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ISAIAH 24-27

A N D T H E

ORIGIN O F A P O C A L Y P T I C

BY

WILLIAM R. M I L L A R

Number 11

Isaiah 24-27 and the Origin of Apocalyptic

by

WILLIAM R. MILLAR

Published by

SCHOLARS PRESS

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ISAIAH 24-27 A N D T H E

ORIGIN OF A P O C A L Y P T I C

BY

WILLIAM R. MILLAR

Copyright© 1976

by

The President and Fellows of Harvard College

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Millar, William R Isaiah 24-27 and the origin of apocalyptic.

(Harvard Semitic monographs ; 11) Bibliography, p. 1. Bible. Ο. T. Isaiah XXIV-XXVII — Criticism,

interpretation, etc. 2. Apocalyptic literature. I. Title. II. Series. BS1515.2.M52 224ΜΌ77 76-3561 ISBN 0-89130-102-X

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Edwards Brothers, Inc. Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104

For Donna, Scott and Kim

PREFACE

This study began as a seminar paper, was expanded i n t o a doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n and appears now as a thorough r e v i s i o n of the l a t t e r work. I t i s not the purpose of t h i s study to pre-sent a comprehensive discussion of apocalyptic o r i g i n s . The goal i s simply to glean from Isaiah 24-27 material that i s im-portant to that discussion. In the process, i t i s hoped that l i g h t i s shed on our understanding of these important chapters i n Isaiah.

I am indebted to many who have given me support and en-couragement throughout t h i s project. A fellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities enabled me to study Canaanite mythology. Thanks are due to Leander Ε. Keck who read the manuscript at one stage and offered thorough and h e l p f u l c r i t i c i s m s . The s k i l l s of Joann Burnich as a manu-s c r i p t t y p i s t are superb. My s p e c i a l thanks go to Frank M. Cross whose d i s c i p l i n e , i n s i g h t s and patience have introduced me to the world of ancient I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o n .

Wilmot Center, New Hampshire

January 24, 1976

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IV. ISAIAH 24-27 AND THE ORIGIN OF APOCALYPTIC . . . . 103 A. The L i t e r a r y Context of Isaiah 24-27 103

1. Prosodie Style 103 a. Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 . 103 b. Isaiah 26:11-27:6 104 c. Other Passages 104

2. Themes 104 a. War 105 b. Victory 10 8 c. Feast 112 ־׳

3. Genre and Date 114 B. The H i s t o r i c a l Setting of Isaiah 24-27 115

1. Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 . . . 117 2. Isaiah 26:11-27:6 119

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES 121

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I. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN ISAIAH 24-27

The time i s r i p e for a fresh analysis of chapters 24-27 i n the book of Isaiah. In s p i t e of the f a c t that i n t h i s century there have been a number of d e t a i l e d discussions of these chap-ter s , there are s t i l l many points of controversy.

Even the basic assumption that Isaiah 24-27 form a sepa-rate unit i n the book of Isaiah has not escaped challenge. When one r a i s e s the problems of date, text, form, genre, h i s -t o r i c a l s e t t i n g and proposals for the s o - c a l l e d "destroyed c i t y , " one i s impressed by the scholarly labor that has been expended to crack the mysteries of these chapters.

More important, however, the s o - c a l l e d " I s a i a n i c Apoca-lypse" has a contribution to make to the current debate on the subject of apocalyptic o r i g i n s . I t i s to t h i s end that we f e e l another study i s j u s t i f i e d .

The secondary l i t e r a t u r e i n t e r p r e t i n g Isaiah 24-27 has centered again and again on three i n t e r r e l a t e d issues: A) the problem of l i t e r a r y genre; B) the problems presented by the text and i t s structure; and C) the d i f f i c u l t y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g the h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g . The l a t t e r includes the problems of date, authorship and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the destroyed c i t y .

A. The Problem of L i t e r a r y Genre

At one extreme Isaiah 24-27 has been i d e n t i f i e d as a l a t e p o s t - e x i l i c apocalyptic work.־י־ At another i t has been read as p r e - e x i l i c prophetic judgment l i t e r a t u r e thoroughly at home i n

2 the work of eighth-century Isaiah. In between i t frequently

1. See, for instance, Bernhard Duhm, D a s B u c h J e s a j a übersetzt u n d e r k l a r t , HKAT, I I I , 1 (4th ed., Göttingen: Van-denhoeck und Ruprecht, 1922), pp. 172-194. Hereinafter r e f e r -red to as J e s a j a .

2. Edward Kissane, T h e B o o k o f I s a i a h (Dublin: Browne and Nolin, LTD., 1941), pp. ν, 267, 303. Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as I s a i a h . See also Yehezkel Kaufmann, T h e R e l i g i o n o f I s r a e l , trans, and abridged by Moshe Greenberg, (Chicago: Uni-v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 1960), pp. 348, 384-394. Herein-a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as R e l i g i o n .

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

I. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN ISAIAH 24-27 1 A. The Problem of L i t e r a r y Genre 1 B. The Problems of Text and Structure 9 C. H i s t o r i c a l Setting and "Destroyed C i t y " . . . . 15 D. Summary 21

I I . THE TEXT AND PROSODY OF ISAIAH 24-27 23 A. Isaiah 24:l-16a 23

1. Isaiah 24:1-13 24 2. Isaiah 24:14-16a 31

B. Isaiah 24:16b-25:9 33 1. Isaiah 24:16b-18b 33 2. Isaiah 24:18c-23 34 3. Isaiah 25:l-4c 38 4. Isaiah 25:6-8 ., 40 5. Isaiah 25:9 42

C. Isaiah 25:10-26:8 44 1. Isaiah 25:10-12 44 2. Isaiah 26:1-8 45

D. Isaiah 26:11-27:6 49 1. Isaiah 26 :11-15 49 2. Isaiah 26 :16-20 52 3. Isaiah 26:21-27:1 54 4. Isaiah 27:2-6 55

E. Isaiah 27:12-13 58 F. Summary of Isaiah 24-27 59

1. Isaiah 51:9-11 61 2. U g a r i t i c Text 5.1.1-5 6 3

I I I . THE STRUCTURE OF ISAIAH 24-27 65 A. A Thematic Analysis of Isaiah 24-27 65

1. Isaiah 24:l-16a 65 2. Isaiah 24:16b-25:9 65 3. Isaiah 25:10-26:8 67 4. Isaiah 26:11-15 67 5. Isaiah 26:16-27:6 68 6. Isaiah 27:12-13 70 7. Summary 70

B. Thematic Patterns i n the Baal-'Anat Epic . . . . 71 C. The Divine Warrior Hymn and the Processional

Way i n the Royal Theology of Hebrew T r a d i t i o n . 82 D. Transformations i n Second Isaiah 95

1. War 95 2. V i c t o r y 97 3. Feast 101

E. Summary 101

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has been understood as prophetic eschatology, or more recent-4

l y , e a r l y apocalyptic. An important part of the methodology often used has been

to draw up a l i s t of themes from l a t e apocalyptic works such as the book of Daniel. These themes are then used to i d e n t i f y the genre of more debatable passages such as Isaiah 24-27. Rudolph Smend,י־ for instance, drew up a l i s t of apocalyptic themes which for him placed Isaiah 24-27, beyond a doubt, i n the post-e x i l i c period. There was the d e s c r i p t i o n of the destruction of the earth (24:18-20); the meal on Mount Zion (25:8); the notice of r e s u r r e c t i o n (26:19). There was the blowing of the great trumpet (27:13) and the use of the three beasts as v e i l e d h i s -tory (27:1). There was the concept of world judgment and the messianic era as a future event.

According to Smend, Isaiah 26:19 r e f e r r e d to a personal resurrection; therefore, the verse was to be dated l a t e r than the national r e s u r r e c t i o n he perceived i n E z e k i e l 37. Isaiah 27:1 was l a t e r than Isaiah 51:9 because the l a t t e r c l e a r l y r e -ferred to Babylon, whereas 27:1, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of apocalyptic, was ambiguous. I t was these themes and motifs that led Smend to date the chapters between 500-300 B.C.6

7 Using many of these same c r i t e r i a , Duhm i s o l a t e d what for

him was an apocalyptic oracle (24; 25:6-8; 26:20-27:1, 12-13) with l a t e r i ntrusions which included a song (25:1-5); a s a t i r i -c a l song concerning Moab (25:9-11); a poem r e f l e c t i n g hope i n the r e s u r r e c t i o n (26:1-19 and 25:12); and the song of the vine-yard (27:2-5). "Die Orakel i s t durchaus Apocalypse, zu deren Erklärung man die s y b i l l i n i s c h e n Bücher, Daniel, Henoch usw.,

3. See Joh. Lindblom, D i e J e s a j a - A p o k a l y p s e , J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 , LUÂ, N.F. 1, 34, 3 (Lund: C.W.K. Gleerup, 1938), 120 pages. Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as A p o k a l y p s e .

4. Paul Hanson, The D a w n o f A p o o a l y p t i a (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975), pp. 313-14. Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as D a w n .

5. Rudolph Smend, "Anmerkungen zu Jes. 24-27," ZAW, IV (1884), pp. 161-224. Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as "Anmerkungen."

6. I b i d . , pp. 199-200, 224.

7. Duhm, J e s a j a , pp. 172-94.

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nicht.missen kann und die den pentateuchischen Priesterkodex ο

ganz dogmatischer Weise benuzt." Duhm dated the apocalyptic oracle to 129 B.C. when, he suggested, Jerusalem was besieged by Antiochus Sidetes soon a f t e r John Hyrcanus acceded to the throne (135 B.C.) .

