wireless internet routing · 2013-06-17 · bellman-ford equation (dynamic programming) define d x...
TRANSCRIPT
Wireless Internet Routing
Wireless Routing in the Beginning
1
Wireless Internet Routing
Today: routing in MANET/ad hoc networks and mesh networks o Deployed as access networks (and sensor network
deployments) or wireless backhaul
o Internet? = Gateway(s) wireless/wired
2
Outline
Review of last time
Wired routing algorithms: why are they not usable in wireless scenarios
In the beginning: (unicast) routing for MANET o Proactive vs on-demand
o DSR, AODV, DSDV
3
Review: Single-Hop Wireless Networks
Cellular networks:
GSM, 3G, 4G (IP based)
Wireless LAN
PAN/BAN (Bluetooth)
Generally infrastructure based (access point or base station),
not much (wireless) routing necessary
4
network infrastructure
PAN: personal area network / BAN: body area network
Review: Mesh Networks with Internet Access
AP
AP AP
AP
AP
Internet
5
Internet
Wireless infrastructure (backbone) o Static backbone
Gateways to the Internet o Eg: Freifunk, Seattle Wireless
Clients connects to AP o Transparent wireless network
o Mobility, roaming
Review: Multi-Hop Wireless Networks
6
No infrastructure: ad-hoc network o MANET: Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
o Sensor networks
o VANET
Origins: packet radio networks (1978, “Advances in packet radio technology”)
Nodes: transmit, receive, forward
Nodes can be mobile
Wireless routing becomes necessary
Review: Wireless Physical Layer and its effect on the upper layers
Unlike a wired connection!
Characteristics o Time-varying channel: propagation, connectivity and available
capacity
o Shared medium: interference, collisions
Consequences for the upper layers: links exhibit o Time-varying behavior: connectivity, rate, delay
o Low reliability: packets are lost (typical 10^-2 PER)
o Smaller bandwidth than wired counterpart (10 to 100 Mbit/s)
o Asymmetric / bidirectional and unidirectional links
7
Review: Time-Varying Environment
8
Connectivity is not a unit-disc
Received power is time-varying
Variable packet loss
Review: What is Routing
Control Plane:
Topology discovery o Neighborhood discovery
Route discovery and maintenance o Fault recovery
Data Plane:
Forwarding
9
Challenges of Wireless Routing
Routing in a wireless network = routing in a network with: o Links: unreliable, asymmetric, time-varying
o Dynamic topology
o Potentially high time variability
10
Routing in Wireless Networks: Disclaimer!
There is not a unique solution! o No one size fits all
Lots of different algorithms and proposals o Different design goals and objectives
o Mesh: maximizes throughput
o Sensor network: maximizes battery life or minimize delay (fire detection)
11
Wired Routing Recipes
Distance vector algorithms (e.g. RIP) o Decentralized information o Router knows physically-connected neighbors, link costs to
neighbors o Iterative process of computation, exchange of info with
neighbors
Link-state algorithms (e.g. OSPF) o Global information
o All routers have complete topology, link cost info
12
A Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
Decentralized algorithm:
Router knows its neighbors and link costs to neighbors
Iterative computation, exchange of info with neighbors
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
Then
Dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + Dv(y)}
where min is taken over all neighbors v of x Calculate direction and distance to any link in a
network 13
v
Distance Vector Algorithm
Iterative, asynchronous: Each local iteration caused
by: o Local link cost change o DV update message from
