willmott amphitheatres 09-kuhnen offprint

Roman Amphitheatres and Spectacula:

a 21st-Century Perspective

Papers from an international conference held at Chester, 16th-18th February, 2007

Edited by

Tony Wilmott

BAR International Series 1946 2009

This title published by Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England [email protected] www.archaeopress.com BAR S1946 Roman Amphitheatres and Spectacula: a 21st-Century perspective. Papers from an international conference held at Chester, 16th-18th February, 2007 © Archaeopress and the individual authors 2009 ISBN 978 1 4073 0426 7 Printed in England by Blenheim Colour All BAR titles are available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England [email protected] The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com

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9. The Trier Amphitheatre; An Ancient Monument in the Light of New Research*

Hans-Peter Kuhnen Institut für Archäologie und Naturwissenschaften Generaldirektion Kulturelles Erbe Rheinland-Pfalz

The Roman amphitheatre of Trier today is one of the main tourist attractions of the city. Together with the Porta Nigra, the Basilica, the Dome, the Roman bridge, the Imperial Thermae and the Thermae of St. Barbara it was declared World Heritage by the UNESCO in 1986 (Kuhnen ed. 2001 et. seq, 12; 2006, 102 et. seq; Archäologische Trier Kommission ed 2005, 97 - 99). Located to the east of the modern (and Roman) city centre, the monument is for the main part situated in a parkland setting adjacent to the vineyards of the Petrisberg, whilst the western and northern peripheries are covered by private dwellings (Fig. 9.1). * As most of the ancient site has been in State ownership since the 19th century, for decades there was no archaeological concern about the future of the monument. This situation changed, however, in the 1990s. First a local developer decided to demolish the traditional brewery installations of Trierer Löwenbräu immediately north of the amphitheatre in order to lay the site down to high-quality housing, and simultaneously the State of Rheinland-Pfalz decided to fit the Roman arena to the needs of modern open-air performances (Kuhnen 1996, 13 – 22). The building activities proposed for the arena and its nearest surroundings led to intensive public debate on issues of monument protection that caused amphitheatre research to be renewed exactly 180 years after the first excavations in the Trier arena had taken place. Research 1816 – 1996 Research in the Trier amphitheatre started as early as 1816. The then Prussian architect Friedrich Carl Quednow as newly appointed Inspector of State Buildings of the newly annexed Prussian Rhine Province hired labourers in order to excavate the so-called Kaskeller area, an oval depression in the vineyards on the very foot of the Petrisberg hill range (Laufner 1975). Quednow described the site correctly as a Roman amphitheatre, drew up a plan and published his discoveries in 1820 (Quednow 1820, 17 – 43). In the 1830s most of the ground were acquired by the Prussian State and, due to growing vandalism, placed under the protection of a guard (Kuhnen ed. 2000, 110 – 113) (Fig. 9.2).

* I am thankful to Tony Wilmott for his help in improving the English version of my paper.

With the foundation of the Provinzialmuseum Trier (nowadays Rheinisches Landesmuseum), in 1877, professional archaeologists took over research in Trier. Excavations were renewed in the arena by the first museum director, Felix Hettner in 1890/91 and again by his successor Emil Krüger. Hettner by small trial soundings proved that the cavea consisted of an earth ramp piled against masonry substructures, which also served as foundations to the Late Roman city wall that incorporated the amphitheatre (Hettner 1891, 209 et. seq). Krüger, on the other hand cleared completely the oval interior of the arena, discovering that it had been dug into solid slate rock, and that in its centre there were subterranean galleries containing wooden screen installations (Krüger 1909, 51 et. seq; 1910, 11 et. seq; 1911, 17 et. seq). Krüger never published a final report of these excavations, but in 1933 the museum issued a little illustrated guidebook containing an idealized overall plan of the structure that up to the 1990s remained the basic reference plan of the monument (Krüger 1933). In 1935 the Nazi administration of the Prussian Rhine Province prepared to establish a representative via archaeologica triumphalis connecting the city’s Roman monuments (Kuhnen ed. 2002, 107 – 120; 2003, 568 et. seq.). Accordingly the Prussian Public Buildings Division started re-shaping the earthen cavea mounds of the amphitheatre. The earthen ramparts of both sides of the arena were cut by trial soundings and immediately afterwards levelled in the shape of a natural amphitheatre. As work was carried out without proper archaeological documentation no new information was gained by the project (Bauer and Godard 1997, 32 et. seq.; Kuhnen ed. 2000, 121). The shape of the cavea created then, without archaeological investigation, has remained the public appearance of the monument to the present day (Fig. 9.3). New excavations, research and events As most of the amphitheatre site remained in public ownership no need for further excavation was felt until late in the 1970s, though neither stratigraphies nor dated finds of the earlier excavations had been published, leaving questions of chronology and building history unsolved. Only limited soundings took place on occasion of restoration works carried out in the site: From 1977 – 1979 Heinz Cüppers and Adolf

ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA

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Fig. 9.1 The Trier amphitheatre as seen from the air (Aerial photo by Gerhard Steinle, Trier).

Fig. 9.2 View of the amphitheatre site in the middle of the 19th century (photograph by Thomas Zühmer, cf. Kuhnen (ed. 2000))

HANS-PETER KUHNEN: THE TRIER AMPHITHEATRE; AN ANCIENT MONUMENT IN THE LIGHT OF NEW RESEARCH

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Fig. 9.3 The creation of the “New amphitheatre”: Digging in the years 1936 – 1939 (photograph by Thomas Zühmer, cf. Kuhnen (ed. 2000)) Neyses checked the stratigraphy of the southwestern main entrance (vomitorium, cf. Kuhnen ed. 2000, 123). 1997 – 1999 the author and Marcus Thiel sounded the south western entrance of the monument (Kuhnen / Thiel 1997, 17 – 31; Kuhnen ed 2000, 124 – 129). Their main excavation activities took place, however, outside the state-property on the northern and north-eastern periphery of the ancient monument, where a local investors’ consortium had initiated a development project on the area of the former Löwenbräu brewery (above). By public pressure and the strict application of the Rheinland-Pfalz antiquities’ law the investors were persuaded to grant to the Rheinisches Landesmuseum financial support and a three year term of excavations undisturbed by building activities. Thus a major part of the projected building site was excavated systematically before building started and detailed information about the topographical and ecological background of the amphitheatre site was gained. In addition, for the first time in Trier’s 180 year history of archaeological research a physical anthropologist assisted the excavations and provided the excavators with valuable aid to the interpretion of the excavated burials. Parallel to the building activities in the northern surroundings of the amphitheatre modern political and economic concepts hit the Trier arena. In order to ensure better economic exploitation of the ruin for open-air concerts and spectacles the arena was to be provided with new electrical installations. Before the works started the Public Building Administration funded the long-outstanding

synoptic analysis of the excavations from 1816, that finally provided clear information as to the areas excavated since and the results obtained (Plate 31). For the first time all the graphic documentation was viewed and analysed, as were the dated finds from stratigrafic contexts (Bauer and Goddard 1997). In addition the call for intensified cultural activities in the amphitheatre gave birth to experimental archaeology on amphitheatre games which has become an integral part of the public experience of Roman provincial culture (below). The results of research Though the final publication of 190 years of research in the Trier arena is still outstanding, the Trier amphitheatre emerges today as a unique heritage full of implications on the history of later Roman Trier and on the general understanding of Roman amphitheatre spectacles in the provinces. As was proven by a stratigraphic deep sounding at the northern entrance the arena was built on an almost horizontally levelled slate terrace shaped by the Moselle during the Pleistocene. The terrace was situated at an absolute height of about 155m above sea level and covered in the early Holocene by the fluvial gravel deposits of the Moselle and, towards its southern end, by the alluvial fan of the Altbach brook (Kuhnen ed. 2000, 116, figs 14,15; Löhr 1997, 43- 46, fig. 2). On this Pleistocene slate terrace the Roman builders found an excellent solid building ground strong enough to carry the huge amount of earth and masonry needed to carry the