Rudolph warned the reader to be cautious i n u n q u a l i f i e d l y l a b e l i n g the chapters apocalyptic. He argued the chapters were through and through esc h a t o l o g i c a l . The central theme which revealed the eschatological perspective was the judgment of the world, li n k e d with a sharp contrast between Yahweh's power and the world's power. But for Rudolph, the break with p l a i n h i s t o r y was not complete. A f t e r the f a l l of the world c i t y , the heathen would turn to Zion as the new power. The eschatology was " n a t i o n a l i s t i s c h - p a r t i k u l a r i s t i s c h e , " that i s , Judah would survive the world judgment and the f a i t h f u l Jews would be assimilated into the new kingdom of God. Isaiah 26:21 announced the inbreaking of t h i s new period of s a l v a t i o n These themes, plus the notice of r e s u r r e c t i o n (26:19 and 25:8), the mention of elders rather than kings, and the apparent knowledge of the P r i e s t l y source (24:5, 18, 23) persuaded Rudolph that the chapters r e f l e c t e d a p o s t - e x i l i c s e t t i n g . He suggested that the f a l l of Babylon i n 330-300 B.C. to Alexander was the p r e c i p i t a t i n g event.

Lindblom also argued that the chapters were eschatological rather than apocalyptic. For him apocalyptic meant

Transzendentismus, Mythologismus, kosmologische Orientierung; weiter pessimistische Geschichtsbe-trachtung, Dualismus, Periodeneinteilung, die Lehre von zwei Äonen, Z a h l e n s p i e l e r i ; s c h l i e s s l i c h Pseudoekstatismus, gekünstelte offenbarungsansprücke, Pseudonymität und Geheimnistueri. ׳'••'־

But, for Lindblom, i t was necessary also to note how these themes were used. Isaiah 24-27 was not to be regarded as

8. I b i d . , p. 172.

9. Wilhelm Rudolph, J e s a j a 2 4 - 2 7 , BWANT, LV, 10 (Stutt-gart: W. Kohlhammer, 1933), 64 pages.

10. I b i d . , p. 63.

11. Lindblom, A p o k a l y p s e , p. 102.

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apocalyptic l i t e r a t u r e because the eschatological portions were but expansions of h i s t o r i c a l events. Lindblom suggested i t was important to recognize that prophetic language of the future may function simply to renew the present age and not at a l l im-ply a return to chaos and inauguration of a new age. One must, therefore, look beyond the language used to what was a c t u a l l y being talked about. "Eschatologische hat es mit dem sachlichen

12 Inhalt, n i c h t mit der Form und dem Ursprung zu tun" Lindblom labeled the chapters the " I s a i a n i c Cantata" and placed them closer to prophecy than to apocalyptic. He suggested the h i s -t o r i c a l occasion for the chapters to be the f a l l of Babylon i n 485 B.C. 1 3

Plöger"'''' has contributed to the discussion by pressing the search for apocalyptic o r i g i n s further. The question with which he was concerned was an h i s t o r i c a l one. The national l i f e of I s r a e l was accompanied by many prophetic forms. In tracing the h i s t o r y of the prophetic movement, one notes a gap of about three centuries after the f a l l of Jerusalem, where presumably the prophetic s p i r i t was forced into anonymity. In Daniel, however, one witnesses a new community l i f e , Hellenism having spread through the ancient Near East i n the interim. What happened to the descendants of the prophets? From whence did the piety, witnessed in Daniel, come? The eschatology of Daniel i s apocalyptic. Is i t possible to discover e a r l i e r traces of apocalyptic eschatology i n the anonymous or, better, the pseudonymous l i t e r a t u r e tacked onto the prophets? For i t i s p r e c i s e l y here one witnesses the l i f e of the prophetic s p i r i t i n the years a f t e r the e x i l e , before Daniel. Plöger discussed three such "eschatological texts," one of which was Isaiah 24-27. The other two were Zechariah 12-14 and J o e l .

However much Iranian dualism may have amplified apocalyp-t i c , i n discussing the o r i g i n of apocalyptic, Plöger set aside

12. I b i d . , p. 103.

13. I b i d . , pp. 80-84.

14. Otto Plöger, T h e o k v a t i e u n d E s c h a t o l o g i e (Wageningen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1959). Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as T h e o -k v a t i e .

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Iranian dualism as a primary source. The mediation of foreign ideas presupposed a c e r t a i n open-mindedness within the Jewish community i t s e l f . "So müssen wir innerhalb der jüdischen Ge-meinde mit bestimmten Voraussetzungen rechnen, die uns die be-r e i t w i l l i g e Aufnahme und Aneignung fremder Vorstellungen er-klären können."'''^ A s t r u c t u r a l change had taken place within I s r a e l . They had moved from being a people to become a commun-i t y — f r o m being a nation to become a theocracy. This change was evident on the l e v e l of eschatology which was one of the important l i n k s between prophecy and apocalyptic. The counter-part to the h i s t o r i c a l change was the s h i f t from an a c t u a l i z i n g to a d u a l i s t i c eschatology.

Plöger divided Isaiah 24-27 into two sections. He dated chapters 2 4-26 roughly to the period of Antiochus the Great and the unrest caused by his r u l e . There did not yet e x i s t the sharp dualism between the present and coming age i n the Apoca-lypse. But, the world judgment was a cosmic event. The notice of the resurrection of the dead would place t h i s f i r s t section nearer to Daniel. The h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n derived from the unrest i n Syria-Palestine caused by c o n f l i c t s between Seleucids and Ptolemies. Those responsible for these chapters were a conjectured group within the Jerusalem community who were mak-ing sharper eschatological d i v i s i o n s than the general community

17 at large. Chapter 27 was an older piece d e r i v i n g from the hopes for u n i f i c a t i o n , i n the Davidic sense, s t i l l a l i v e i n the early Persian period. I t i s to be placed a f t e r the work of Ezra and Nehemiah p r i o r to the s p l i t with the Samaritans. Within Jerusalem there were growing two factions representing the emerging c o n f l i c t between Jerusalem and Shechem. Chapter 27 was added to 24-26 and r e f l e c t s the continuing hope, even within e s c h a t o l o g i c a l dogma, that one day I s r a e l would be re-united.

15. I b i d . , p. 37.

16. I b i d . , p. 96. For which Plöger followed Vriezen. See Vriezen, "Prophecy and Eschatology," VT (Congress Volume, 1953), p. 227.

17. I b i d . , p. 96.

18. I b i d . , pp. 96-97.

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Paul Hanson, i n a recent study of apocalyptic o r i g i n s , has developed t h i s l a t t e r thesis of a group making sharper es-c h a t o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s than the community at large, into a very convincing argument. Hanson has demonstrated that the oracles of s o - c a l l e d Third Isaiah and Second Zechariah r e f l e c t a tension between two groups within early p o s t - e x i l i c I s r a e l . These two groups constructed alternate v i s i o n s of the post-ex-i l i c reconstruction of I s r a e l . A more visionary group, center-ed i n Palestine, held Second Isaiah as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l leader. Chapters 6 0-62 contain t h e i r v i s i o n of what the reconstruction of I s r a e l would be. A more r e a l i s t i c , or pragmatic, group, centered i n Babylon, held E z e k i e l as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l leader. Chapters 40-48 of E z e k i e l , i n part, contain t h e i r v i s i o n . Han-son connects the l a t t e r group with the Zadokite priesthood that went to Babylon during the e x i l i c period.

Because the Zadokite priesthood held favor with the Per-sian establishment, they had p o l i t i c a l power on t h e i r side and worked to bring about the actual b u i l d i n g of the second temple. As the I s a i a n i c group more and more found themselves excluded from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the reconstruction events, the tension between the two groups mounted. The v i s i o n a r i e s were increas-ingly forced to resolve t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n s i n fantasy, that i s , in v i s i o n s of a new age when matters would be set s t r a i g h t . I t was i n such a s o c i o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n , argues Hanson, that apoc-a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e began to take shape.

He discussed Isaiah 24-27 i n summary fashion by i d e n t i f y -ing i t as among that l i t e r a t u r e which emerged out of these early p o s t - e x i l i c struggles. Refining what he c a l l e d a con-t e x t u a l - t y p o l o g i c a l method, which we w i l l discuss further be-

20 low, he i d e n t i f i e d Isaiah 24-27 as early apocalyptic.

There are scholars, however, who are not convinced we are dealing with an eschatological or apocalyptic work at a l l . The c a t h o l i c scholar, Edward Kissane, saw Isaiah 24-27 as apoca-l y p t i c "only i n a very wide sense."

The only c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an apocalypse which i t has are the d e s c r i p t i o n of a world-judgment, the

19. Hanson, D a w n , p a s s i m .

20. I b i d . , pp. 313-14.

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v e i l e d manner i n which the victims of God's wrath are mentioned. Indeed, even c r i t i c s who speak of i t as an apocalypse f i n d i n i t a reference to h i s -t o r i c a l events of the p o s t - e x i l i c period.21

Kissane's judgments were part of an extended argument to a t t r i b u t e the e n t i r e t y of Isaiah 1-39 to eighth-century Isaiah. "The mere mention of world-judgment i s no proof that the sec-t i o n deals with the end of time. Every intervention of God i s

22 a world-judgment." "His intervention has as consequences the punishment of the wicked and the reward or deliverance of the j u s t . " This i s a theme common i n the P s a l t e r . There were two phases to the plan of world judgment: "the f i r s t r e s u l t i n g in the r u i n of Judah and the preservation of a remnant, the second r e s u l t i n g i n the destruction of Assyria and the estab-lishment of the kingdom of Yahweh i n Zion." According to Kissane, although Judah and A s s y r i a are not s p e c i f i c a l l y men-tioned, there i s nothing i n the chapters which could not r e f e r to events i n eighth-century Palestine.

With respect to verses usually pointed to as containing apocalyptic ideas, "xxvi:19 does not r e f e r to i n d i v i d u a l resur-r e c t i o n but to p o l i t i c a l r e v i v a l , and xxv:8 means simply that

23 violence and bloodshed w i l l no longer be found i n Zion."