neighbor Distributed: Each node notifies
neighbors only when its Distance Vector changes o Neighbors then notify
their neighbors if necessary
o Region not concerned by topology change are not affected
14
wait for (change in local link
cost of msg from neighbor)
recompute estimates
if Distance Vector to any
dest has changed, notify
neighbors
Each node:
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Net topology, link costs known to all nodes o Accomplished via “link state broadcast” o All nodes have same info
Computes least cost paths from one node („source”) to all other nodes o Gives routing table for that node
Example:
Dijkstra‟s algorithm o Iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k dest.‟s
15
Link State Routing
Each node periodically floods status of its links
Each node re-broadcasts link state information
received from its neighbor
Each node keeps track of link state information received from other nodes
Each node uses above information to determine next hop to each destination
16
Example
Java applet:
http://www.mathiaz.com/index.php?n=Routage.Routage
17
Distance Vector and Link State in Wireless Networks
Link state o Fully network topology must be distributed throughout the
network
o Can lead to short terms loop
o OSPF elected router to solve distribution issues
Not practical in wireless: mobility induces lots of topology changes, need to flood information throughout the network
Distance vector o Monitor neighbors and outgoing links
o Periodically broadcast shortest distance table to every neighbors
Not practical in wireless: periodic update wastes bandwidth/power, links/connectivity time-varying, solutions to prevent loops are
not directly applicable
Routing principles ≠ Implementation
18
Distance Vector Example
Symmetric links, link cost = 1
A, B… E are addresses
Local knowledge
19
A B
D E
C
Example borrowed from “Routing in the Internet”, Huitema, 1995
1 2
3 4 5
6
Cold Start
Tx: DV(A): A=0 [1,3]
20
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
From A to Link Cost
A Local 0
From B to Link Cost
B Local 0
Update at B and D
Tx: DV(B): B=0, A=1 [1,2,4]
Tx: DV(D): D=0, A=1 [3,6] 21
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
From A to Link Cost
A Local 0
From B to Link Cost
B Local 0
A 1 1
From D to Link Cost
D Local 0
A 3 1
Message from B Received First
Rx: DV(B): B=0, A=1
Rx: DV(D): D=0, A=1 22
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
From A to Link Cost
A Local 0
B 1 1
D 3 1
From C to Link Cost
C Local 0
B 2 1
A 2 1
From E to Link Cost
E Local 0
B 4 1
A 4 2
E Receives Message From D
23
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
Rx: DV(D): D=0, A=1
Tx: DV(A): A=0,B=1,D=1 [1,3]
Tx: DV(C): C=0, B=1, A=2 [2,5]
Tx: DV(E): E=0,B=1,A=2,D=1 [4,5,6]
From E to Link Cost
E Local 0
B 4 1
A 4 2
D 6 1
No update of the entry for A
Routing Tables at B,D and E are Updated
24
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
From D to Link Cost
D Local 0
A 3 1
B 3 2
E 6 1
From B to Link Cost
B Local 0
A 1 1
D 1 2
C 2 1
E 4 1
From E to Link Cost
E Local 0
B 4 1
A 4 2
D 6 1
C 5 1
And New DVs are Sent
25
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
DV(B): B=0,A=1,D=2, C=2, E=1 [1,3,4]
DV(D): D=0, A=1, B=2, E=1 [3,6]
DV(E): E=0,B=1,A=2,D=1,C=1 [4,5,6]
Routing Tables at A,C and D are Updated
26
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
From C to Link Cost
C Local 0
B 2 1
A 2 2
E 5 1
D 5 2 From A to Link Cost
A Local 0
B 1 1
D 3 1
C 1 2
E 1 2
From D to Link Cost
D Local 0
A 3 1
B 3 2
E 6 1
C 6 2 No more update necessary
From B to Link Cost
B Local 0
A 1 Inf
D 1 Inf
C 2 1
E 4 1
If Link 1 Breaks?