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Fig. 9.4 The slate surface of the arena floor, which was excavated in 1908 – 1909 (photograph by Thomas Zühmer, cf. Kuhnen (ed. 2000)).

enormous structure, whilst the covering gravel and silt deposits of the Moselle and the Altbach alluvial fan offered the necessary amount of fill for the cavea rampart. The oval arena measured 64 x 50 m. It was created by removing the fluvial gravel deposits and flattening the slate surface of the Pleistocene terrace. The slate surface showed rows of rock cut postholes part of which obviously belonged to a palisade protecting the enclosure wall of the arena. The arena floor in antiquity was probably covered with sand, but no traces were observed during the 1908 – 1909 excavations (Fig. 9.4). Between the palisade and the enclosure wall lay a rock cut drainage channel. This surrounded the arena and led into a subterranean sewage channel passing through the southern entrance of the arena to the nearby Altbach brook. In the centre of the arena a subterranean gallery, cruciform in plan and about 30m long and 50m wide, the so-called arena cellar, was cut out of the slate to a depth of about 3m below the slate surface. In the angles of the central cellar 4 large postholes of about 0.7 m diameter were found, which might have supported poles carrying the removable roof construction of the velum. The cellar was drained by the subterranean rock-hewn sewage channel that lead to the Altbach brook. After the abandonment of the amphitheatre the cellar and the sewage channel silted up and the subterranean galleries were filled with bog deposits. Thanks to the waterlogged conditions the remains of a wooden framework survived and were discovered during excavations in 1908-909 (Fig 9.5: Krüger 1909, 51). They probably belonged to some kind of screen machinery, but, due to lack of documentation the

original shape of the construction could not be reconstructed. Dendrochronological analysis of the wooden remains by Ernst Hollstein in 1980 resulted in dates from AD 294 onwards (Hollstein 1980, 153). Additional dates were furnished by some 1,200 coins of the 3rd and 4th centuries found in the subterranean galleries. Therefore a late 3rd century AD date for the creation of the gallery was suggested (Bauer and Godard 1997, 34 s.), indicating that the galleries probably were added to the building at a later stage, maybe when Trier became one of the capitals of the Western Empire under the Tetrarchy. The raised seating rows of the cavea were originally supported by huge earth banks heaped between an outer and an inner retaining wall to a height of at least 14m above the arena floor. Like the arena, the banks of the cavea were oval and measured 210 x 150m. Spectators coming from the city found two monumental subterranean entrances (vomitoria) in the western bank; additional spectators’ entrances were located at both sides of the northern and southern arena entrances. In the core of this bank Hettner discovered 8 massive masonry piles that according to his interpretation were sunk after the bank had been heaped up, an interpretation that has been challenged since. The eastern half of the cavea was explored only from its north-eastern outskirts (Kuhnen / Thiel 1997, 25 s.). Here it became clear that the eastern half of the cavea also was heaped up and not carved out of the slope of the Petrisberg, as suggested by earlier research. The construction date of the earth banks of the cavea could approximately be determined thanks to stratigraphy observed


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Fig 9.5 Subterranean gallery (so-called arena cellar) in the arena floor with wooden framework of AD 294, excavated in 1908 (photograph by Thomas Zühmer, cf. Kuhnen (ed. 2000)).

at the south-western main entrance in 1977, and at the south-eastern and north-eastern edge of the eastern cavea bank. In all the three soundings, layers belonging to the earth banks covered material of the so-called Niederbieber horizon, thus demonstrating that the cavea was not erected befor the end of the 2nd century AD (Kuhnen and Thiel 1997, 25-28; Kuhnen ed. 2000, 123-128; Archäologische Trier Kommission ed. 2005, 97). Among the latest finds discovered there were several remains of early Christian ivory pyxides dated to the 5th and 6th centuries, but as they were found in silt deposits of the arena cellar it cannot be proven that amphitheatre spectacles lasted up to that period (Kuhnen ed. 2000, 144, fig. 48; Steiner 1934, 77-82; 113-119). Many questions still remain to be answered: Concerning the documentation of excavations and soundings gathered since 1816 it can be stated that, with the exception of the 1936-1939 works, all major excavations could be located. There was, however, no detailed overall plan of the building remains. More important is the almost complete lack of any documentation relating to masonry restoration and the reshaping of earth and rock undertaken in the course of maintainence works since the 1840s. This makes it today almost impossible to distinguish between ancient masonry and restorations of the 19th or early 20th centuries. Only a