As x x v i i : l has an a l l u s i o n to the conquest of the monsters of P r i m i t i v e Chaos, and as the ruin of Judah i s also compared to a return to chaos, i t i s probable that there i s an a l l u s i o n here to the imprisonment of the monsters preparatory to t h e i r execution as nar-rated i n the Babylonian epic (cf. E n u m a E l i s h Tab. i v . , l i n e s 110-114). 2 i

In a s i m i l a r vein, Yehezkel Kaufmann argued against l a b e l -ing Isaiah 24-27 as apocalyptic. "The d i s t i n c t i v e feature of apocalypse i s i t s anxious inquiry into the secrets of the cos-

2 5 mos." The apocalyptic visionary i s transmitted to the cosmic

21. Kissane, I s a i a h , p. 267.

22. A l l quotations i n t h i s paragraph may be found i n i b i d . , ρ. 267.

23. I b i d . , p. 283.

24. I b i d . , p. 283.

25. The quotations in t h i s paragraph may be found i n Kaufmann, R e l i g i o n , p. 348.

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realm of divine palaces, paradise, h e l l , etc., or he i s pro-jected through time unfolding the secrets of "the generations and ages to the end of time." "This perspective v i s i o n , as we may c a l l i t , i s the very heart of apocalyptic." For apocalyp-t i c these visions were an end i n themselves. For c l a s s i c a l prophecy, visions were connected to this-worldly events. The v i s i o n was designed ultimately, "to command or reprove i n the name of God." Even the bizarre visions of E z e k i e l , the father of the apocalyptic tour of space, served to enhance his mission to the earthly community of I s r a e l .

In Isaiah 24-27, Kaufmann argued, one does not encounter at a l l the "perspective v i s i o n of h i s t o r i c a l ages." The judg-ment imagery directed against the hosts of the heavens (24:21) refers simply to " e c l i p s e s , as part of the t e r r o r s of the day of doom—a motif of early l i t e r a t u r e (e.g., Amos 4:13; 5:8; Hos. 4:3; Is. 13:10, 13), which the l a t e r apocalypse borrow-e d . " ^ The monsters of 27:1 have a Canaanite background. "Now that we know the Canaanite basis of such eschatological imagery

27 there i s no reason whatever to date i t to late time." Isaiah 25:8 and 26:19 are to be read against the ancient theme of the death and r e v i v a l of the sick, s u f f e r i n g and persecuted who "have descended into the p i t " (Pss. 88:4ff; 143:3; Lam. 3:6, 54f). E z e k i e l used such resurrection language to depict the e x i l e and re s t o r a t i o n of the nation (Ezek. 37). "The r e v i v a l of the dead and the shades of 26:19 i s but a figure f o r the deliverance of those who are i n di r e d i s t r e s s , who have come down to d u s t . " 2 8

Our survey, thus f a r , has revealed as important, the f o l -lowing methodological p r i n c i p l e s when dealing with the i d e n t i -f i c a t i o n of apocalyptic as a l i t e r a r y genre. 1) A simple l i s t -ing of apocalyptic themes, usually from l a t e r works, has not s e t t l e d the question of genre i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . 2) Several c r i -t i c s have demonstrated that i n any p a r t i c u l a r passage one must ask the question of function. How was the imagery used? Did

26. I b i d . , p. 384.

27. I b i d . , p. 384.

28. I b i d . , p. 385.

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the language serve to enhance the s i g n i f i c a n c e of God's action i n an h i s t o r i c a l event or had the i n t e r n a l power of the themes themselves broken loose from t h e i r mooring i n h i s t o r i c a l event drawing the reader more and more into the realm of fantasy? 3) Some recent scholars have shown that l i t e r a r y genre, l i k e pottery forms and alphabetic s c r i p t s , evolve over the years. Hanson, for instance, has demonstrated that the apocalyptic l i t e r a t u r e of the s i x t h and f i f t h century was d i f f e r e n t from the apocalyptic l i t e r a t u r e of the second century. Therefore, to understand f u l l y t h i s genre and i t s development, one must take a closer look at i t s prosody, l i t e r a r y form and p a r t i c u -l a r l y the transformations therein. This leads us to the next major unresolved problem i n the study of Isaiah 24-27.

B. The Problems of Text and Structure

Concurrent with the lack of consensus concerning the genre of Isaiah 24-27 i s a lack of consensus concerning matters of text and structure.

Smend was unimpressed by the poetry of these chapters. For him, they were not to be compared to the work of eighth-century Isaiah. Even allowing for s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n s , 24-27 presented an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t picture from eighth-century Isaiah. Smend read the paronomasia, a l l i t e r a t i o n , rhyme, and

2 9 chiasm as " d i f f i c u l t , learned and forced." The author was c l e a r l y a l a t e r imitator whom he found d u l l , a r t i f i c i a l and lacking i n poetic " S a h w u n g . " ^

31 Lohmann began his study of these chapters with the l y r i c

sections. He proposed to t r e a t them as i n d i v i d u a l u n its, not-ing i f there was prophecy of some future event or a picture of an h i s t o r i c a l V o r g a n g . With close attention to textual data, he i s o l a t e d nine l y r i c s : 26:4-6; 25:1-5; 24:7-12; 27:10, 11(8); 25:9-12; 27:2b-5; 26:lb-3; 26:7-11; 26:12-19 (-17, 18). His next task was to study the rest of the Apocalypse, wherein

29. Smend, "Anmerkungen," p. 193.

30. I b i d . , p . 194. 31. Paul Lohmann, "Die selbständigen l y r i s c h e n Abschnitte

i n Jes. 24-27," Ζ AW XXXVII (1917/18), pp. 1-58.

10

there was just eschatological material, to see i f i t stood alone without the l y r i c s or i f the l y r i c s belonged to i t . Then would come the f i n a l problem of the meaning and the question of the o r i g i n of the e n t i r e Apocalypse. His death made i t impos-s i b l e for him to f i n i s h h is plan of study.

Kissane has noted, however, that even on the matter of i s o l a t i n g the l y r i c s of the Apocalypse, there has been no con-sensus. He i l l u s t r a t e d h is point by comparing the l y r i c s that

32 have been suggested for h i s u n i t spanning 24:1-26:6:

L o h m a n n D u h m P r o a k s o h

24:7-12 24:8-18a 25:1-5 25:1-4 25:1-5

9-12 9-11 26:lb-3 26:1-19 26:1-6

4-5a

In another d i r e c t i o n , a very d e t a i l e d textual study was 33

made by Liebmann which i n many ways i s s t i l l h e l p f u l , espe-c i a l l y i n that he has gathered much of the textual data into one place. One weakness i n his study, however, was the lack of adequate c o n t r o l i n his not applying rules of poetic meter.

34 Eduard Sievers sought to f i l l t h i s gap by applying to Isaiah 24-27 his method of counting accent beat.

Sievers suggested there were three basic groups i n Isaiah 24-27, i d e n t i f i a b l e by the number of accent beats to the l i n e : A) seven beats: 24:1-6, 18c-23; 25:6-12; 26:1a, 7-21; 27:1-13; B) 3+3: 24:4-12; 25:2-5; and C) s i x beats: 24:13-18b; 25:1; 2 6:lb-6.^ To Sievers, i t was obvious that such an analysis yi e l d e d new d i v i s i o n s i n the text. He argued that such a met-r i c analysis had uncovered the o r i g i n a l units which subsequent-ly had been a l t e r e d . The b e n e f i t to the exegete was that now

32. Kissane, I s a i a h , p. 272.

33. Ernst Liebmann, "Der Text zu Jesaja 24-27," ZAW XXII (1902), pp. 1-56, 285-304, XXIII (1903), pp. 209-86, XXIV (1904), pp. 51-104, XXV (1905), pp. 145-71.

34. Eduard Sievers, "Alttestamentliche Miscellen I: Jesajas 24-27," B G L LVI (1904), pp. 151-88.

35. I b i d . , pp. 152, 160-65.

11

he had a new control f o r use i n penetrating to the h i s t o r y of the text's transmission i n t r a d i t i o n . ' ' 6

Procksch"^ b u i l t h is study on the framework suggested by Duhm and the metrical research, with some v a r i a t i o n s , done by Sievers. He argued with Duhm that the basic d i v i s i o n of the material i n Isaiah 24-27 was between apocalyptic oracle and non-eschatological song. The thesis of Procksch was that the chapters consisted of two basic groups: A) apocalyptic oracles, "Siebenerapokalypse," characterized by seven-beat meter and B) l a t e r non-eschatological hymns, "Lieder k r e i s , " characterized by six-beat l i n e s .

However, the s u b j e c t i v i t y involved i n counting accents has proven not to s e t t l e the questions involved, as i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the following chart which compares the meter count of chap-ter 24:1-17 made by Procksch, Rudolph, Lindblom, Kissane, and

38 March. The t e x t u a l emendations proposed to preserve the sug-gested meter have not been included. These general remarks, however, do apply. Rudolph r a d i c a l l y rearranged the text a f t e r 26:13 to f i t his system. Lindblom used the p r i n c i p l e of ana-c r u s i s (upbeat) to l e v e l out the meter. Kissane separated the text i n t o two major d i v i s i o n s : 24:1-26:6 and 26:7-27:13. The former was composed of f i v e groups of three 4-verse strophes ; the l a t t e r seven 6-verse strophes. Wallace March, who com-pleted his d i s s e r t a t i o n i n 1966, used the method of counting accents and has come up with s t i l l another r e s u l t .

39 Fohrer made extensive use of yet another devise to sep-

arate the. units, namely the r u b r i c s , such as " i n that day," and "for Yahweh has spoken." Our textual analysis, however, has revealed that such an approach i s unsound, since i n some cases

36. I b i d . , p. 151.

37. Otto Procksch, J e s a j a I übersetzt u n d erklärt, ΚΑΤ, IX, 1 (Leipzig: Α. Deichertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1930) , pp. 305-46.

38. Wallace March, A S t u d y o f T w o P r o p h e t i c C o m p o s i t i o n s i n I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 (Unpublished Th.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Union Theological Seminary i n the C i t y of New York, 1966). Herein-a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 .