27
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
Update at A and B: inf for all routes through link 1
Tx: DV(A) … [3]
Tx: DV(B) … [4,2]
…
Low convergence time
From A to Link Cost
A Local 0
B 1 Inf
D 3 1
C 1 Inf
E 1 Inf
Distance Vector Issues: Temporary Loop
Cost(5)=10
Link 2 breaks
28
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5 (Cost 10)
6
From X to C Link Cost
A 1 2
B 2 1
C Local 0
D 3 3
E 4 2
A B
Distance Vector Issues: Temporary Loop
29
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5 (Cost 10)
6
A B
From X to C Link Cost
A 1 2
B 2 Inf
C Local 0
D 3 3
E 4 2
B notices failure A sends DV refresh before B:
DV(A) A=0,B=1,C=2,D=1,E=2 B sends DV update
DV(B) A=1,B=0,C=3,D=2,E=1 Temp. loop A-B to C
From X to C Link Cost
A 1 4
B 1 3
C Local 0
D 3 3
E 4 4
Split Horizon and Poisonous Reverse
30
A B
D E
C 1 2
3 4 5
6
Split horizon: if A to X through B, then B should not try to reach X through A o A does not announce route to X to B
With poisonous reverse: A announces route but set cost to Inf
Does not prevent all loops
Summary: Problems of conventional routing algorithms in wireless networks
(RIP, OSPF) are not designed for dynamic topologies
Links are asymmetric, many links available
Topology is dynamic
Periodic information (route,topology) update or dump broadcast o Bandwidth
o Power
31
Early Design of Wireless Routing Protocols: Some Assumptions
Fully symmetric environment: all nodes/stations have identical capabilities and responsibilities
Nodes don‟t sleep
Energy consumption is not an issue
ID or IP address assignment has been performed
Unicast
32
Route Discovery and Maintenance (control plane): Proactive vs Reactive
Proactive protocols o Determine routes independent of traffic pattern
o Traditional link-state and distance-vector routing protocols are proactive
Reactive protocols (on demand) o Maintain routes only if needed
Hybrid protocols
33
Reactive vs Proactive: Trade-Off
Latency of route discovery o Proactive protocols may have lower latency since routes are
maintained at all times o Reactive protocols may have higher latency because a route
from X to Y will be found only when X attempts to send to Y
Overhead of route discovery/maintenance o Reactive protocols may have lower overhead since routes are
determined only if needed o Proactive protocols can (but not necessarily) result in higher
overhead due to continuous route updating
Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and mobility patterns
34
Taxonomy of Routing Protocols for Wireless Networks
Response time, bandwidth
Energy
(Mobile) ad hoc networks mesh networks Sensor networks
Proactive protocols
Reactive protocols
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
Optimized Link- State Routing (OLSR)
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance-Vector (AODV)
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
Geography- based routing
Cluster-based (or hierarchical) routing
35
Flooding
The wireless channel is a broadcast medium after all
36
Flooding for Data Delivery
Sender S broadcasts data packet P to all its neighbors
Each node receiving P forwards P to its neighbors
Sequence numbers: to avoid the possibility of forwarding the same packet more than once
Packet P reaches destination D provided that D is reachable from sender S
Node D does not forward the packet
37
Flooding for Data Delivery
38
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Represents that connected nodes are within each other‟s transmission range
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received packet P
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
39
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Represents transmission of packet P
Represents a node that receives packet P for the first time
Z
Y Broadcast transmission
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
40
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Node H receives packet P from two neighbors: potential for collision
Z
Y
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
41
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Node C receives packet P from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded packet P once
Z
Y
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
42
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
Nodes J and K both broadcast packet P to node D Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their transmissions may collide => Packet P may not be delivered to node D at all, despite the use of flooding
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
43
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
Node D does not forward packet P, because node D is the intended destination of packet P
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
44
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Flooding completed Nodes unreachable from S do not receive packet P (e.g., node Z) Nodes for which all paths from S go through the destination D also do not receive packet P (example: node N)
Z
Y
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery
45
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Flooding may deliver packets to too many nodes (in the worst case, all nodes reachable from sender may receive the packet)
Z
Y
M
N
L
Flooding for Data Delivery: Advantages
Simplicity
May be more efficient than other protocols when rate of information transmission is low enough that the overhead of explicit route discovery/maintenance incurred by other protocols is relatively higher o This scenario may occur, for instance, when nodes transmit small
data packets relatively infrequently, and many topology changes occur between consecutive packet transmissions
Potentially higher reliability of data delivery o Because packets may be delivered to the destination on multiple
paths o (we will talk about it later)
46
Flooding for Data Delivery: Disadvantages
Potentially, very high overhead