minor part of the amphitheatre finds kept in the storerooms of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum can be attributed to a certain stratigraphic context, leaving details of chronology and stratigraphy in dark. On the other hand some of the older theories proved to be unfounded: 1 There is no proof that the monument was

constructed as early as AD100 (Cüppers 1993, 27), as local archaeologists have postulated since the 1960s, largely in order to support Trier’s claim of being Germany’s oldest Roman city.

2 There is no corroboration of the theory that the stone-built amphitheatre had a wooden predecessor. In none of the excavations before 1996 were traces of timber construction found. On the contrary, the marks in the rock cited in support of this view clearly belonged to a late Roman gate installation blocking the northern entrance to the arena.

3 The building site of the amphitheatre was not chosen with regard to exploiting the slope of the Petrisberg as the eastern bank of the cavea. Instead, the site on the pleistocene Moselle terrace offered a flat and solid building ground. Due to its elevated position it granted both an excellent panoramic


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Fig. 9.6 The amphitheatre site and its archaeological context: 1 slate surface of arena; 2 earth banks of cavea; 3 subterranean rock hewn sewage channel of the amphitheatre leading to Altbach brook; 4 foundations of Late Roman city wall; 5 Roman Ruwertal aquaeduct; 6 burial ground of the 3rd – 4th centuries A.D. at the rear of the eastern bank of the amphitheatre; 7 Late Roman burial ground on the western slopes of Petrisberg (Plan by Marcus Thiel, Trier). view of the landscape and an exceeding visibility

from the city and its surroundings. Exploring the context The 1996-1999 excavations on the northern outskirts of the amphitheatre yielded interesting results both as to the use of the area in antiquity and to the urban context (Fig. 9.6). As expected, the foundations of the Roman city wall could be traced from the northern entrance of the amphitheatre

beyond its crossing point with the Roman Ruwertal aqueduct. Here the foundations of the city wall clearly respected the aqueduct structures, and it must be concluded that the city wall, at least in this section, was built at a later date than the Ruwertal aqueduct which is usually considered to be of 3rd century date. The city wall in this section consisted in a rubble-in-concrete core between limestone ashlars. The foundations had a depth of about 2m and a width of about 4.2-4.5m and were constructed by slate rubble laid in concrete above two layers of limestone ashlars


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Fig. 9.7 The burial ground of the 3rd – 4th centuries on the rear of the amphitheatre (Photo, author).

(Kuhnen and Thiel 1997, 20 – 24). Before the construction of the amphitheatre and city wall the area obviously had served for slate quarrying and dumping of rubbish from the city. Of particular interest for the history of the amphitheatre is the surprise discovery of a burial ground of the 3rd- 4th centuries AD immediately at the rear of the eastern bank of the cavea. Thanks to a compromise with the contractor rescue excavations in this part could be limited to two trial soundings of about 200 m2 in all. In spite of its small extension the area yielded a total of at least 46 graves concentrating towards the eastern cavea bank, partially overlying each other. Six of the 46 graves observed were cremation burials, the rest were inhumations. Ten of the forty inhumation burials were buried in wooden chests. There were very few grave goods: one of the inhumation burials contained a little coin hoard of mid-4th century, another a pottery juglet of about the same date. Two other inhumation burials had shoes. The urns of the cremation burials belonged to the Niederbieber horizon of the late 2nd-early 3rd centuries. At least 10 of the inhumation burials have to be considered as so-called Sonderbestattungen (special burials), either because they lacked parts of the skeletons or because the skeletons were buried in unusual positions (Fig. 9.7). Because of soil conditions the preservation of the skeletons was too bad to enable a detailed anthropological analysis; still the anthropologist who worked on the site noticed an unusual dominance of male individuals.

