithin the conflict prevention area have generally been limited to local andgrassroots groups or human rights focused non-governmental organization(NGO) activities. These efforts have been ad hoc and have lackedsignificant support from regional and international institutions, in partbecause policymaking institutions have failed to focus adequately on localinitiatives for conflict prevention.

This article examines current conflict prevention frameworks andproposes policy recommendations for the development of a conflictprevention strategy that incorporates women's capabilities at the local,regional and international levels.The first section of the article describes the concept of conflictpreven tion, the potential m echan isms for preven tion and the major obstaclesto prevention as discussed in the recent literature on the subject.Th e second part focuses on the incorporation of women into these effortsby analyzing the extent to which women's roles have been considered inacadem ic and policymaking circles and by exam ining w om en's activities inthis area and any international or regional efforts that hav e been launched tosupport such initiatives.

Finally, the article proposes recommendations for international andregiona l actors to deve lop strategies for conflict preve ntion that specificallyinclude women.THE CONCEPT OF CONFLICT PREVENTIONThe concept of conflict prevention is not a new one. The objective ofpreventing future conflicts was embodied in such early internationalagreements as the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia.1 The concept did notdisappear from international policy discussions during the Cold War.Rather, the major powers concentrated on the tools of deterrence andalliance formation to ensure stability. Th e Charter of the Un ited Nationsspecifically mentions conflict prevention as one of the purposes of theUnited Nations (UN) in the first paragraph of the Charter, calling onmember states to 'take effective collective measures for the prevention andremoval of threats to the peace'.2 In his annua l report for 1 959-6 0, DagHammarskjold, former Secretary General of the UN, articulated theimportance of preventive action for the major powers.3

Past interest in conflict prevention, however, failed to lead to theformation of policy frameworks with the capacity to check the escalation ofconflict. In addition, academic studies on conflict generally focused onlater phases of conflict. Michael S. Lund argues that 'almost all empiricalresearch on conflicts deals with their advanced violent stages, their basiccauses, and the problem s of m anag ing, containing, and terminating them . It


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30 CIVIL WARSsustainable development ' , 'short-range prevention' during immediateinterventions and 'medium-range measures', which focus on domesticfactors within a state that can 'tip the balance from integration tofragmentation in a fragile or failing state'.12

Lund advocates both long-term and medium-term analyses of theimpacts of policies 'to discern the roles they play in worsening orameliorating social conflict and political turmoil' . 13 The CarnegieCommission on Preventing Deadly Conflict utilizes a framework thatincludes both 'operational' and 'structural' types of prevention.Other analysts have referred to long-term measures as 'upstream' andshort-term management cases as 'downstream' actions.14 Operationalprevention refers to policies that are utilized during crises, while structural

prevention refers to those that address the root causes of conflict.15

Operational conflict prevention refers to efforts to avert conflict in theimmediate face of a crisis. According to the Carnegie Commission,operational prevention includes such strategies as early warning, preventivediplomacy, economic sanctions or inducements and the use of force. 16Operational tactics for preven tion have received significant attention w ithinacademic and policymaking circles in the wake of recent conflicts in whichinternational actors failed to recognize or organize effective action to avertthe escalation of violence. There has been a resurgence of interest in thedevelopment of early warning systems to alert policy actors to impendingconflicts.

According to Ruddy Doom and Koen Vlassenroot, recent attention onearly warning has resulted from advances in communication technologies,the number of internal conflicts, changes in the concept of sovereignty,regional effects of conflicts and the rising costs of peacekeepingoperations.17The Carnegie Commission identifies three necessary components ofearly warning, including an identification of areas of potential conflict,specific knowledge of the factors and conditions that can cause instabilityand the understanding of which local processes and actors can assist insolutions.18Doom and Vlassenroot identify three processes within early warningmechanisms: information gathering, detection and prognosis.19 Thus,effective early warning systems involve first identifying potential eruptionsof conflict and then analyzing the information and determining the mostappropriate sources for solutions.Another area of operational prevention is preventive diplomacy.According to Lund, preventive diplomacy is utilized specifically for'troubled, unstable places and at times where the potential is high or risingthat regimes or peoples w ill take up arms or u se other forms of coercion' .20


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32 CIVIL WARSstructural causes that often u nderlie the im m ediate sym ptom s of conflicts'.27The Carnegie Commission approach emphasizes security, well-being andjustice as necessary factors in conflict prevention. According to theCarnegie Commission, meeting these needs gives members of society 'astake in nonviolent efforts to improv e their lives'.28Lund advocates a focus on such long-term structural factors aseconomic, political, cultural and technological conditions and theirconsequences for individual societies.29 Lund also argues for an approachthat includes the promotion of dialogue, alleviation of socio-economicproblems and the modification of perceptions as central tasks of preventiveaction.30 The refore, the focus of structurally-based conflict prevention is onunderlying conditions within society and on the improvement of thoseconditions so that they do not fuel conflict.WHY CAN'T WE KEEP THE PEACE?Despite the recent interest in the subject of conflict prevention withinacademic and policymaking circles, international and regional actors havefailed to implement an effective, comprehensive framework that addressesthe underlying problems that lead to conflict. Many analysts have attributedthis failure to the inability of international and regional a ctors to muster thepolitical will to institutionalize and carry out a long-term approach. DavidCarment and Albrecht Schnabel note that the conventional wisdom amongleaders has been that the costs and risks of preventive action are greater thanthe national interests that are involved.31

According to Lund, 'lack of will exists not only because threats areneither imminent nor pressing, and are sometimes so remote in time as toseem hypothetical. It also exists because potential post-Cold War threatsvary greatly in terms of the level of danger and risk they pose to individualcountries and regions.'32 However, it is not only a lack of political will - itis also due to disagreement am ong policym akers about the most appropriateframeworks for effective conflict prevention. Renata Dwan argues that theproblem of international consensus remains an obstacle to future efforts todevelop conflict prevention strategies, and that there is no international'shared understanding' about how to address the structural causes ofconflict.33

This lack of consensus has prevented regional and international actorsfrom implementing the long-term strategies that are necessary to preventconflict. The effectiveness of future conflict prevention efforts will hinge onthe ability of regional and international actors to overcome these obstaclesand to agree on a framework for long-term prevention.