39. Georg Fohrer, "Der Aufbau der Apokalypse des Jesaja-buchs, Jes. 24-27," CSQ, XXV (1963), pp. 34-45. Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as "Aufbau."

12 13

the r ubrics seem to have been introduced secondarily into the text.

Lindblom, b u i l d i n g on the works of Duhm, Procksch and Hylmö (who read chapters 25-26 as a prophetic l i t u r g y ) suggest-ed that there i s evidence of a l i t u r g y throughout 24-27. Lindblom i s o l a t e d four sections of Isaiah 24-27 as l a t e r addi-tions: 24:21-23, the imprisoning of princes and the kingdom of Yahweh; 27:1, the destruction of the world; 25:10b-12, concern-ing Moab; and 26:15-19, a lament of the people. The rest of the "Apocalypse" he viewed as nine poems a l t e r n a t i n g between

40 eschatological prophecy and songs of thanksgiving. The songs of thanksgiving, b a s i c a l l y o p t i m i s t i c , derived from the atten-dant joy of the destruction of Babylon by Xerxes I in 485 B.C., the date he assigned to the Apocalypse. This h i s t o r i c a l event, however, was placed within a broader context as the f i r s t act of a great eschatological drama inv o l v i n g heaven and earth, af-firming the supremacy of Yahweh, ultimately r e s u l t i n g i n the return of the Jews to t h e i r homeland. Supporting Hylmö's at-tempt to see 25-26 as a l i t u r g y , Lindblom c r i t i c i z e d his d e f i -n i t i o n of l i t u r g y as being too narrow to be applied to t h i s work. Lindblom discarded the term altogether as inappropriate to t h i s context and suggested cantata. I t was composed by a prophet working i n the Jerusalem c u l t , and sung antiphonally by a lay and prophetic choir. I t was perhaps sung at some f e s t i -va l i n v o l v i n g a procession through the c i t y gate. Which f e s t i -

41 v a l , however, one could not determine.

Fohrer, i n a b r i e f study, delineated three prophetic l i t -urgies which made up the Apocalypse (24 :1-20; 24:21-25:10a; 27:1-6, 12-13). Isaiah 26:1-6 and 7-21 were connecting

42 pieces.

Wallace March, following clues from Fohrer, has read the chapters as a prophetic l i t u r g y . Isaiah 24:1-3 i s a "prophetic

43 announcement of impending doom." Isaiah 24:4-15 show traces

40. Lindblom, A p o k a l y p s e , p. 67.

41. I b i d . , p. 71.

42. Fohrer, "Aufbau," pp. 34-35.

43. March, I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 , p. 7.

Procksch

Rudolph

Lindblom

Kissane^

March

24:1

7+7+

7 3+2

4+4

or 2

(2+2

) 4+

3+2

3+2

2+2

2+2

:2 3+

2 2+

2 3+

2+2

2+2+

2 2 +

2 2+

2 2+

2 + 2

2 + 2 + 2

2+

3 2+

2 : 3

7+7+

7 3+

2 3+

3 3+

3+3

3+2

3+2

2 + 2

2 + 2

:4

3+3

3+3+

3 3+

3+3

1+2

3+4 (+5a)

3+3

(+5a)

:5 4+

3 2+

2 4+

3+4

2+2+

2 2 +

2 : 6

7 + 7+

7 4+

3 3+

3 4+

3 3+

2 4+3

3+3

4+3

3+3

v. 13:

2+2 +

2 1—

2+3

:7

3+3

3+3

4+3

2+2 +

2 : 8

3+3

3+3

3+3

3+3+

3 3+

3+3

3 + 3

:9 3+

3 3+

3 3+

3 3+

3 3+

3 :10

3+3

3+3

3+3

v. 11 3+

3+3

2+3

: 11 3+

3 3+

2 3+

3 v. 10

3 + 3

. 3+

2+3

:12

3+3

3+3

3+3

3+3

3+3

:13

6+6+

6 (cf. v.

6)

6+6

or 2(

3+3)

3+

2 2+

2+2

or 3

(2 + 2

) 2 +

3 2 +

2 + 2

:14

3+3

6+6

or 2

(3+3

) 3T3

3+3

3+3

( + 15

a) or

3(2 +

2) :15

6+6+

6 2+

2+2

6+6

or 2

(3+3

) 4+

2 2+

2+2

(+14c

or 3(

2+2)

4+3

2+2+

2 :16

2+2+

2 6+6

or 2(

3+3)

4+2

2+2+

2 2 +

2 or 3(

2+2)

2+

2 3+3

2 +

3 3+

3 3 + 3+3

2 +

3 :17

3+3

3T3

3+3

3+3

3+3

1The

ac

cent

cou

nt o

f Ki

ssan

e's

work

is

my

own,

de

duce

d from h

is E

ngli

sh t

rans

lati

on an

d ar

rang

emen

t of

the

tex

t.

16

suggestions have been made to i t s i d e n t i t y . We w i l l l i m i t our-selves to the three proposals with the strongest evidence.

1. A n u n k n o w n city i n Moab.—The only h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r -ence i n Isaiah 24-27 i s to Moab (25:10-12). Isaiah 24:16-18, which appear verbatim i n a c o l l e c t i o n of oracles against Moab in Jeremiah 48, reinforces t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with Moab. Smend looked to Moab for the c i t y . His reconstruction of the h i s t o r i c a l context began with the reference to the west i n Isaiah 24:14-16. Alexander the Great came from a land west of Palestine. Smend argued that those i n the diaspora, p a r t i c u -l a r l y i n Asia Minor, were f i l l e d with the messianic hope. They recognized Alexander as the one bringing i n the new age, hence the j u b i l a t i o n of 24:14-16. The author, l i v i n g i n Judah, suf-fered from Alexander's expedition into P a lestine. He saw, how-ever, that i t was deserved because of the g u i l t among his own people. There was hope for the f a i t h f u l , i n that the present s u f f e r i n g was but a prelude to the joy of the new age. The au-thor's s p e c i f i c joy was directed to the impending, or actual, f a l l of Moab, which at the time was exerting p o l i t i c a l pressure on I s r a e l and was about to f a l l , as w e l l , before the forces of Alexander.

I t was Alexander's march through Syria-Palestine which p r e c i p i t a t e d the f o c a l point around which two dominant themes c r y s t a l i z e d : 1) I s r a e l was being punished for her sins (24:1-13); but 2) there was ground for some r e j o i c i n g i n that, at the same time, her dreaded enemy, Moab, was to succumb (24: 14-23) . The catastrophe took on overtones of world judgment when viewed from the perspective of God's purposes i n the event. I s r a e l ' s

g u i l t was being atoned for, and the day was rapi d l y a r r i v i n g when the messianic age would be established. These themes hav-ing been set, they were further developed by the author: 25:1-5: hope f o r the f a l l of the Moabite power; 25:6-8: hope for the re s t o r a t i o n of the world. Isaiah 25:9-12 was a song i n which the two themes were k n i t together: re s t o r a t i o n of the f a i t h f u l and destruction of Moab. Chapter 26, opening a chapter l a r g e l y of prayers, treated the same themes. Verses 26:1-13 focused on the s u f f e r i n g and end of I s r a e l ; 26:14-27:1 elaborated on the ground of new hope which reached the peak i n the notice of resur r e c t i o n . This Smend regarded as more d i a l e c t i c than

poetic. Verses 27:2-13 were yet another song, t h i s time sung by Yahweh himself, i n which the joys of rest o r a t i o n and the de-st r u c t i o n of Moab were c e l e b r a t e d . ^

54 E i s s f e l d t was another who took se r i o u s l y the references

to Moab. Following the basic d i v i s i o n between apocalyptic oracle and song, suggested by Duhm, he reversed the dating and regarded the songs as older than the eschatological prophecy. He suggested that the fourth century was the e a r l i e s t possible date. He challenged the frequent choice of Babylon as the wicked destroyed c i t y on the grounds that " i n 26:6 the feet of the poor ( i . e . , the Jews) trampled it....We must therefore think of a c i t y i n the region of Judah. Further evidence included the fact that the mention of wine i n the h o s t i l e c i t y compared favorably with Isaiah 16:7-10. Also compare the Jew-ish hatred of Moab i n Isaiah 16:16 with 25:10 and Zion as a place of refuge i n 16:1-5 and 25:6-8. The songs were "occa-sioned by a d i s a s t e r f a l l e n upon Moab and i t s c a p i t a l . " " ' 6 The mythical beasts r e f e r to the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms.

...24-27 may also be set side by side with 34-35, i n that i n both passages a judgment f a l l i n g upon a par-t i c u l a r people i n the environment of Judah, i n the one case Moab, i n the other Edom, i s extended into a world d i s a s t e r , and provides an occasion for the promises of the glory of the kingdom of Yahweh on Z i o n . 5 7

5 8 Mulder, too, developed the thesis that the destroyed

c i t y was connected with Moab. He proposed Dibon. According to his p o s i t i o n , Isaiah 24-27 must have been written a f t e r the re b u i l d i n g of the walls of Jerusalem (cf. 26 : I f f ) , and since the ideas

53. Smend, "Anmerkungen," pp. 193-95, 215-24.

54. Otto E i s s f e l d t , T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , A n I n t r o d u c t i o n , trans, from the 3rd German ed. by Peter R. Ackroyd (New York: Harper and Row, 1965).

55. I b i d . , p. 326.

56. I b i d . , p. 326.

57. I b i d . , p. 327.

58. Egge Simon Mulder, O i e T h e o l o g i e v a n d i e J e s a j a A p o k a l i p s e J e s a j a 2 4 - 2 7 (Djarkarta: J . B. Wolters, 1954). Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as A p o k a l i p s e .