The locality of the site completely differs from the other cemeteries of late Roman Trier as the graves were not aligned alongside a Roman road but on a former quarrying and dumping area in the rear of the amphitheatre, invisible to normal visitors of the city. All these criteria support the identification as a particular burial place which, for its date and topographic position immediately on the outskirts of the amphitheatre, makes it highly probable that the persons buried here had to do something with what happened in amphitheatre. Thus the burials should be ascribed either to defeated gladiators or to victims of death trials executed in the arena (Kuhnen ed. 2000, 126-128; 2006b, 167-170). Both of these groups were considered impure and therefore excluded, by Roman rite, from ordinary burials (Wiedemann 2001, 77-107; Kyle 1998, 11 et. seq.). As the latest dated find of the cemetery is a small coin hoard of the 350s it must be concluded that until this period the area was accessible from the northern entrance of the amphitheatre. If this is true it would mean that the city wall in this section could not have been erected before the middle of the 4th century. This view can be paralleled by observations further down on the crossing with the late Roman Ruwertal aqueduct and by Harald Koethe’s in his masterly synthesis of Trier’s Roman city wall (Koethe 1936, 69 – 74). Modern use and abuse The discovery of the burial ground on the rear of the amphitheatre coincided with a renewed public debate on how


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Fig. 9.8 Reconstructions of gladiators’ weaponry by Marcus Junkelmann to use the ancient monument for modern open air performances. Stimulated by a political wish to revitalize Trier’s ancient monuments through modern use, local businessmen and promoters of tourism argued that the amphitheatre should serve “again, as in Roman times, for theatre performances”. Therefore they demanded that the State authorities fit the Roman monument with all the technical devices necessary for modern plays, as for example electric lighting, loudspeakers, modern seating rows and so on. To the author it was obvious that these ideas resulted from a confusion between theatres and amphitheatres (Golvin 1988; Spectacula I, 1990; II 1992), and might endanger the ancient ruins. In order to make the public aware of the fundamental difference between the two and the very special role amphitheatres played in Roman society, the Rheinisches Landesmuseum, on its own initiative, developed a didactic program of experimental archaeology. Thanks to a generous gift from the Bitburg Brewery, Marcus Junkelmann, Germany’s leading expert on Roman armour, and Prof. Winfried Stroh as a classical philologist, could be asked to reconstruct the main types of galdiators’ weaponry and equipment based on a scientific analysis of the ancient sources and of the original finds in various European collections (Fig. 9.8). In a second step the reconstructions were tested systematically by Junkelmann and his group of re-enacting

volunteers in simulated gladiator fights (Plate 32). The experience gained was analysed carefully, and served to improve the reconstructions of the weaponry. The results were published in a book (Junkelmann 2000a) and were presented to the public in the Trier amphitheatre on occasion of a biennual public festival called Brot und Spiele (Kuhnen 1997; 2000, 137). A public far beyond the city of Trier met Junkelmann’s experimental research on gladiators and amphitheatre plays with great interest. Together with his group of experimental gladiators, he was invited to dozens of presentations in Europe and in the States (Plate 33). The reports in newspapers, TV and other media were uncountable, and his reconstructed gladiator weaponry was presented in several big exhibitions, amongst others in Hamburg, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg, Carnuntum, Ephesus, London, Speyer, Trier ((Junkelmann 2000b;2004; Kuhnen ed. 2000, 9-13; 2006 b; Unruh and Fontaine 2000). His research and experience even helped anthropologists to interprete skeleton finds from gladiators’ burials in Turkey (Kanz and Großschmidt 2002; Kanz, this volume). After Junkelmann had accomplished , in 2002, his reconstruction and research project for the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier, due to political decisions, responsibility for the Brot und Spiele spectacle was transferred from the Landesmuseum to a private event agency. In consequence, for budgetary reasons, Junkelmann and his