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 33INTEGRATING DEVELOPMENT AND CONFLICT PREVENTIONFormulating an effective comprehensive framework for prevention willrequire the integration of development policies, because development isclosely interconnected with conflict. The UN C harter specifically articulatesthe importance of development by directing member states to promote'higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economicand social progress and development'.34 The Secretary General of the UN,in his report on the prevention of armed conflict, equates long-termprevention with sustainable development. According to the report, 'Whensustainable development addresses the root causes of conflict, it plays animportant role in preventing conflict and promoting peace.' 35

A UN Development Programme (UNDP) paper ar t iculated theconnection between root causes and conflict: 'A comprehensive preventivestrategy must first focus on the underlying political, social, economic, andenv ironm ental cau ses of conflict. Over the long run, easing these is the m osteffective way to prevent conflict.'36 The European Union (EU) has alsoemphasized the importance of focusing on development policies withinlarger conflict prevention strategies.37 Recognizing the connection betweendevelopment and conflict prevention is the first step that is needed to createan effective framework for action.One specific area that conflict prevention mechanisms should address isthe problem of unequal econo m ic developm ent. It is important to recogn izethat unequal wealth distribution can create tensions among groups withinsociety that can ultimately lead to violent conflict, wh ile equitable econom icgrowth and opportunities can reduce the chances for conflict.38To address economic problems, conflict prevention policies shouldtherefore include economic development assistance and economic reformsto alleviate structural inequities within society.39The Organizat ion for Economic Co-operat ion and Development(OECD) has taken action in this direction by recently articulating theconnection between economic conditions and conflict and specificallymaking a commitment to assist in the reduction of poverty, promotion ofeconomic growth and the improvement of standards of living for thepurpose of preventing future conflicts.40Recent ethnic conflicts have also demonstrated that the social aspects ofgroup relations play an important role in promoting or inhibiting conflict.

For example, the war in Bosnia demonstrated that 'durable solutions toconflict require changes in the underlying socioeconomic structure of grouprelations'.41 An effective conflict prevention strategy should focus on theimprovem ent of social relations am ong g roups. Changing social interactionpatterns requires a concentration on such strategies as improving education


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34 CIVIL WARSopportunities and the media. Addressing ec onom ic and social conditions inorder to improve prevention capabilities requires an approach whichpromotes overall socio-economic development.

In the political sphere, a successful conflict prevention frameworkshould include policies that prom ote good gove rnance and dem ocratization,because political weaknesses such as lack of political participation canfacilitate the escalation of conflict. International organizations, such as theOECD, have recognized that such aspects of good governance astransparency, rule of law, accountability and open debate are necessarycomponents of stable societies.42

The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) has specificallyadvocated d emo cracy as 'one of the main comp onents of any peace buildingstrategy'.43The developm ent of accountable and representative governmentinstitutions is a fundamentally important factor that assists in structuralprevention. According to David A. Hamburg, democracies 'bui ldm echan ism s for dealing w ith the ubiquitous conflicts that arise in the cou rseof human experience. Democracy seeks ways to deal fairly with conflictsand to resolve them below the threshold of mass violence.' 44

Political reform measures for conflict prevention should thereforeinclude the promotion of political parties, institution building, electionreform and training for government officials.45In sum, conflict prevention strategies necessarily require comprehensivepolicies directed towards state building.46 Therefore, the first step indeveloping a comprehensive and effective conflict prevention framework isthe recognition that improving future security is closely connected with theprocesses of economic, social and political development.WOMEN AND CONFLICTWomen have been directly affected in a variety of ways by conflicts thathave occurred in the post-Cold War period. In recent years, there has beenincreasing concern about the victimization of women during war. Women inwar-torn areas have been specifically targeted for rape and sexual violence,have suffered disproportionately from direct attacks on communities, havebeen forced from their homes as refugees and internally-displaced persons(IDP s), and have been required to unde rtake additional responsibilities afterthe deaths, disappearances or detentions of other family members.However, it has only recently been recognized that women have alsoplayed crucial roles as participants and supporters of warring parties.Women have also demonstrated the ability to organize peace advocacycampaigns at the grassroots level to pressure governments to end wars.Women have also used the new roles and responsibilities that result from


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 35conflict as tools of advancement and empowerment within their societies.Women's roles as both victims and active parties within the continuum ofconflict make them integral actors for conflict prevention strategies.Women's interest and capacity in conflict prevention are not rooted inbiology. Furthermore, as women's active involvement in recent wars hasm ade clear, wom en are not necessarily more peaceful than m en. How ever,because they play an imp ortant role within the dynam ics of conflict and areoften directly affected by the escalation of violence, women have a crucialrole to play in the prevention of conflict.WOMEN AND THE ROOTS OF VIOLENCEAt the structural level, conditions that can be precursors to conflict oftendisproportionately affect women. This pattern is especially apparent in thesocio-economic sphere. For example, human development indicators havedocumented a 'feminization of poverty' as the number of women living inpoverty in the world has continued to increase. The Carnegie Commissionreports that 70 per cent of the 1.3 billion people living in poverty iscomprised of women.47According to Rosario G reen, this phenom enon is theresult of the fact that 'women bear a disproportionate share of povertyworldwide, and women shoulder an unequal burden in coping with povertyat the household level'.48

The Carnegie Commission has also documented a connection betweenpopulation growth, urbanization and women. Besides the common threatsthat emerge from rapid urbanization, women also suffer the particularaffects of increased sexual and labor exploitation.49 Lack of education alsohas a dramatic impact on wom en. According to Green, approximately '[one]third of the adults in the developing world are illiterate; of these, two-thirdsare women'.50 Therefore, women are affected directly by the structuralproblems in societies that create the conditions for conflict.