o Data packets may be delivered to too many nodes who do not need to receive them
Potentially lower reliability of data delivery
o Flooding uses broadcasting -- hard to implement reliable broadcast delivery without significantly increasing overhead
o Broadcasting in IEEE 802.11 MAC is unreliable o In our example, nodes J and K may transmit to node D
simultaneously, resulting in loss of the packet o In this case, destination would not receive the packet
at all
47
Flooding of Control Packets
Many protocols perform (potentially limited) flooding of control packets, instead of data packets
The control packets are used to discover routes
Discovered routes are subsequently used to send data packet(s)
Overhead of control packet flooding is amortized over data packets transmitted between consecutive control packet floods
48
Summary: Flooding
Flooding is used in many protocols, such as Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
Problems associated with flooding o Collisions
o Redundancy
Collisions may be reduced by “jittering” (waiting for a random interval before propagating the flood)
Redundancy may be reduced by selectively re-broadcasting packets from only a subset of the nodes
49
DSR: Dynamic Source Routing
RFC 4728: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4728
David B. Johnson. Routing in Ad Hoc Networks of Mobile Hosts. Proceedings of the Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems and Applications, pp. 158-163, IEEE Computer Society, Santa Cruz, CA, December 1994
Reactive protocol o Source routing for data delivery
o Route discovery / route maintenance
50
Dynamic Source Routing
When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery
Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)
Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ
51
Route Discovery in DSR
52
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
M
N
L
Route Discovery in DSR
53
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Represents transmission of RREQ
Z
Y Broadcast transmission
M
N
L
[S]
[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ
Route Discovery in DSR
54
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors: potential for collision
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,E]
[S,C]
Route Discovery in DSR
Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
55
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,C,G]
[S,E,F]
Route Discovery in DSR
56
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their transmissions may collide
N
L
[S,C,G,K]
[S,E,F,J]
Route Discovery in DSR
Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the route discovery
57
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,E,F,J,M]
Route Discovery in DSR
Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP)
RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route appended to received RREQ
RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was received by node D
58
Route Reply in DSR
59
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
Represents RREP control message
Route Reply in DSR
Route Reply can be sent by reversing the route in Route Request (RREQ) only if links are guaranteed to be bi-directional o To ensure this, RREQ should be forwarded only if it received on
a link that is known to be bi-directional
If unidirectional (asymmetric) links are allowed, then RREP may need a route discovery for S from node D o Unless node D already knows a route to node S o If a route discovery is initiated by D for a route to S, then the
Route Reply is piggybacked on the Route Request from D.
If IEEE 802.11 MAC is used to send data, then links have to be bi-directional (since Ack is used) o Hidden hypothesis here?
60
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in the RREP
When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is included in the packet header o Hence the name source routing
Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded
61
Data Delivery in DSR
62
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
DATA [S,E,F,J,D]
Packet header size grows with route length
When to Perform a Route Discovery
When node S wants to send data to node D, but does not know a valid route node D o Is there any optimization possible?
63
DSR Optimization: Route Caching
Each node caches a new route it learns by any means
When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also learns route [S,E,F] to node F
When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F learns route [F,J,D] to node D
When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D] to node D
A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data packets
64
Use of Route Caching
When node S learns that a route to node D is broken, it uses another route from its local cache, if such a route to D exists in its cache. Otherwise, node S initiates route discovery by sending a route request
Node X on receiving a Route Request for some node D can send a Route Reply if node X knows a route to node D
Use of route cache o Can speed up route discovery
o Can reduce propagation of route requests
65
Use of Route Caching
66
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
[P,Q,R] Represents cached route at a node (DSR maintains the cached routes in a tree format)
M
N
L
[S,E,F,J,D] [E,F,J,D]
[C,S]
[G,C,S]
[F,J,D],[F,E,S]
[J,F,E,S]
Z
Use of Route Caching: Can Speed up Route Discovery
67
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
M
N
L
[S,E,F,J,D] [E,F,J,D]
[C,S]
[G,C,S]
[F,J,D],[F,E,S]
[J,F,E,S]
RREQ
When node Z sends a route request for node C, node K sends back a route reply [Z,K,G,C] to node Z using a locally cached route
[K,G,C,S] RREP
Use of Route Caching: Can Reduce Propagation of Route Requests
68
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,E,F,J,D] [E,F,J,D]
[C,S]
[G,C,S]
[F,J,D],[F,E,S]
[J,F,E,S]
RREQ
Assume that there is no link between D and Z. Route Reply (RREP) from node K limits flooding of RREQ. In general, the reduction may be less dramatic.