18

expressed were more i n harmony with l a t e r developments, Mulder suggested a date of ca. 270 B.C., a date subse-quent to the Nabatean invasion of Moab, which he under-stood as the probable backdrop for t h i s w r i t i n g . ^

There have been attempts made to remove the problem of Moab t e x t u a l l y , e i t h e r by emending m o a b to '3i/3fc6" or deleting the e n t i r e oracle as secondary.^

We w i l l argue that the mention of Moab i n Isaiah 24-27 (and the mention of Edom i n Isaiah 34) i s symbolic, rather than l i t e r a l . To be sure, the language used i s very s p e c i f i c and probably had i t s o r i g i n i n an oracle against h i s t o r i c a l Moab, but i t s place i n the Apocalypse goes back to the theme of New Conquest revived by Second Isaiah. Moab and Edom are symbolic of the resistance met i n the Transjordan area during the f i r s t conquest. The point i n the Apocalypse i s that a l l opposition to Yahweh's plan of renewing creation w i l l be crushed. Zion w i l l be re-established.

2. Babylon.—Babylon has been i d e n t i f i e d as the destroyed c i t y by numerous scholars (among them Rudolph, Lindblom, K e s s l e r , 6 ^ Anderson, 6^ Henry, 6^ and Otzen6"*) on the grounds that the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and c a r r i e d the people i n e x i l e to Babylon. I t i s natural to expect that a deep ha-tred would be d i r e c t e d toward that c i t y . The joy of 24:14-16 would have been occasioned by the c i t y ' s take over i n e i t h e r

59. Marsh, I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 , p. xxv. See Mulder, A p o k a -l i p s e , pp. 91-93.

60. Torry, H T h R , XXXI (1938), p. 246.

61. Lindblom, March.

62. Werner Kessler, G o t t g e h t es um d a s G a n z e , l e s . S S - 5 6 u n d J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 , Die Botschaft des A.T., 19 (Stuttgart: Calber Verlag, 1960), 175 pages.

63. G. W. Anderson, "Isaiah 24-27 Reconsidered," VT, Supplement IX (1963), pp. 118-26.

64. Marie Louise Henry, G l a u b e n e k r i s e u n d G l a u b e n s b e -Währung i n d e n D i c h t u n g e n d e r J e s a j a a p o k a l y p s e , BWANT, 86 (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1967). Hereinafter r e f e r r e d to as G l a u b e n s k r i s e .

65. Benedikt Otzen, "Traditions and Structures of Isaiah XXIV-XXVII," VT, XXIV (1974), p. 206.

19

539 B.C. by Cyrus (though usually not suggested because the c i t y was not then destroyed); 485 B.C. by Xerxes I (though the f i g h t i n g i n the c i t y does not reach the extent described i n the Apocalypse); or 331 B.C. to Alexander the Great.

The most recent elaboration of t h i s view was by Marie Louise Henry. She was very s e n s i t i v e to the d i v e r s i t y of ma-t e r i a l i n Isaiah 24-27. Previous scholars had done well i n d i s s e c t i n g the chapters using textual c r i t e r i a , metrics, form-hi s t o r y , l i t e r a r y and h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m , and l i t u r g i c a l and t h e o l o g i c a l presuppositions. She argued that the time had come to focus on i t s unity. What were those forces which produced the work? What were the r e l i g i o u s and psychological motifs that provided the pressure to bring together into a unity the d i v e r s i t y of material that had been uncovered by the various s c h o l a r l y studies thus f a r ? 6 6

Henry recognized that Second Isaiah stimulated powerful r e l i g i o u s motifs which spread through the e x i l i c community. She suggested the poet i n Isaiah 24-27 was moved to write p r i -marily from a r e l i g i o u s concern. He u n i v e r s a l i z e d from a par-t i c u l a r event. Indeed, he was constructing the "event" from uni v e r s a l meaning. His presentation contained no h i s t o r y i n the profane sense but he had interpreted an event as the f u l -f i l l m e n t of divine purpose through which human purpose was set aside and the working out of the l a s t worth between man and God was set out i n a v i s i o n . Henry suggested that the terminus a

6 7 quo for the Apocalypse would be 538 B.C., the end of the Babylonian c a p t i v i t y , although i t was l i k e l y to have been created l a t e r since the c i t y was not i n ruins nor had the f o r -eigners turned to Yahweh as Lord. The f a l l of Babylon was con-nected with the hope for the divine rule of God, hopes begun for the e x i l i c community, i n Second Isaiah.

Henry's underlining of the importance of Second Isaiah for our understanding of the Apocalypse i s u s e f u l . But the model of the formation of 24-27 as a l i t e r a r y deposit descending from as i t were, and shaped by r e l i g i o u s and psychological ideas can

66. Henry, G l a u b e n s k r i s e , p. 12.

67. I b i d . , p. 33.

20

be sharpened by working through the more concrete transforma-tions of royal and prophetic forms and l i t e r a r y prosody f i r s t .

3. J e r u s a l e m . — A t h i r d opinion i n the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the destroyed c i t y i s Jerusalem i t s e l f , a choice which we, too, w i l l defend. Of the recent studies, March selected Jerusalem a f t e r 587 B.C. His basic reconstruction was as follows. Ac-cording to Isaiah 24:1-20, Yahweh had punished h i s own people for breach of covenant. The r e j o i c i n g of 24:14-15 stemmed, from

6 8 a "confident expectation of Yahweh's coming deliverance." This expectation was seen as an i n t e g r a l part of the communal lament form. "The prophet, however, sees unrelieved gloom and more extensive punishment. He may hope that his people w i l l repent, but he expresses no confidence that t h i s w i l l happen or that the wrath of Yahweh w i l l be turned away from them. The s i t u a t i o n i s unbearable, but i t s h a l l become even more

69״severe.

In Isaiah 24:21-27:1, the mood had changed. The c i t y i s s t i l l Jerusalem, but "more p a r t i c u l a r l y Zion (24:23, 25:6, 7, 10)." "Attention i s turned toward the coming end of the period of waiting." "Masked reference i s made to the r i v a l d e i t i e s of Canaan, but the s u p e r i o r i t y of Yahweh i s unquestioned." The c i t i e s of 25:2 and 26:5 are u n i d e n t i f i a b l e c i t i e s i n hymns re-f e r r i n g i n general to "those who oppose, or who have not yet recognized, the power of Yahweh." "I f 24:1-20, then, i s cor-r e c t l y dated to around 575 B.C., 24:21-27:1 i s best understood as coming from around 560. This would provide for the change i n mood that we have noted....

Hanson o f f e r s the suggestion: . . . i f the c i t y of chaos, the destruction of which i s celebrated by the apocalypse, i s the Jerusalem con-t r o l l e d and d e f i l e d (in the eyes of the v i s i o n a r i e s ) by the h i e r o c r a t i c party, then the composition could stem from a point f a i r l y l a t e i n the s i x t h century.

68. March, I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 , p. 267.

69. I b i d . , p. 268.

70. The quotations of t h i s paragraph may be found i n i b i d . , pp. 275-76, 284.

21

perhaps from the period of the temple controversy, ca. 520. 7 1

We w i l l want to t e s t Hanson's hypothesis to see i f our material can be f i t t e d i nto some of the t y p o l o g i c a l sequences he pro-poses for the early p o s t - e x i l i c period.

D. Summary

There are unsettled problems re l a t e d to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Isaiah 24-27. 1) Within t h i s century, scholars have labeled the l i t e r a r y genre of Isaiah 24-27 as a l a t e p o s t - e x i l i c apoca-l y p t i c work, p r e - e x i l i c prophetic judgment l i t e r a t u r e , prophe-t i c eschatology, e x i l i c or e arly p o s t - e x i l i c proto-apocalyptic and, recently, early apocalyptic. 2) There i s s t i l l lacking a consensus as to what the basic s t r u c t u r a l d i v i s i o n s of the chapters are. This problem i s rooted i n the many textual d i f -f i c u l t i e s we have i n h e r i t e d from t r a d i t i o n . 3) Whether the un-named, destroyed c i t y i s Babylon, Jerusalem, one i n Moab or some other i s s t i l l a matter of conjecture and rests ultimately on how one puts a l l the pieces of the puzzle together.

This study proposes to advance our discussion of these questions. Chapter two w i l l o f f e r a fresh analysis of the text of Isaiah 24-27. From that work conclusions w i l l be drawn as to i t s prosodie s t y l e . We are p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terested to note where the s t y l e of 24-27 stands i n r e l a t i o n to that of Second Isaiah and "Third" I s a i a h . 7 2

Chapter three w i l l o f f e r a discussion of the structure of Isaiah 24-27 beginning with an analysis of i t s themes. We w i l l want to determine whether or not there are patterns which can be compared with the same or s i m i l a r patterns elsewhere i n Hebrew t r a d i t i o n . At l e a s t part of t h i s discussion w i l l center on the Divine Warrior Hymn which we see as c r u c i a l to the un-derstanding of Isaiah 24-27.

We recognize that the steps from theme to form to i n s t i t u -t i o n a l s e t t i n g to h i s t o r i c a l context are very precarious. When

71. Hanson, D a w n , p. 314.

72. Our use of the designation of Third Isaiah r e f e r s simply to chapters 56-66 i n Isaiah. We are not entering into the discussion of whether or not there was a Third Isaiah. For such a discussion, see Hanson, i b i d . , pp. 32-208.

22

working with a passage l i k e Isaiah 24-27, the steps are doubly so. We f e e l , however, that by staying as close as possible to a typology of prosodie s t y l e , and to the h i s t o r y i n t r a d i t i o n of thematic patterns we have reasonably objective grounds to o f f e r a suggestion as to date, form and h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g of these chapters. This w i l l be the subject of chapter four.

II . THE TEXT AND PROSODY OF ISAIAH 24-27

A. Isaiah 24:l-16a

The metric structure of Isaiah 24:l-16a holds the a l l i t e r -ation, the assonance, the paronomasia, the chiasm, the climac-t i c p a r a l l e l i s m i n a t i g h t l y woven pattern which responds beau-t i f u l l y to the poem's own content. The fine thread which holds the units''' together i s an a l t e r n a t i o n between groups of t r i c o l a and b i c o l a , a l l of which place these verses alongside the best in Hebrew poetic s t y l e .