WOMEN AND IMPENDING VIOLENCEThe deteriorating security situation that often results from a breakdown instate capacities for protection, increasing human rights violations and intra-group tensions during the escalation of violence also have particular effectson women's lives. Women experience many levels of violence in unstablesocieties, especially during the process of militarization.51 'Militarismcreates and perpetuates an entire culture of violence where the solving ofdisputes through violent means is accepted. Women are overwhelminglyaffected by this violence.'52

Women experience these effects at different levels and by different


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3 6 CIVIL WARSactors. At the family and community levels, this may include instances ofrape and dom estic violence. At the comm unity, national and regional levels,women may become subjects of gender stereotypes as part of nationalistpropaganda and are often targeted in an expanding commercial sex trade. 33At the stage of impending conflict as violence begins to escalate, largenumbers of civilians are displaced from their homes and communities, anda significant proportion of them are women.54 Therefore, women alsoexperience severe effects of insecurity in the context of impending orescalating conflict.

WHERE ARE THE WOMEN?Despite the relationship between women, structural problems and theescalation of violence, women have been absent from the larger debatesconcerning conflict prevention and efforts to formulate frameworks toimplement prevention strategies.One of the primary reasons for this absence is the concentration on state-centered responses to conflict and the interests of the major powers withinthe international system. In addition, attention has focused on operationalmethods of prevention at the regional and international levels. Short-termoperational measures have included such actions as emergency earlywarning, diplomacy, economic tools such as sanctions, and the use ofmilitary force.55

Some analysts have noted that 'the focus on nation states as theproviders of human security leaves other actors - above and below thenation state - out of the picture'.56 According to Lund, preventive action iscurrently based o n 'the evanesce nt agen das, political accidents, funding andsentiments that influence the decisions and priorities of the centralheadquarters of the foreign ministries and other agencies of major powersand multilateral organizations'.57 Harold H. Saunders argues that state-centered approaches fail to take into account all of the actors who areinvolved with conflict, including citizens.58

Women are largely absent from these conflict prevention strategiesbecause they are not prominent actors within the state-centered system.Women are not adequately represented within the larger domains ofpolitical decision-making systems, especially at the national andinternational levels.59 The extent of female representation within the UN isindicative of this problem . W ithin the UN system only tw o presidents of theGeneral Assembly have been women, and by 1995, only seven permanentmissions and two observer missions were led by women. There were 11female amb assadorial delegates, and wo men represented only 22 per cent ofdiplomatic staff.60


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 37According to a recent report on women and human security, the lack ofwomen at the levels of decisionmaking has larger effects on the structure ofthe human security agenda.61 Thus, the combination of state-centeredpolicies and the lack of women in positions of political influence at thislevel have generally left them out of the policymaking process in theconflict prevention area.

WOMEN WORKING AT PEACE: A BRIEF SURVEYWhile women's perspectives and direct involvement in conflict preventionremain largely ignored within all policymaking levels, women throughoutthe world have been active at the civil society level in promoting thenecessary economic, social and political conditions to achieve stable peacein their societies.AfricaThe African continent has experienced brutal civil and ethnic wars duringthe post-Cold W ar period, which has had devastating effects on the civilianpopulations and on women in particular. Recent conflicts in Somalia,Rwanda, Sierra Leone and Sudan reflect the extent of violence that ispossible after conflicts are allowed to escalate and to specifically targetcivilian popu lations. Wom en in Africa have responded to these threats to thepeace by organizing efforts focused on preventing future conflicts orresolving cu rrent conflicts in their regions.Women have participated in several regional women's initiatives inAfrica in recent years. In 1998, female peace organizers from Liberia,Niger, Senegal and S ierra Leon e participated in the W orkshop on Wom en inthe Aftermath of Civil War. This workshop produced the Declaration ofAfrican W om en's Anti-War Coalition, a docum ent that recognizes structuralcauses of violence and the spread of conflicts throughout the continent. Italso established a network of African women to 'put pressure on states,through solidarity with other national and international agencies, to endpresent conflicts and to prevent future conflicts'.62

The African Women's Development and Communication Network(FEMNET) is another regional women's initiative. The purpose ofFEMNET is to facilitate networking relating to women's development inAfrica. In addition to its concentration on economic, social and politicalissues relating to the status of women in African societies, one of thespecific activities of the organization is to advocate for peace withinAfrica.63 In May 1997, first ladies of 19 countries in Africa, includingNamibia, Ghana, Gabon, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Angola, Chad, Tanzaniaand Liberia signed a declaration of peace in which they committed their


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38 CIVIL WARSgovernments to promote initiatives for peace and conflict preventionefforts.64Women have organized a variety of initiatives in the Horn of Africa,which have often required cooperation across rival clans. After the WorldConference on Women in Vienna in 1993, women from the Horn begancooperating for peace. For example, in 1995 at a workshop on conflictresolution, women agreed to coordinate efforts to obtain basic necessitiesfor their communities and to address shared common security concerns.Following the conference, the women organized to lobby for peace in theircommunities.

In Som alia, several coalitions of wo men working for peac e were formed,including the Somali Coalition of Grassroots Women's Organizations(COGWO), NAGAAD and SAACID. Their activities include workshops,discussions and advocacy efforts focused on peacebuilding and theresolution of localized conflicts.65In Sierra Leone, a group called the Women's Movement for Peace hasconducted several meetings focused on formulating and implementingconflict prevention.66In Sudan, ten Sudanese women from various ethnic, cultural andpolitical backgrounds created the Sudanese Women's Peace Initiative.Among the objectives of the group are efforts to facilitate cooperation bywomen throughout the country to promote a culture of peace, non-violentconflict resolution and networks for peace.67

W om en's organizations in Nairobi, Kenya; Khartoum, S udan and Cairo,Egypt organized a Sudanese National Women's Convention that took placein March 2002. The stated objective of the conference was to 'bring allSudanese women's organizations, civil society organizations with concernfor gender issues, and democratic political forces, together'.68 Issuesincluded human rights, women's education and employment, economicrights, women's role in peacemaking, violence against women, anddisplaced women.69The Middle EastWomen from both the Israeli and Palestinian sides have attempted tocoordinate efforts to promote peace in their communities despite a longhistory of continuing violence in the region. The first joint associationbetw een Jewish and Ara b wom en in Israel was founded in 1975 in responseto the Yom Kipper W ar when a group of Israeli and Arab/Palestinian wo menformed 'The B ridge: Jewish and Arab W omen for the Promotion of Womenand Peace'.70Today the organization is comprised of 240 full members and1,860 affiliated members and its activities include lectures and discussions,meetings between local women, exchange visits in schools, media programs