[K,G,C,S] RREP
Route Caching: Beware!
Stale caches can adversely affect performance
With passage of time and host mobility, cached routes may become invalid
A sender host may try several stale routes (obtained from local cache, or replied from cache by other nodes), before finding a good route
69
Route Maintenance
If node is moving: can reinitiate route discovery
If a link breaks: Route Error packets
70
Route Error (RERR)
71
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
RERR [J-D]
J sends a route error to S along route J-F-E-S when its attempt to forward the data packet S (with route SEFJD) on J-D fails Nodes hearing RERR update their route cache to remove link J-D
Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages
Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate o Reduces overhead of route maintenance
Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local caches
72
Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages Packet header size grows with route length due to source
routing
Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests propagated by neighboring nodes o Insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
Increased contention if too many route replies come back
due to nodes replying using their local cache o Route Reply Storm problem o Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node from sending
RREP if it hears another RREP with a shorter route
73
Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages
Delay for route establishment
Route maintenance is not a local process An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a
stale cached route, thus polluting other caches o This problem can be eased if some mechanism to purge
(potentially) invalid cached routes is incorporated. o For some proposals for cache invalidation, see
[Hu00Mobicom]: static timeouts / adaptive timeouts based on link stability
74
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
RFC 3561: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3561
Charles E. Perkins and Elizabeth M. Royer. "Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing." Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems and Applications, 1999
Reactive protocol o Distance vector
o Destination sequence number
75
Why AODV?
DSR includes source routes in packet headers
Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance o particularly when data contents of a packet are small
AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have to contain routes
AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only between nodes which need to communicate
76
AODV Overview
Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar to DSR
When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a reverse path pointing towards the source o AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links
When the intended destination receives a Route
Request, it replies by sending a Route Reply
Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when Route Request is forwarded
77
AODV overview
Path discovery
Reverse path setup
Forward path setup
78
Route Requests in AODV
79
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
M
N
L
Route Requests in AODV
80
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Represents transmission of RREQ
Z
Y Broadcast transmission
M
N
L
Route Requests in AODV
81
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Represents links on Reverse Path
Z
Y
M
N
L
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
82
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
83
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Node D does not forward RREQ, because node is the intended target of the RREQ
84
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Route Reply in AODV
85
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
Represents links on path taken by RREP
M
N
L
Route Reply in AODV
An intermediate node (not the destination) may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender S
To determine whether the path known to an intermediate node is more recent, destination sequence numbers are used
The likelihood that an intermediate node will send a Route Reply when using AODV not as high as DSR o A new Route Request by node S for a destination is assigned a
higher destination sequence number. An intermediate node which knows a route, but with a smaller sequence number, cannot send Route Reply
86
Forward Path Setup in AODV
87
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along the reverse path Represents a link on the forward path
Data Delivery in AODV
88
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Routing table entries used to forward data packet. Route is not included in packet header.