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group of re-enactors were replaced by cheaper Eastern European stuntmen disguised in a strange combination of Roman infantry weaponry and fancy “Gothic” armour. Their show was presented with dramatic electronic sounds, modern multicoloured illumination and a screen decoration imitating a jungle scenery. Despite this, Junkelmann’s experimental amphitheatre research will remain, as it is well documented by publications and media productions, thus giving to the public a scientific intervention into modern conflicts on Trier’s ancient amphitheatre. References Archäologische Trier Kommission (ed.), 2005, Rettet das archäologische Erbe Triers. Zweite Denkschrift der Archäologischen Trier Kommission (Trier) Bauer, S. / Goddard, E. 1997, ‘Amphitheater Trier. Bestandsaufnahme der archäologischen Befunde in der Arena und im Arenakeller seit 1816’, Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier, 29, 1997, pp. 33 - 35 Cüppers, H. 1993, Trier Amphitheater. Führer der Verwaltung der Staatlichen Burgen, Schlösser und Altertümer Rheinland-Pfalz. (Mainz) Futrell, A. 1997, Blood in the Arena. The Spectacle of Roman Power (Austin: University of Texas) Golvin, J.-C. 1988, L’amphithéatre romain. Essai de théorisation de sa forme et de ses fonctions (Paris) Hettner, F. 1891, ‘Zu den römischen Altertümern aus Trier und Umgegend’, Westdeutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kunst, pp. 10, 209 ss Hollstein, E. 1980, Mitteleuropäische Eichenchronologie. Trierer dendrochronologische Forschungen zur Archäologie und Kunstgeschichte, Trierer Grabungen und Forschungen XI (Mainz) Junkelmann, M. 2000a, Das Spiel mit dem Tod. So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren (Mainz: von Zabern) Junkelmann, M. 2000b,’ Familia Gladiatoria’, in: E. Köhne / C. Ewigleben (ed.), Gladiators and Caesars (London), pp. 39 – 80 Junkelmann, M. 2002, ‘Bewaffnung und Kampftechnik der Gladiatoren’, in: Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut – Institut für Histologie und Embryologie der Universität Wien – Kulturministerium der Türkischen Republik (ed.),

Tod am Nachmittag. Gladiatoren in Ephesos. Exhibition catalogue Ephesus Museum Selcuk (Wien), pp. 25 – 42 Junkelmann, M., 2004, Hollywoods Traum von Rom, ’Gladiator’ und die Tradition des Monumentalfilms (Mainz) Kanz, F. and Großschmidt, K. 2002, ’Waffenwirkung und Verletzungsspuren. Der traumatologische Befund’, in: Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut – Institut für Histologie und Embryologie der Universität Wien – Kulturministerium der Türkischen Republik (ed.), Tod am Nachmittag. Gladiatoren in Ephesos. Exhibition catalogue Ephesus Museum Selcuk (Wien), pp. 43 – 49 Koethe, H. 1936, ’Die Stadtmauer des römischen Trier’, Trierer Zeitschrift, 11, pp. 46 – 74. Krüger, E. 1909, ’Der Arenakeller des Amphitheatres’, Römisch-Germanisches Korrespondenzblatt, 2, 1909, 5pp. 1 ss. Krüger, E. 1910, ’Arenakeller Trier’, Trierer Jahresberichte pp. 3, 9 ss. Krüger, E. 1911, ‘Arenakeller Trier’, Trierer Jahresberichte, pp. 4, 17 ss.. Krüger, E. 1933, ‘Das Amphitheater zu Trier’, Führungsblätter des Provinzialmuseums Trier (Trier) Krüger, E. 1944, ‘Das Amphitheater zu Trier’, Führungsblätter des Rheinischen Landesmuseums Trier, 2 (9. Aufl.). Kuhnen, H.-P. 1996, ‘Sorgenkind der Denkmalpflege. Das Amphitheater Trier’, Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier, 28, pp. 13 – 22. Kuhnen, H.-P. 1997, ‘Brot und Spiele; Antikes (Er)leben im Amphitheater’, Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier, 29, 1997, pp. 36 – 42. Kuhnen, H.P. 2000, ‘Rekonstruierte Gladiatoren. Das Trierer Gladiatorenprojekt des Rheinischen Landesmuseums Trier mit Dr. Marcus Junkelmann’, Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier, 32, 2000, pp. 59 – 70. Kuhnen, H.-P. (ed.), 2000, Morituri. Menschenopfer – Todgeweihte – Strafgerichte. Ausstellungskatalog Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier. Kuhnen, H.-P. (ed.), 2001, Das römische Trier. Führer zu archäologischen Denkmälern in Deutschland 40 (Stuttgart). Kuhnen, H.-P., 2003, ‘Art. Trier II A: Ausgrabungsgeschichte / Altertumsforschung’, in M.