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 39and social events.71 The organization has attributed the relative peacefulsituation in Haifa to the activities of The Bridge and other organizationswithin the area.72

Another organization that seeks to coordinate efforts between Israeli andPalestinian women is Jerusalem Link. This organization was formed after a1989 meeting between Israeli and Palestinian women peace activists. Theobjective of the organization is 'to advocate for peace and justice betweenIsrael and Palestine through program s focused on pea ce, democracy, hum anrights, and women's leadership'.73AsiaWomen in Asia have organized across regions to advocate structuralimprovements in their societies and to achieve long-term peace. Forexample, in December 2000, female delegates from Asian countries met inHanoi, Vietnam for the Asian Women for a Culture of Peace Conference.During the conference, the delegates developed both a declaration and aplan of action which focused on women's strategies to promote peace.74TheHanoi Declaration specifically recognized the importance of structuralfactors in conflict prevention efforts, including education, media andeconomic development. It also emphasized women's roles in conflictprevention and committed the delegates to building a culture of peacem ovem ent in the Asian region. In the accom panying plan of action, thedelegates made specific commitments in the areas of education,communication, economic development, peacebuilding and politicalparticipation.75

Other organizations focused on peace have been created or led bywom en in unstable or recovering areas of the Asian region. For exam ple, thePakistan India People's Forum for Peace and Democracy, although not anexclusively women's issue-focused organization, was founded by a femalejournalist and human rights activist. The organization's activities aredirected towards the promotion of peacebuilding and the advocacy forwomen's full participation in this process.76In addition, the South Asia Forum for Hu man Rights (SA FH R), w it h ' ^active involvem ent of wom en from countries in the region, focuses on broadareas of security that relate to peace, including food, shelter, health andlivelihood.77Other efforts have included the formation of an organization calledWomen for Prosperity in Cambodia, which attempts to increase thenumber of women in political decision-making roles in the country. TheGZO Peace Institute in the Philippines focuses on participation inpeacebuilding and socio-economic reforms to create the conditions forpeace in the country.78


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4 0 CIVIL WARSEurope and RussiaWomen have organized strategies focused on peace, conflict prevention andthe structural problem s within their countries. Women have also developedinitiatives in countries experiencing or recovering from violence or instabilityor undergoing political transitions. Women's organizations in Greece andTurkey have engaged in an on-going dialogue since 1996 and have proposedthe creation of a Greek-Turkish women's peace network with the statedpurpose of 'preserving life, promoting equality and safeguarding peace'.79

In 1989, 300 mothers formed the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers ofRussia (CSMR). The organization has protested against militarization andagainst human rights violations, proposed a peac e plan to settle the conflictin Chechnya, cooperated with Chechen women in anti-war activities andstarted dialogues with Chechens in their communities.80In January 1999, an organization called OSI-Uzbekistan held aconference of participants from Georgia, Turkmenistan, Mongolia,Yugoslavia, Uzbekistan and the Ukraine, which focused on the economicsituation of women in Central Asia and the Caucasus; women wereencouraged to engage in discussions about poverty and its effects on w om enand stability in the region.81

In Northern Ireland, women formed the Northern Ireland Women'sCoalition in 1996 as a broad-based coalition of women from allbackgrounds that attempts to promote 'reconciliation through dialogue,accomm odation and inclusion' .82In areas undergoing post-conflict reconstruction in Europe, women'sinitiatives have focused on the task of peacebuilding and future conflictprevention. Fo r exam ple, in Tirana, Albania, the W om en's Center collectsand organizes information on women's human rights, organizes educationaltraining on various aspects of gender and peacebuilding areas and assistsother local NGOs. One of the Women's Center projects was a 1998roundtable for increasing the participation of women in conflict resolutionefforts.83 The Group of Women Psychologists has coordinated discussionsbetween Kosovar Albanian and Serbian women on the improvement ofrelations.84

ORGANIZING WOMENTh is brief overview of some wo m en's organizing efforts in ma ny regions ofthe world highlights generally what women are advocating on a variety offronts that relate to conflict prevention, including campaigning for peace,participating in conflict resolution and peaceb uilding, and prom oting h um anrights, democratization, and economic and social reform.


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 41Some of these efforts are being carried out in the context of escalatingor continuing violence; others are being conducted in societies that arerecovering from conflict, in which women are attempting to prevent arecurrence of conflict or to avoid the outbreak of violence in the future.Som e of these efforts have taken the form of organizations that specialize inwomen's campaigns; others operate within broader organizat ionalmandates.Most of the activities are concentrated on broad structural issues such aseconomic, social, polit ical and human rights conditions, but othersspecifically address the need for conflict prevention, resolution andpeac ebu ilding in their societies. Each of the organizing efforts, regardlessof these differences, is playing some role in the promotion of long-term,structural conditions that are necessary for lasting peace.

WOMEN'S INITIATIVES: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSESIt is apparent that women at the grassroots and NGO levels are activelyengag ed in organizing efforts to im prove conditions in their coun tries and topromote peace. Local groups and NGOs provide an important forum forarticulating women's efforts in this area and are an essential component ofconflict prevention. Local efforts are an integral aspect of conflictprevention work. The Carnegie Commission has recognized the importanceof local processes as mechanisms to avoid violence.85International A lert hasemphasized the role of civil society in conflict prevention as a mechanismthat incorporates individuals and communities.86Carment and Schnabel no tethat local processes and civil society involvement contribute 'localexperiences, circumstances and expertise' to conflict prevention.87

Furthermore, the contribution of civil society groups is not only limitedto those that focus exclusively on conflict issues. Barnett R. Rubin andSusanna P. Campbell note that recent cases of internal conflict havedemonstrated the necessity for a variety of active civic organizations thatcan address different aspects of potential conflict situations and holdgovernments accountable.88