DATA
Timeouts
A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is
purged after a timeout interval o Timeout should be long enough to allow RREP to come back o Used to remove unused reverse path
A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is
purged if not used for a active_route_timeout interval o If no data is being sent using a particular routing table entry,
that entry will be deleted from the routing table (even if the route may actually still be valid)
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Link Failure Reporting
A neighbor of node X is considered active for a
routing table entry if the neighbor sent a packet within active_route_timeout interval which was forwarded using that entry
When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active neighbors are informed
Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error messages, which also update destination sequence numbers
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Route Error When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S
to node D) on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message
Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at node X
The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR
When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D using destination sequence number at least as large as N
When node D receives the route request with destination sequence number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than N
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Why Sequence Numbers in AODV
To avoid using old/broken routes o To determine which route is newer
To prevent formation of loops
o Assume that A does not know about failure of link C-D because RERR sent by C is lost
o Now C performs a route discovery for D. Node A receives the RREQ (say, via path C-E-A)
o Node A will reply since A knows a route to D via node B o Results in a loop (for instance, C-E-A-B-C )
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A B C D
E
AODV Sequence Number Rule
If RREQ sequence number > sequence number in table, intermediate node does not answer RREQ
If RREP sequence number < sequence number at source node, the RREP is ignored
Destination always update its sequence number to the largest received
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AODV Uses “Route Request” Sequence Number
E unable to forward packet P (from E to D) on link 6, generates a RERR message
E increments the destination sequence number for D cached at E
Incremented sequence number N included in RERR
E initiates RREQ for D, uses destination sequence number › N
D receives RREQ with destination sequence number N, D set its sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than N 94
B C
1 2
4 5 E
With Previous Example
E sends to D, link 6 breaks
E sends RREP(D,Inf), lost on link 4
E sends RREQ(D,N+2)
B does not send RREP since N+2 > N
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B
E
C 1 2
4 5
6
Link Failure Detection
Hello messages: Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message
Absence of hello message is used as an indication of link failure
Alternatively, failure to receive several MAC-level acknowledgement may be used as an indication of link failure
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Optimization: Expanding Ring Search
Route Requests are initially sent with small Time-to-Live (TTL) field, to limit their propagation o DSR also includes a similar optimization
If no Route Reply is received, then larger TTL tried
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Summary: AODV
Routes need not be included in packet headers
Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for
routes that are in active use
At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each node o Multi-path extensions can be designed o DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination
Unused routes expire even if topology does not change
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Fixing Distance Vector in Wireless Networks: DSDV
DSDV: destination sequence distance vector
Adapting distance vector algorithms for wireless network
Solves routing loop problem
Perkins, Charles E. and Bhagwat, Pravin . Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computers, Sigcomm 1994
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DSDV Overview
Routing information distribution o Full dumps infrequently
o Incremental updates (smaller) more frequently
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DSDV Overview
Each node maintains a routing table which stores o Next hop towards each destination
o A cost metric for the path to each destination
o A destination sequence number that is created by the destination itself
o Sequence numbers used to avoid formation of loops
Each node periodically forwards the routing table to its neighbors o Each node increments and appends its sequence number when
sending its local routing table
o This sequence number will be attached to route entries created for this node
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DSDV: Sequence Number
Assume that node X receives routing information from Y about a route to node Z
Let S(X) and S(Y) denote the destination sequence number for node Z as stored at node X, and as sent by node Y with its routing table to node X, respectively
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X Y Z
DSDV: Sequence Number and Routing Update
Node X takes the following steps:
1. If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received from Y
2. If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the route known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
3. If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated to equal S(Y)
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X Y Z
DSDV Use Destination Sequence Numbers to Avoid Loops
(destination) sequence number for each node o Each node increments and appends its sequence number when
sending its local routing table
o This sequence number attached to route entries created for this node
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B
E
C 1 2
4 5
6
DSDV Use Destination Sequence Numbers to Avoid Loops
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B
E
C 1 2
4 5
6
From B to Link Cost Seq
A 4 3 50
B Local 0 60
C 2 1 70
D 4 2 80
E 4 1 90
From C to Link Cost Seq
A 5 3 50
B 2 1 60
C Local 0 70
D 5 2 80
E 5 1 90
From E to Link Cost Seq
A 6 2 50
B 4 1 60
C 5 1 70
D 6 1 80
E Local 0 90
With Previous Example
DV(E) … D=Inf(80) [4,5] , tx error on 5
DV(C) E=Inf(90),… [5], DV(C) E=1(90),D=2(80) [2] o Identical sequence number, but longer route: rule 2, update
rejected
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B
E
C 1 2
4 5
6
From B to Link Cost Seq
A 4 3 50
B Local 0 60
C 2 1 70
D 4 2 80
E 4 1 90
Summary
All protocols discussed so far perform some form of flooding o DSR, AODV
o DSDV
Use hop count metric
Connection to the Internet is not addressed o Gateway selection problem
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DSR
On-demand algorithm
Source routing
RREQ, RREP, RERR
Caching
Many optimizations
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AODV
On-demand algorithm
Distance vector: routing table at nodes
RREQ, RREP o Path discovery, reverse path setup, forward path setup
Sequence number
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DSDV
DSDV: Destination Sequence Distance Vector
Distance vector adapted to wireless
Sequence number against loops
Full dump infrequently, incremental updates more frequently
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