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Landfester (Hsg.), Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopädie der Antike Bd. 15,3 Rezeptionsgeschichte (Stuttgart) Kuhnen, H.-P., 2006a, ‘Das archäologische Erbe Triers. Gewinne und Verluste im Spannungsfeld zwischen Denkmalpflege und Stadtplanung’, Rheinische Heimatpflege, 43, 2006, pp. 95 – 115. Kuhnen, H.-P , 2006b, ‘Gewaltrituale interdisziplinär. Gladiatorenkämpfe und Amphitheater an Rhein und Mosel’, in K. Schmotz (Hsg.), Vorträge des 24. Niederbayerischen Archäologentages, pp. 161 – 190 (Rahden). Kuhnen, H.-P.and Thiel, M. 1997, ‘An der Trierer Arena. Ausgrabungen im Grabungsschutzgebiet „Amphitheater – Petrisberg“’, Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier, 29, pp. 17 - 31. Kyle, D. G. 1998, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (London: Routledge). Laufner, R. 1975 ‘Zur Trierer Denkmalpflege im 19. Jahrhundert’, Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch, pp. 15, 112 ss. Löhr, H. 1997 ‘Nassholzbefunde und Grundwasser in Trier’, Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier, 29, pp. 43 – 50.

Quednow, C.-F. 1820 Beschreibung der Alterthümer in Trier und dessen Umgebung aus der gallisch-belgischen und römischen Periode in zwei Teilen. Trier. Spectacula I, 1990 C. Domergue, Chr. Landes u. J.-M. Paillier (Hsg.), Spectacula I: Gladiateurs et amphithéatres. Actes du Colloque tenu à Toulouse et à Lattes 26. – 29.5.1987 (Lattes: Editions Imago Musée archéologique Henri Prades) Spectacula II, 1992 Chr. Landes (ed.), Spectacula II – Le théatre antique et ses spectaclesActes du colloque de Lattes 27. – 29. 4.1989 (Lattes: Editions Imago Musée archéologique Henri Prades) Steiner, P. 1934 ‘Die Schnitzereien aus dem Trierer Arenakeller’, Trierer Zeitschrift, 9, pp. 77 – 82; 113 – 119. Trierischer Volksfreund 2003 Artikel “Zwischen Grillschinken und Arena”. Trierischer Volksfreund Nr. 190, 18. 8. p. 9. Unruh, F. and Fontaine, Th., 2000 Zehntausend Jahre „Todgeweihte“ Zur Sonderausstellung „MORITURI“ (13.5. – 5.11.2000) im Rheinischen Landesmuseum Trier. Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier 32, pp. 7 – 16.

Plate 31 Plan of areas excavated in the Trier amphitheatre 1815 - 1996

Plate 32 “Experimental” gladiators testing Junkelmann’s reconstructions

Plate 33 Junkelmann’s familia gladiatoria pulli cornicenis when presenting their research in the Rheinisches

Landesmuseum Trier in 2002 (photograph by Gerhard Ziewers, Trier)

willmott amphitheatres 09-kuhnen offprint

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