Although women's involvement in civil society efforts that assist inconflict prevention demonstrates the benefits of local capacities, there areseveral major weaknesses to this level of activity. The first problem is theissue of resource constraints. Grassroots organizations and NGOs are oftenhampered in what they can accomplish by lack of funding. For example,The Bridge program in the Middle East obtains most of its funding fromvoluntary work and monetary donations from members and has stated thatlack of funds is the major obstacle to an expansion of its activities in theregion.89


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4 2 CIVIL WARSSome organizations are supported by government funds, foreign donorsor international NGOs. It is difficult for organizations to maintain fundinglevels over a long period of time, which is necessary to resolve structuralproblems. For example, international funding is most available duringcrises, but is more difficult to obtain before an emergency or for a longperiod after violence ceases.90 This is especially apparent in the area ofdevelopment, which is a long-term activity. International actors continue toallocate minimal resources to development-focused initiatives.91The second problem is that these groups lack political power, and thishinders their ability to influence policies at the national, regional orinternational levels . Women have been largely excluded from decision -making positions in peace-related issues,92and grassroots and NG O activities

do not generally provide them with policymaking power. Current state-centered approaches to conflict prevention also limit the broader influence ofthese women's organizing activities. Conflict prevention strategies continueto focus on international capacities rather than lower level efforts.93Ciru Mwaura discusses the failure to utilize local capacities in thecontext of Africa: 'It is clear, then, that an integrated appro ach that seeks toenhance the effectiveness of conventional methodologies and mechanismsby exploring m icro-leve l best practices is sorely lacking.'94In fact, women's involvement in peace promotion activities remainsgenerally unrecognized by policymakers or academics.95 Women's currentinitiatives to a large extent continue to function on the sidelines of conflictprevention due to limited resource capacities and the continuing failure ofinstitutional actors at all levels to incorporate them into the policymakingarena.

INTEGRATING WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTIONWomen's current participation in various organizing efforts for thepromotion of peace and stability in their societies demonstrates thatm echanism s for the integration of women into conflict prevention strategiesalready exist. Women in many regions have demonstrated the will andcapacity to engage in activities that facilitate both operational and structuralprevention, including the improvement of socio-economic disparities,information-gathering at the local levels and the facilitation of dialogue andcooperation between hostile groups. These types of activities are centralaspects of effective conflict prevention policies.

Ac cording to a recent report on wom en in the context of hum an security,it is essential that policymakers 'recognize the leadership and innovativerole that women are taking in conflict resolution and peacebuilding and


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4 4 CIVIL WARSinteraction and cooperation among groups within society as a method ofinstitutionalizing a 'culture of peace'.103 Women can utilize their positionswithin the community and family to accomplish these goals. Hamburgadvoca tes a focus on developing peaceful prosocial orien tations duringchild raising.

104The Carnegie Commission also considers the process of social educationas an important component in long-term prevention. 'Teaching children thevalues of cooperation and toleration of cultural differences helps toovercom e prejudicial stereotypes that opportunistic leaders routinely use fortheir own destructive ends'.105 Women's roles within the family structureand larger com m unity are central to this strategy of improving tolerance andother values that inhibit violence.

The Operational Level: W omen, Data and DiplomacyA central component of effective operational prevention is the ability togather and analyze information, and women can also make a contribution inthis area. The current literature on the subject of conflict preventioncontains extensive discussions about the potential role for early warningsystems but includes little discussion about women's potential roles withinthis strategy. In addition, existing early warning systems 'often ignore thecapacities of local actors to obtain and analyze the information'.10 6The integration of women and their participation in civil societyorganizations can assist in the early diagnosis of potential conflict. Stremlauargues that 'developments and trends in the area of human rights should beincorporated into early warning activities'.107 A recent report focusing onwomen and conflict identifies violations of human rights and displacementas two major areas that signal impending conflict.108

It is important to recognize that early w arning strategies should not onlyfocus on immediate humanitarian dimensions of conflict, but that they alsoshould encompass structural problems in a particular society that have thepotential to foment conflict.109 Essential information on human rights, aswell as economic and social conditions, can be obtained from a broadspectrum of actors within society.110Women's involvement in grassroots groups and NGOs that addresscomprehensive issues such as socio-economic conditions, human rightsabuses and democratization can provide useful information on less visible,often underlying problems within a country or region that can ultimatelylead to the eruption of violent conflict.

Women have demonstrated an ability to facilitate dialogue andnegotiation between hostile groups in divided societies, and these skillsshould be incorporated into preventive diplomacy efforts. According toKenneth Hackett, one of the central aspects of conflict prevention involves


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WOMEN AND CON FLICT PREVENTION 45rebuilding relationships between individuals and groups within society. 1Specifically, this includes 'facilitating mechanisms in civil society fordialogue, relationship building, and healing'. 2

Hamburg emphasizes the importance of formulating 'new forms ofcommunity, social cohesion, and solidarity' in order to create new socialidentities that will aid in the prevention of violence. 3Women can contribute to preventive diplomacy through Track II, multi-track and citizen diplomacy programs.114 The UN Secretary General hasrecommended the use of Track II diplomacy efforts by NGOs as a measureof conflict prevention.115 Pamela Aall discusses the activities of conflictresolution NGOs within varying levels of society. She cites theorganization, Strategic Initiatives of W omen, which trains Som ali wo men inconflict resolution and peacebuilding strategies, as an example of suchactivity. 6Swanee Hunt and Cristina Posa argue that women have demonstrated anability to 'bridge the divide' between disputants. They point to Sudanesewomen's involvement in the New Sudan Council of Churches as anillustrative example of women participating in 'shuttle diplomacy' toresolve disputes, in this case between the Dinka and Nuer groups.117Women in many vulnerable societies are considered as 'an important

source of community stability and vitality'.8 Women also have thecapacity to build trust among groups, which is a necessary component ofsuccessful discussions and peaceful settlements. In a case study ofColombia and Guatemala, Caroline Moser and Cathy Mcllwaine foundthat 'organizations run by women were invariably perceived as veryimportant, and were often the most trusted institutions in communitieswith high levels of violence'. 9