The i n i t i a l unit opens with three t r i c o l a , 3(b:b:b), f o l -lowed by four b i c o l a . The next unit returns to t r i c o l a , but with a reduction from three to two. The pattern b:b::l i s

2 known from U g a r i t i c and appears i n verse seven as b:b: 1 ::b:b:b. This unit i s followed again by four b i c o l a , 4(b:b). The entire unit i s then closed with one t r i c o l o n . Noting the symmetry of t r i c o l a , as they reduce from three to one, Isaiah 24:1-13 scans as follows:

b:b:b::b:b:b::b:b:b 4(b:b) b:b:l::b:b:b 4 (b:b) b:b:b

In t h i s chapter, the term "unit" i s used i n a general way and w i l l need to be understood i n each instance by context. The more s p e c i f i c terminology to be used may be defined as follows: 1) A l i n e i s any single grouping of words which when labeled according to s y l l a b l e count (see note 1, page 35) i s c a l l e d b r e v e or l o n g u m . 2) A colon i s any grouping of l i n e s which stand i n p a r a l l e l with one another. Depending on the number of l i n e s which stand i n p a r a l l e l with one another, the grouping w i l l be c a l l e d bicolon or t r i c o l o n . 3) A strophe i s any grouping of cola within a poem which form a metric and thought u n i t . They w i l l be indicated with such symbols as 4(b:b), 3(b:b:b), b:b::l::b:b. 4) A poem i s any c o l l e c t i o n of strophes which make up a metric and thought unit. These may or may not conform to established forms { G a t t u n g e n ) .

2 See the discussion i n Frank fl. Cross, "The Song of the

Sea and Canaanite Myth," J T h C , V (1968), p. 5, n. 12. Herein-a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as "Song of the Sea."

23

24

1. Isaiah 24:1-13

a. 3(b:b:b) (Isaiah 24:1-2) 2 1

Yahweh i s emptying earth now; 6/7 הן יהיה ברקק ארץ 3 4

He i s l e v e l i n g i t s surface! 6 ובולק פניה

He i s scat t e r i n g i t s inhabitants! 6/7 והפיץ יוטביה

Reading הן for הנה, me tri o a u s a , would reduce the s y l -la b l e count of the f i r s t l i n e to s i x . We are working with poetry that appears to be archaizing, that i s , old patterns and techniques of poetic structure emerge here and there. In scan-ning the cola, rather than using the Ley-Sievers' method of noting accent beat alone, we w i l l also follow suggestions made by Cross and employed i n his a r t i c l e "Song of the Sea...," i b i d . , pp. 4-5, n. 5. See also Freedman's discussion i n "Pro-legomenon" to G. B. Gray, The F o r m s o f H e b r e w P o e t r y , KTAV, 1972, pp. v i i - l i i i . In order to describe more p r e c i s e l y the symmetry, s y l l a b l e count w i l l be noted. The s i g l a b { b r e v e ) and 1 i l o n g u m ) w i l l be used. A l i n e of 7 s y l l a b l e s w i l l usual-l y be the upper l i m i t of b r e v e although i n our text the context may suggest an 8 s y l l a b l e l i n e as b r e v e and a 7 s y l l a b l e l i n e as" l o n g u m . In accordance with the language of the s i x t h cen-tury B.C., (our proposed date for the chapters), segholates w i l l be counted as one s y l l a b l e . Vocal shewas w i l l be counted as one or as zero. The d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e the r ,את , e l a t i v e אטר, and occasionally the conjunctive waw w i l l be deleted as e l e -ments of prose introduced into the poetry l a t e r , as the text was transmitted i n t r a d i t i o n .

2The Isaiah s c r o l l of Qumran (IQIsa a) has אדמה which may have support from οίκουμένην i n the Greek. The l a t t e r usually translated ארץ with yfj. The ארץ of the MT was retained to pre-serve the metrical balance.

3Reading the ה as a secondary expansion introduced a f t e r .פניה והפיץ was added to the text through a misreading of ערהSee note 4.

4Following Cross's suggestion, communicated i n conference, that due to the close s i m i l a r i t y of waw and yod i n t h i s period and the p o s s i b i l i t y of reading פ and נ as an V (cf. IQIsa a), delete עוה as dittography. See Isaiah 28:25 שיה פניה והפיץ for added pressure for the i n c l u s i o n of עוה. The r e s u l t i n g symme-try argues i n favor of such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

^Note the -êhâ rhyme of l i n e s two and three. Note also the the quantity of £ and P.

24

25

People and p r i e s t ,

Servant and master,

Maid and mistress.

והיה1 כעמ ככהן2

כעבד כאדני ו

כשפחה כגבירתה

Buyer and s e l l e r ,

Lender and borrower,

Creditor and debtor.

כקונה כמוכר

כמל רה כלוה

בו כנטה כנטה3 4

To analyze the poetic p a r a l l e l i s m , a l e t t e r w i l l be as-signed to each word. D i f f e r e n t grammatical forms of the same root w i l l be indicated by the same l e t t e r . When a word i n the same l i n e or i n a subsequent l i n e stands i n p a r a l l e l with the i n i t i a l word, i t w i l l be indicated by a sublinear number, that i s , a, a-̂ , &2 . I f a group of words express a concept which stands i n p a r a l l e l to the i n i t i a l word, i t w i l l be indicated by a c a p i t a l l e t t e r . The purpose of t h i s analysis i s to describe as c l o s e l y as possible the prosodie s t y l e of Isaiah 24-27.

1. S y n t a c t i c a l l y , the הנה of v. 1 and the והיה of v. 2 go together. According to Lambdin, a h i n n e h clause plus con-verted perfect i n t e r j e c t s explanatory material into the main narrative. Thomas 0. Lambdin, I n t r o d u c t i o n to B i b l i c a l H e b r e w (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971), pp. 169-70. A t r a n s l a t i o n for verses one and two might be "Because Yahweh i s emptying e a r t h . . . i t s h a l l be as with the people, so the p r i e s t . ..." Both הנה and והיה do break the exact symmetry of t h e i r l i n e s . But since they both open a colon, are s t i l l part of l i n e s that can be considered short, and do make sense, they are retained i n the text.

2. One must be cautious i n using the mention of כהן as an argument for a late date because the^formula כעם ככהן ap-pears i n Hosea 4:9, an eighth century rib context. Of course, i t may have taken on an added dimension of meaning i n i t s I s a i a n i c context.

3. Reading כאשר as expansionistic prosaizing of כ.

4. Reading נשא as an Aramaism. There are manuscripts that read נטה.

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3(b:b:b) 24:1 6/7 6 6/7

:2

The hinnêh plus converted perfect formula controls the shape of the f i r s t strophe. A f t e r i t was announced that Yahweh was destroying the earth, the poet in s e r t e d a catalogue of those who were to succumb under the impending d i s a s t e r . In ad-d i t i o n to the t i g h t p a r a l l e l i s m i n the i n i t i a l t r i c o l o n , note the rhyme of boqêq and b o t e q and the two l i n e s ending i n -êha. The t r i c o l o n i s onomatopoetic, f i l l e d with b i - l a b i a l s (b and p) plus the hard sounding q, which together suggest the gurgling sound of a b o t t l e being emptied.

The catalogue as a device to expand on a point i s ancient and known to us from U g a r i t i c sources. Note, too, the chiasm within the catalogue as those with power s h i f t with those with-out power. The catalogue i s brought to an end with a s o l i d b o .

The repeated use of k , i n t e r n a l rhyme, and exact p a r a l l e l i s m mark t h i s unit as e x c e l l e n t poetry.

b. 4(b:b) (Isaiah 24:3-6)

Emptied i s earth! 5 הבוק תבוק ארץ 1 2

Plundered i s world! 7 והבוז תבוז תבל

1. Read תבל for balance i n p a r a l l e l i s m , with textual support from the Greek, ...ή γη και npovouti τιρονομευθησεται ή γη. See also the p a r a l l e l i s m of ארץ and תבל i n Isaiah 26:9, 18 and 24:4.

2. Delete כי יהוה דבר את הדבר הזה as expansionistic.

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Earth mourns, atrophies.

World languishes, withers.

A curse devours the earth!

Inhabitants bear the g u i l t .

Earth's dwellers are desolate!

There remain but a few!

3 2 5/7 אבלה נבלה ארץ

7/8 אמללה נבלה תבל

אלה אכלה ארץ 4 6

7 ויאשמו ישבי בה

6 חרבו,־ ישבי ארץ

7 ונטאר אנוש מזער

24:3

:4

: 6

5 7

5/7 7/8

6 7

6 7

4(b:b)

1. Retain the MT reading against the Greek for reasons of metrical symmetry and i n t e r n a l assonance p a r a l l e l e d i n the pre-ceding l i n e s .

2. Read 7 ה מרום-ם ארץ ל ל מ א , (the ע i s secondary to deal with a misunderstood e n c l i t i c mem), and 7 אמללה נבלה תבל as variant readings conflated into the text. The r e s u l t i n g series of four c o l a consisting of two l i n e s each argues i n favor of understanding the text as expansionistic at t h i s point.

3. Verse f i v e appears i n a l l the extant texts and ver-sions. However, i t i s prosaic and reads very much l i k e a mor-a l i s t i c gloss. An argument i n favor of such a reading i s that i t s d e l e tion does not disturb the metrical symmetry of the poem. I t i s recognized, however, that there may be an o r i g i n a l reading underlying the verse that has been d i s t o r t e d beyond recognition.

4. Although the i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m of the next four l i n e s i s not as regular as i n the preceding l i n e s , the o v e r a l l symmetry compares favorable to what has preceded and what f o l -lows. Read כן >V as expansionistic.