Therefore, it is apparent that women's efforts have the potential toimprove conflict prevention mechanisms. Women's organizational effortscan contribute to long-term prevention strategies in such areas as socio-economic development and education, information-gathering aboutpotential conditions for conflict in their societies and the facilitation ofcommunication and dialogue between disputing parties. These effortsshould also be recognized as opportunities to closely link operational andstructural prevention within a comprehensive framework that can addressboth immediate crises and long-term threats to stability.International and Regional Institutions: What Are T hey D oing?International and regional actors are only beginning to realize the potentialfor w om en's con tributions in conflict prevention efforts. A t the internationallevel, the UN has formally recognized women's roles within the conflictprevention area in such docum ents as UN Security Council Resolution 1325


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 47Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) developed an 'OSCE Action Plan forGender Issues' that includes the incorporation of women's perspectives inaddressing structural problems generally and conflict specifically.130The EUalso recently recognized the need to improve the support of women'sconflict prevention activities.131

Despite the acknowledgment of the imp ortance of incorporating wom eninto comprehensive conflict prevention strategies at the regional andinternational levels, there has been minimal implementation of thisobjective. One of the primary reasons for this is the lack of coordinationbetween international and regional institutions and the more informalnetworks at the civil society level where women are concentrated. At theinternational level, institutions have not been reformed to adequatelyaddress the prevention of conflicts.

132 This remains a major obstacle tointegrating women into existing structures.

Another problem is that there is still a lack of coordination betweeninternational and regional institutions and non-state actors. Developingpartnerships and increasing coo peration is therefore a major ch allenge in thedevelopment of strategies for conflict prevention.13 3

FUTURE STEPS FOR REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ACTORSIt is essential for women to be fully incorporated into the policymakingprocess for the development of conflict prevention frameworks at theregional and international levels. The general recognition that women havea role to play in preventing conflicts is not sufficient; regional andinternational actors need to take additional steps to fully utilize existingwomen's capacities and to promote the creation and expansion of newinitiatives in this area.

The most crucial recommendation for regional and internationalorganizations is to improve internal coordination and outside cooperation.The formation of future conflict prevention strategies will require bothbetter coordination within the structures of these institutions and moreextensive cooperation with a range of external actors. Furthermore, bothinternal and external efforts in this direction should explicitly incorporatethe participation of women.It is necessary to develop mechanisms that address not only operational

aspects of conflict prevention in the face of immediate crises but alsostructural strategies to promote long-term regional and internationalstability. This objective will require the creation of permanent structuresdevoted exclusively to conflict prevention work within regional andinternational institutions that have adequate resources to address potentialthreats. The UN Secretary General in his report on conflict prevention


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4 8 CIVIL WARSrecommends the establishment of an informal group to analyze preventionon a continuing basis.134However, the consideration of conflict prevention and the necessarycoordination with other organs of the UN that currently ad dress such aspectsas development, human rights, refugee flows and the advancement ofwomen will require the establishment of a permanent organ within the UNstructure. Because effective conflict prevention implicates many areas ofcurrent UN activity, it is not feasible to expect ad hoc measures toeffectively coordinate the various components of a long-term strategy.

Regional organizations, such as the OAU, also need to developperm anent structures that focus exclusively on conflict preven tion. Inaddition to solving immediate cases of potential or escalating violence,these structures should be designed with the capabilities to adequatelyaddress structural problems in regions where there is strong potential forfuture outbreaks of violent conflict.It is crucial that structures at both the international and regional levelsinclude a specific focus on women's roles in their consideration of conflictprevention cases. Some regional organizations have recognized the need toinclude women in their decision-making structures. The EuropeanParliament has recommended equal participation of women in diplomaticinitiatives and the promotion of gender sensitization in operations.13 5 TheOSCE has committed to the nomination, appointment and training ofwomen into the organization's activities, including the inclusion of genderspecialists in the Secretariat and Office for Democratic Institutions andHuman Rights.136 The EU has proposed affirmative action programs toincorporate women into peacebuilding and decision-making within theRelief Rehabilitation and Development program.13 7 It will be necessary toimplement these commitments into any future structures that are developedto address conflict prevention within European organizations.Regional organizations outside of the European region should draft andimplement similar plans to incorporate women into conflict preventionefforts. The UN Secretary General recently established a task force onwomen, peace and security to monitor the implementation of SecurityCouncil Resolution 1325.138Th is task force should play a central role inassisting in the incorporation of women into any future permanent structurefocused on conflict prevention at the UN level.

Regional and international institutions also need to improve cooperationwith external actors in the formation of conflict prevention programs.Mwaura recommends 'direct lines of communications' between civilsociety networks and institutions that have the ability to take preventiveaction.139 This strategy requires regional and international institutions toidentify women participants in organizations that are currently addressing


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WOMEN AND CONFLICT PREVENTION 4 9structural problems or engaging in peacebuilding activities at thecomm unity, local or regional levels, to support these program s with fundingand other direct assistance and to actively eng age these groups in all aspectsof the policy planning process. Such cooperation is feasible if conflictprevention organs are created within regional and international institutions,and if they include external cooperation within their mandates and areallocated adequate funds for this purpose.

Increased interaction with wom en w ho are organizing such activities canlead to the formulation of innovative solutions to underlying problems. Forexam ple, the participation of wo m en wh o are currently organizing advocacyprojects in the areas of poverty-alleviation, educational improvement andthe expansion of small businesses or other economic opportunities can aidin the improvement of socio-economic development programs for structuralprevention.

Women who have successfully organized community projects acrossclans or other hostile groups or who have facilitated mediation betweendisputing parties can assist in the development of training programs toincorporate women into multi-track negotiating efforts as part of anoperational strategy of preventive diplomacy.Women's organizations at the grassroots levels can improve earlywarning systems by providing essential information on changing conditionson the ground that can lead to the outbreak of conflict in an area.Th ese are ju st a few ex am ples of the significant possibilities for conflictprevention that may emerge with cooperation between women who areorganizing at all levels of society and the regional and internationalinstitutions that are attempting to address conflict.Therefore, it is necessary for regional and international organizations totake additional steps at two levels to improve conflict prevention and theinclusion of women into such strategies.The first is within the institutions themselves, with the creation orexpansion of permanent conflict prevention structures that specificallyincorporate women.The second recommendation is for these organizations to increaseinteraction with and support for external actors that can assist with conflictprevention at local or regional levels, with a specific focus on theparticipation of women in this process.CONCLUSIONConflict prevention is a concept with a history. However, it is more of ahistory of discussion and debate than one of effective implementation. Onereason for this is that policymakers have generally considered the costs of


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5 0 CIVIL WARSconflict prevention as outweighing the potential benefits. But the tide maybe turning. The idea of conflict prevention has gained increased attentionamong policymakers as the costs of late intervention by force and the long-term com mitments of peacekeeping operations have become more apparent.

Within this environment, academics and policymakers are in the processof evaluating both the causes of conflict and the potential tools forprevention. Significant attention has been focused on immediate crises, andspecifically military intervention, because this is the stage when outsideactors generally intervene; however, there is increasing recognition thatstructural problems within societies can lay the groundwork for futureconflicts and that strategies to address these problems require long-termapproaches with the cooperation of a multitude of actors.However, within these debates over causes, mechanisms andapproaches, there has been minimal attention focused on women's roleswithin these processes or the ways in which women's capacities can assistin conflict prevention. Women are currently engaged in activities thatpromote the objective of conflict prevention. Regional and internationalinstitutions need to recognize, support and incorporate the participation ofwomen at the local, regional and international levels into the formation offuture strategies for conflict prevention.

NOTES1. David Carment and Albrecht Schnabel, 'Conflict P revention: Naked Em peror, Path to Peace ,Grand Illusion or Just Difficult?' Prepared for Presentation at 'Reflection, Integration,Cumulation: International Studies Past and Future', The 41st Annual Convention of theInternational Studies Association (Los Angeles, 14-18 March 2000) p.4.2. UN C harter, art. 1, para. 1 (1945).3. Ibid.4. Michael. S. Lund,P reventing Violent Con flicts(Washington DC : US Institute of Peace Press1996) p.52.5. G lenys Kinnock, Prom oting Conflict Preve ntion, Speech at the International Conference:Partners in Humanitarian Crises (Tokyo, 25 Jan. 2001).6. International Alert, Preventing Violent Conflict: Opportunities for the Swedish and BelgianPresidencies of the European Union in 2001 (Dec. 2000) p.5.7. Lund (note 4) p.8.8. John Stremlau, Peop le in Per il, Carnegie Comm ission on Preventing Deadly Conflict(available at http://www.ccpdc.org/pubs/peril/peril.htm).9. Lund (note 4) p.37.10. Carm ent and Schnabel (note 1) p. 3.

11. Lund (note 4) p.37.12. Stremlau (note 8) p.3 .13. Lund (note 4) p. 119.14. Preventing Violent Conflict, Report of the Krusenberg Seminar, Stockholm InternationalPeace Research Institute (SIPRI) (Sept. 2000) p.3 [hereafter Preventing Violent Conflict(SIPRI)].15. Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict, Final


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5 2 C I V I L W A R S52. W omen's International League for Peace and Freedom, Presentation on Women in C onflictSituations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) H uman DimensionSeminar on the Promotion of Women's Participation in Society, Warsaw (14-17 Oct. 1997).53. Wom en's Empowerment Report (note 51) p.39.54. Women and Armed Conflict, The African (28 June 20 00). It is estimated that 80 per cent ofthe world's refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) are women and girls, and in

some refugee populations in Africa, women constitute 90 per cent of the displacedpopulations. See Judith Gardam and H ilary Charlesworth, Protection of Women in Conflict,Human Rights Quarterly 22 (2000) pp.153, 148-166 (quoting the Beijing Platform forAction).55. Carnegie Comm ission Report (note 15) Executive Summary.56. David Carment et al., 'From Rhetoric to Policy: Towards Workable Conflict Prevention atthe Regional and Global Levels', Report on the UNU-NPSIA Workshop on ConflictPrevention, Occasional Paper (23 Nov. 2000) p.6.57. Michael Lund, 'Creeping Institutionalization of the Culture of Prevention?' in PreventingViolent Conflict (SIPRI) (note 14) p.25.58. Harold H. Saunders, 'Prenegotiation and Circum-Negotiation', in Chester A. Crocker et al.Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict (Washington DC: USInstitute of Peace 2001) p.485.59. Women's Empowerment Report (note 51) p.32.60. Green (note 48) p.94.61. Wom en's Empowerment R eport (note 51) p.33.62. APIC posting, Africa: W om en's A nti-W ar Coalition (D ec. 1998) (available atwww .africapolicy.org/docs 99/wom 9901 .htm).63. The African Women's Development and Communication Network (FEMNET), Activities(available at w ww .africaonline.co.ke/femn et/activities.htm).64. Rem i Oyo, 'African F irst Ladies Initiatives ', in Wom en in Action,no.2 (30 June 1997) p.60.65. 'Women Sow Seeds of Peace in the Horn of Africa', Maroodi Jeez, Issue 9 (Summer 1998)pp.1-2.66. Bridget Byme, 'Gender, Conflict and Development', Bridge (development-gender) (Dec.1995) p.50.67. Sudanese Wom en's Peace Initiative, M aastricht Declaration of the Sudanese Women 's PeaceInitiative (13 April 200 0).68. Justice Africa, Sudan National Women's Convention (available at www.justicafrica.org/women.html).69. Ibid. p.6.70. The Bridge: Jewish and Arab Women for Peace in the Middle East, The Women WhoSilently Work for Conflict Resolution (available at http://techuniz.technion.ac.il/~ada/the-

bridge.html).71. Ibid. p.2.72. Ibid. p.4.73. The Jerusalem Link (available at www .batshalom.org/JerusalemLink.htm).74. UN ESCO Press, 'Asian Women Pledge Comm itment to Peace and Disarmam ent' (9 Dec.2000).75. Regional Conference on Asian Women for a Culture of Peace, Hanoi D eclaration(available www.unesco.org/cpp/uk/projects/wcpviet_declar.htm).76. Wom en W aging Peac e, In Their Own Voices, Spotlight on Rita Manchanda (available atwww.womenwagingpeace.net).77. Ibid.78. Women Waging Peace, Excerpts from Asia Regional Meeting Policy Chat, Kathmandu,Nep al (29 June 20 01). Participants included: Nanda P ok, Women for Prosperity and KarenTanada, GZO Peace Institute.79. W INPE AC E - Wo men 's Initiative for Peace (available at ww w.geocities.com/win_peace/win4.html).80. International Peace Burea u, Com mittee of Sold iers' Mothers of Russia (available at