5. Following the Syriac reading. Another reading might be חרדו. In Isaiah 41:5 דרדו i s used with קצות ארץ but there are several occurrences of חרד with people as the subject. See BDB, p. 353, for a l i s t .

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The paronomasia and a l l i t e r a t i o n of the f i r s t two b i c o l a stand out and contribute to the hammer e f f e c t of the earth's demise. A new element i s introduced with the mention of the curse. From that point on the t i g h t p a r a l l e l i s m i s abandoned and the focus s h i f t s from what i s happening to the earth, to the cause and e f f e c t with respect to the inhabitants of the land. The l a s t l i n e leaves the reader with a glimpse of the desolation. This l a t t e r i s an example, though not the best, of the many instances of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m throughout the piece.

c. b:b:l (Isaiah 24:7-8) b:b:b

Wine mourns. 4 אבל תירוש

Vine languishes. . 16) 4 ה גפן ל ל מ א )

The joyous of heart a l l sigh. 8 נאנחו כל שמיהי לב

Timbrels are s i l e n t שבת משוש תפים 6 .

The l y r e i s quiet. 18) 6 ת משוש כנור ב ט 1 )

F e s t i v i t y i s gone. 6 חדל שאון עליזים

24:7 4 4 (16)

6 (18) 6

b:b:l b:b:b

The reuse of the verbs אבל and אמללה connects t h i s strophe with the previous one. As indicated e a r l i e r , the b:b:l i s a metric pattern known from U g a r i t i c . Doth of the above c o l a are good examples of cli m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m . The l a t t e r i s an

1. This arrangement assumes a whole l i n e was misplaced by a scribe w r i t i n g stychometrically.

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excellent example of the ancient pattern known as r e p e t i t i v e p a r a l l e l i s m , abc ::abd::efg. 1 Compare with Isaiah 26:15.

d. 4(b:b) (Isaiah 24:9-12)

No more, with song, do they drink. 6 בשיר לא ישתו יין

Wine tastes b i t t e r to them that t r y 7 ימר שכר לשתיו .

The c i t y of chaos i s beaten. 7 נשברה קרית תהו Every house i s barred at the door. 6 סגר כל בית מבוא

ד 2

ל

Desolation has seized the c i t y 6 נשאר בעיר שמה .Like a ruin, the gate l i e s smashed. 6 שאיה יכת3 שער

24 :9 6 a b c d 4(b:b) 7 e d^ c

* * * * * :10 7 a b c

6 d e f g ?

6 & 1 b 1 C 1

6 c 2 a ± b 1 (or g 1 d 1 f1'

Isaiah 24:9-12 i s very d i f f i c u l t t e x t u a l l y , but there i s enough to indicate that the o r i g i n a l text was probably good

1. See the discussion i n chapter one of William F. A l -bright, l a h w e h a n d the G o d s o f C a n a a n . He i l l u s t r a t e s the pat-tern i n U g a r i t i c and early Hebrew poetry.

2. The text i s very corrupt with no s o l i d clues for a reconstruction of the o r i g i n a l reading.

3. Note the niphals and puals i n common with verse ten.

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poetry that may have been corrupted i n transmission 1 rather than bad poetry o r i g i n a l l y . The theme of the f i r s t bicolon i s that of wine gone sour which would connect i t with the p r e v i -ous strophe. Because i t i s a bicolon, i t i s being read with the following unit of b i c o l a , rather than with the previous unit of t r i c o l a . The chiasm, reuse of the verb שתה, and play with êin, r a h and y o d t e s t i f y to i t s own i n t e r n a l unity. I t can be understood as a t r a n s i t i o n verse between the motifs of soured wine and destroyed c i t y .

The next bicolon s h i f t s to the motif of the destroyed c i t y . I t stands n i c e l y with the f i n a l bicolon with i t s p a r a l -l e i use of niphals and puals. The second l i n e s of the two b i -cola are arranged i n chiasm with respect to each other. The paronomasia of the l a s t bicolon i s exce l l e n t . The t h i r d b i -colon has no s o l i d clues f o r a reconstruction though i t s motif seems to deal with bad wine which would connect i t with the f i r s t bicolon of t h i s strophe.

e. b:b:b (Isaiah 24:13)

Thus i t s h a l l be throughout the land. 6 כה יהיה בקרב ארץ

Among the people: l i k e s t r i k i n g 7 בתוך עמים בנקף> זית o l i v e s ,

2 Like gleaning grapes. 6 כעללת בציר

b:b:b

e f e l f l

This t r i c o l o n brings the f i r s t major unit to a close. I t i s a nice example of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m . I t brings together

1. By "corrupted i n transmission" we mean either mistakes made by copyists or a treatment of the text as prose rather than poetry. The Qumran s c r o l l , for instance, reveals no signs i n the text to suggest t h i s passage i s poetry. In order to preserve space the words are simply written one a f t e r the other.

2. Read אם כלה as expansionistic. The r e s u l t i n g p a r a l -l e l i s m i s sharper and the s y l l a b l e count i s c l o s e r . The phrase appears i כעללת בציר n Micah 7:1.

24:13

31

harvest imagery and the communal l i f e of the people. This f i r s t unit has envisioned withering crops, and a destroyed c i t y , both of which collapse under the wrath of Yahweh who has turned against the created order. A curse i s devouring the land and no one or no thing s h a l l escape.

2. Isaiah 24:14-16a

Isaiah 24:14-16a repeats the metric pattern of the l a s t two units of the previous section: 4(b:b), b:b:b.

a. 4(b:b) (Isaiah 24:14-15)

They shout i n v i c t o r y .

They r a i s e t h e i r voice.

In the presence of Yahweh

They shout from afar.

They worship Yahweh

Among di s t a n t i s l e s .

The Name i s Yahweh

'Elohê l i a r a ' e l .

המה ירנו

ישא ו קלם

בגאון יהוה

צהלו מים

4 3

כבדו יהוה

באיי ים

שם יהרה 5

אלהי ישראל

-9

-9

1. The l i f t i n g up of the voice to shout i s a common de-vice f a m i l i a r from U g a r i t i c sources to indicate a break or s h i f t i n the poem. See U g a r i t i c Text 3.D.32-33 for an example of the frequently occurring formula, t s ' u g h w t ^ b . The Mas-s o r e t i c text of verse 14a i s apparently a c o n f l a t i o n of two l i n e s , since the reconstruction of the f i r s t bicolon, suggested by Cross i n private conference, f i t s very n i c e l y with what pre-cedes and follows. See also Isaiah 52:8, 11 and 48:20.

2. See Isaiah 54:1.

3. Delete על כן בארים as c o n f l a t i o n equals בארים .See IQIsa .באי 3 for the s i m i l a r i t y of y o d and v e S ,

4. See Isaiah 42:12.

5. For Yahweh's name, see Isaiah 48:1-2.

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24:14 5 a b 4(b:b) -9 4 b j c

4 d e -9 5 b 2 f

:15 5 b. e -9 4 g f

d ״ 3 1 e -9 6 Ε

As noted above, the l i f t i n g up of the voice to shout i s a common device f a m i l i a r from U g a r i t i c sources to indicate a break or s h i f t i n the poem. The close p a r a l l e l s with Second Isaiah's "New Song" w i l l be discussed below. In the above strophe, note the rhyming -am closing the f i r s t three b i c o l a There i s good use of chiasm and c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

b. b:b:b (Isaiah 24:16a)

From the ends of the earth 4 1מכנף! ארץ

We heard a song: 6 זמרת שמענו

Honor to the Just One ! 5 צבי לצדיק

24:16a 4 a b b:b:b 6 c d 5 e f

This t r i c o l o n concludes t h i s unit and i s to be compared with the t r i c o l o n , verse 13, which concluded the f i r s t u n i t . They both open with an a l l u s i o n to the geography of the land but whereas the previous t r i c o l o n envisioned the s t r i k i n g of ol i v e s and gleaning of grapes, t h i s t r i c o l o n contains a shout

1. For the ends of the earth, see Isaiah 48:20, 52:12.

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of praise i n honor of Yahweh: "Honor to the Just One!" As i n the e a r l i e r t r i c o l o n , the statement develops c l i m a c t i c a l l y .

B. Isaiah 24:16b-25:9

1. Isaiah 24 :16b-18b

There i s a s h i f t i n the meter. Only b i c o l a are used. Judging from the content of t h i s passage, b:b may be understood as a precursor to the l a t e r l : b , q l n a h meter, of lament. The basic a l t e r n a t i o n between two and three i s retained i n the num-ber of b i c o l a used: 2(b:b), 3(b:b).

a. 2(b:b) (Isaiah 24:16b-c)

Some say, "I am wasted!" 5 ואמר רזי לי

"I am wasted! Oh, woe i s me!" 5 רזי לי אוי לי

"The treacherous are treacherous. 5 בגדים בגדו

With treachery, they are treacherous." ד בגדו ג ב ו 1 5

24:16b-c 5 a b c 2(b:b) 5 b c b1 C

5 d d l 5 d 2 d 1

b. 3(b:b) (Isaiah 24 17-18b)

Pack and Snare and P i t פחד ופחת ופח 3 2 5

Against you, inhabitants of the land 5/6 עליך יושב ארץ

1. Reading one בגדים as dittography.

2. See Jeremiah 48:43-44.

3. Following Dahood's suggestion of i d e n t i f y i n g p h d with U g a r i t i c p h d , " f l o c k . " M i t c h e l l Dahood, P s a l m s I I (New׳York: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1968), p. 331. Hereinafter referred to as P s a l m s I , P s a l m s I I or P s a l m s I I I .

34

He who fl e e s from the marauding

He f a l l s i n the P i t .

He who climbs out of the P i t ,

He i s caught i n the Snare.

Pack, 5 הנם מקול פחד 1

יפל אל פחת 4

ה)עלה מתוך פחת) 6/5

ילקד בפח 5

24:17 5 5/6

3(b:b)

d d.

d3 a2

The paronomasia and a l l i t e r a t i o n are obvious i n these two strophes. Note the i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m i n the second l i n e of the f i r s t bicolon of the f i r s t strophe and of the f i r s t l i n e i n the second strophe.