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WOMEN AND CONFL ICT PREVE NTION 5 3www.ipb.org/women/russia2.htm).81. Network Women s Program, Newsletter: NWP Focus, News from the Network Women sProgram, Issue 2 (2000).82. Northern Ireland Women s Coalition, History of the Coalition (available at www.niwc.org/files/history.htm).83. Women s Center, Projects and Continuing Objectives (available at www.icc-al.org/-women/projects.html).84 . Steven L. Burg, Nationalism and Civic Identity , in Center for Preventive Action (note 41)p.44.85. Carnegie Commission Report (note 15) p.45.86 . International Alert, Preventing Violent Conflict (note 6) p.20.87 . Carment and Schnabel (note 1) p.13.88 . Barnett R. Rubin and Susanna P. Campbell, Introduction , in Center for Preventive Action(note 41)p.l5.89 . The Bridge (note 70).90 . Pamela Aall, in Crochet (note 58) p.379.91. Anita Sharma and Anishah Cumber, Conflict Prevention: Giving Substance to theRhetoric , Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (available athttp://wwwics.siedu/cp/schneider.html) p.3.92. International Alert, Preventing Violent Conflict (note 6) at 20.93. Ciru Mwaura, Local Conflict Prevention Initiatives and Regional Frameworks: Prospectsfor Integration in Africa , Paper Presented at the All Africa Conference on AfricanPrinciples of Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Nov. 1999)p . l .94 . Ibid.p.2.95. Women s Empowerment Report (note 51) p.28.96. Ibid. p.6.

97. See Amsterdam Appeal on Conflict Prevention and Peace-building: An Action Plan forEuropean Leaders and Civil Society, adopted at the European Conference on ConflictPrevention (Feb. 1997) (recommending that the EU integrate gender perspectives intopolicies of conflict prevention and specifically assist the growth of local organizations).98. Carnegie Commission Report (note 15) p.84.99. Ibid. p.85.100. Ibid.101. Green (note 48) p.90.102. Carment, (note 1) p.18.103. See Report of the Secretary General (note 25).104. David A. Hamburg, Preventing Contemporary Intergroup Violence (CarnegieCommission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1993).105. Carnegie Commission Report (note 15) p.152.106. Mwaura (note 93) p.6.107. Stremlau (note 8) p.29.108. Byrne (note 66) p.50.109. See Doom and Vlassenroot (note 17) p.15. The Humanitarian Early Warning System(HEWS) of the UN includes a broad array of indicators of potential conflict: population;general economic indicators; trade; financial position; food and agriculture; socialindicators; health and nutrition; environment/natural resources; refugees; human rights;government; present conflicts; military/weapons; country background.110. Preventing Violent Conflict (SIPRI) (note 14) p.2.

111. Kenneth Hackett, The Role of International NGO s in Preventing Conflict , in Cahill (note48) p.272.112. Ibid, p.273.113. Hamburg (note 104) p.5.114. See Carnegie Commission Report (note 15) p.52 (identifying types of nongovernmentaldiplomacy).


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5 4 CIVIL WARS115. Report of the Secretary General (note 25) p.32 .116. Pamela Aall, 'What do NGO s Bring to Peacemaking?' in Crocket et al.(note 58) p.372.117. Swanee Hunt and Cristina Posa, 'Wom en Waging Pe ace ',Foreign Policy(May/June 2001)p.3.118. Carnegie Com mission Report (note 15) p.84.119. Caroline Moser and Cathy Mcllw aine, 'Ge nder and Rebuilding Social Capital in the

Context of Political Violence: A Cas e Study of Colombia and G uatem ala', Paper presentedat the Conference: Gender, Armed Conflict, and Political Violence, The World Bank(10-11 June 1999) p.17.120. See UN S ecurity Council, Resolution 1325 (2000). See also, Report of the SecretaryGeneral (note 25) p . 29.121. Ibid. p.30.122. Wom en and Armed Conflict List Archive, 'W omen Involved in Preventing Conflict' (11Nov. 1999) (available at ww w.sdnp.undp.org/ww /women-arm edconf/sg00138.html).123. Division for the Advancem ent of Wom en, Departm ent of Econom ic and Social A ffairs,Aide-Memoire, Regional Consultation on Enhancing Women's Participation in Peace-Building, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (23-2 5 April 2001).124. United States Com mittee for UN IFEM , Women (available at www .uscommitteeforunifem.org/unifemprojects.asp).125. United Nations Foundation, Grants, Peace, Security and Human Rights (available atwww.unfoundation.org/grants/3_9_causcacus.asp).126. US Department of State, International Information Program s, G8 Rom e Foreign M inistersInitiatives on Conflict Prevention (available at http://usinfo.state.gov).127. Connie Peck, 'The Role of Regional Org anization s', in Crocket (note 58) p.570.128. OA U, Conflict M anagement Division, The OA U Mechanism for Conflict P revention,Management and Resolution (available at http://www.oau-oua.org).129. European Parliament, European Parliament Resolution on Participation of Women inPeaceful Conflict R esolution (adopted 30 Nov. 200 0).130. OSC E, Decision N o. 353, OSC E Action Plan for Gender Issues, PC Journal No. 285 ,Agenda item 6 (1 June 2000).131. The European Union and Conflict Prevention, Presentation by Dr Fraser Cam eron (note37).132. Stremlau (note 8) p.27 .133. Preventing Violent Conflict, Executive Summary (SIPR I) (note 14) p.5 .134. Report of the Secretary General (note 25) p.12 .135. European Parliament Resolution 2000/2025 (INI) (note 129).136. OS CE Plan of Action (note 130).137. Dr Fraser Cam eron, The European Union and Conflict Prevention (note 37) p. l l .

138. Report of the Secretary General (note 25) p.30.139. Mw aura (note 93) p.6.

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