2. Isaiah 24:18c23־; mixed meter

In the next section the return to chaos, a b a t t l e and a vi c t o r y are described. The meter r e f l e c t s t h i s s h i f t i n tone by becoming mixed. Long l i n e s are interspersed with short l i n e s to express a growing crescendo and turbulence. The basic a l t e r n a t i o n , however, between b i c o l a and t r i c o l a i s retained.

a. 1:1 (Isaiah 24:18c-20) b:b:b 1:1

The windows of heaven are opened. 8 ארבות מרום נפתחו

The foundations of earth do tremble. 8 וירעשו מוסדי ארץ

1. The a r t i c l e i s included as a demonstrative pronoun. I t i s possible t h i s was the way the a r t i c l e was introduced i n -to poetry.

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Earth i s broken i n pieces. 1 התרעעה ארץ ע 6 רEarth i s rent asunder. 6 פור התפרדה ארץ Earth i s v i o l e n t l y shaken. 6 מוט התמטטה ארץ

Earth quivers l i k e a drunk. 7 נוע תנוע ארץ כשכור It sways l i k e a hut. 27 התנודדה כמלונה

24:18c 8 a b c 1:1 8 αλ a l b l

b:b:b 1:1

c 19־ 6 2 °2 b l 6 c 3 C3 b 1 6 c 4 c4 b 1

:20 7 c 5 C5 b 1 d 7 C6 d 1

To depict the return to chaos , the writer drew on many ancient poetic devices. In the f i r s t bicolon, note the chiasm. In the t r i c o l o n , the rhyme, a l l i t e r a t i o n and paronomasia a l l combine to enact v e r b a l l y the collapse of the earth. The f i n a l bicolon i s another example of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m as i t re-produces the pattern established i n the t r i c o l o n adding then another image which i s p a r a l l e l e d i n the f i n a l l i n e .

1. I n f i n i t i v e absolute, p a r a l l e l i n g פור and מוט.

2. The s y l l a b l e count of verse 20b i s regular, but the strong rhythm and balance i s c l e a r l y broken. The phrase נפלה forms the f לא תם יו* קום i r s t part of a lament over I s r a e l i n q i n a h meter found i n Amos 5:2. This fact plus i t s awkwardness i n Isaiah 24 suggests i t s secondary i n t r u s i o n i n the Isaiah context. The כבד עליה פשעה reads very much l i k e a m o r a l i s t i c gloss, s i m i l a r to Isaiah 24:5 (see note 3, page 27). The con-text may have suggested to an edi t o r a lament such as that found i n Amos 5:2, of which he inserted the opening l i n e . I f 20b i s the climax of the poem, i t i s a disappointing one. So much better i f the reader passes immediately to vv. 21-23.

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b. 1:1 (Isaiah 24:21-23) b:b:b

(b:b):1:1

A sharp crescendo follows as the preceding pattern i s re-peated with extra-long l i n e s . The long l i n e s become very long and the short l i n e s i n another context might be considered long. The basic pattern of a l t e r n a t i o n between b i c o l a and t r i -cola i s retained u n t i l the l a s t l i n e , when the climax i s reach-ed, expressed i n a t r i c o l o n of extra-long l i n e s . The bicolon that i s b u i l t into the i n t e r n a l structure of the t r i c o l o n i s surely not accidental.

But i t s h a l l be i n that day: והיה ביום הדא Rubric

Yahweh w i l l charge the gods 11 יפקד יהוה על צבא מרום במרום i n heaven;

The kings of the earth on earth. 11 ועל מלכי אדמה על אדמה

They w i l l be gathered as a group 8 אםפו אספה על בור 1

to the P i t .

They w i l l be locked up as a 8 םנרו אסיר על מסגר

prisoner i n the Dungeon.

In due time, they w i l l be punished. 8 מרב ימים יפקדו

The Moon w i l l be confounded; 11=6/5 וחפרה לבנה ובוש חמה the Sun abashed.

Yahweh of Hosts w i l l reign at 11 מלך יהוה צבאות בהר ציון Mount Zion.

And opposite His elders, i n 11 בירוטלם נגד זקניו כבוד Jerusalem, the K a b o d .

1. Verse 22 i s d i f f i c u l t . As i t now stands, i t i s very awkward and m e t r i c a l l y out of balance (10/6). The Vulgate and Syriac follow MT. The Targum i s h o m i l e t i c a l . A possible solu-t i o n i s to read the f i r s t l i n e of l Q I s a 3 .אספו אספה על בור :See also the Greek (συνάΕουσι και &ποκλείσουσον) which does not follow the MT exactly. The current posi t i o n of אסיר i n the MT could be explained on the one hand by dittography: since two words beginning with ...אם had to be copied, the copyist mis-takenly copied three. The אסיר of the second l i n e was l o s t by haplography: אסיר followed by על. When the copyist noticed he had already written אסיר followed by על he jumped back to the of the second l על i n e and continued.

24:21 11 a b c d e e 11 c d 1 e1 e 1

8 a b c d 8 a l b l c d l 8 e f g

11 a b a1 b1 11 c d e f g 11 f F d1

1:1 b:b:b (b:b):1:1

I t i s as i f the previous strophe reached such a poetic climax that the poet had to stop for breath. R e c a l l Revela-tion's h a l f hour of silence before the seventh seal was broken. The r u b r i c " I t s h a l l happen on that day" prepares the reader for the b a t t l e i t s e l f wherein Yahweh breaks through i n a l l h i s power and glory to defeat the enemy and r e - e s t a b l i s h himself as king at Zion. Note the i n a l u s i o as the verb פקד opens the f i r s t l i n e of the strophe and closes the l a s t l i n e of the t r i -colon. Yahweh charges the gods i n heaven and the kings on earth. Note the assonance of ' a l e p h , s i n and p e s i n the t r i -colon. The l a t t e r i s another example of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m .

The expected bicolon to close the strophe i s lengthened to a t r i c o l o n as the wr i t e r approached the climax. He used i n t e r -nal p a r a l l e l i s m i n the f i r s t l i n e . The affirmation of Yahweh's v i c t o r y was made i n the second l i n e harkening back to the royal hymns of the temple. The l a s t l i n e stands i n chiasm with this affirmation underlining the epiphany of Yahweh on his mount i n Jerusalem. The mention of the elders r e c a l l s an e a r l i e r epiph-any of Yahweh on Mount S i n a i recorded i n Exodus 24:11.

Put together, the units of chapter 2 4 look, m e t r i c a l l y , as follows:

b:b:b::b:b:b::b:b:b 4(b:b) b:b:l::b:b:b 4(b:b) b:b:b

38

4(b:b) b:b :b

2(b:b) 3(b:b)

1:1 8 b:b:b 6 1:1 7

1:1 11 b:b:b 8

b) :1:1 11

3. Isaiah 25:

The unit that follows i s couched i n metric patterns a l -ready established by the poet:

4(b:b) 1:1 1:1: (b:b)

The l a s t l i n e , wherein a bicolon i s imbedded within a t r i c o l o n , i s to be compared with 24:23.

a. 4(b:b) (Isaiah 25:1-2)

Yahweh, You are my God! 7 יהיה אלהי אתה

I l i f t You up; I praise Your name! 7 ארוממך אודה שמך

You have given counsels of wonder; 1 כי עשית פלא עצות 7

From of old, perfect f a i t h f u l n e s s מרחוק אמונה אמן 7 .

1. Translated as i f the reading were עשית עצות פלא. The current text i s either i n error or poetic l i c e n s e .

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You have made the c i t y a heap; ^ שמת עירי1• למפלה 7

The f o r t i f i e d c i t y a rui n 7 קריה בצורה לגל .

The palace of aliens i s nude ; 36 ארמון זרים מער

Forever, i t s h a l l not be r e b u i l t 7 לעולם לא יבנה

25:1 7 a b c 4(b:b) 7 d D

7 a b c d 7 b 1 d 1 c l

:2 7 a b c 7 b 1 d c l

6 7

b2 Ε

d 1 c2

In the f i r s t b icolon note the frequent use of ' ale ph. and the i n t e r n a l rhyme of - i m k a i n the second l i n e . In the second l i n e of the second bicolon the assonance of ' a l e p h and mem ap-pears again.

The motif of a destroyed c i t y was reintroduced with the t h i r d b i c o l o n .

b. 1:1 (Isaiah 25:3-4) 1:1:(b:b)

Therefore, people of strength w i l l 9 על כן יכבדוך עם עז worship You;

Haughty nations revere You. 9 ג ו ים עריצים י יראוך 4

1. Reading מעיר .עיר was probably copied by mistake from the next l i n e .

2. Transposing גל and מפלה to balance the s y l l a b i c sym-metry of the p a r a l l e l l i n e s .

3. Reading ערה/ .מער: A naked, desolate place. See Na-hum 3:5 where i t i s used to describe the desolation and expo-sure of Nineveh.

4. Delete קריה as expansionistic from verse three.

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For You are a refuge to the poor, 8 כי היית מעוז לדל

A refuge to the needy, 8 מעוז לאביון בצר לו

A shelter from the winter; shade 18 מחסה מזרם צל מחרב from the heat.

25:3 9 a b c d e 1:1 1:1: (b:b) 9 d l e l C l 1:1: (b:b)

8 a b c d 8 c d1 D 8 c1 e c2 e 1

Note the chiasm i n the f i r s t bicolon, the assonance of -am and - i m plus the rhyme of -uk־a. There i s cl i m a c t i c and i n t e r -nal p a r a l l e l i s m i n the t r i c o l o n . The i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m of the t r i c o l o n i s to be compared with the i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m of Isaiah 24:23.

4. Isaiah 25:6-8

The i n t r i c a t e manipulation of b i c o l a and t r i c o l a i n the next unit, holding together the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c paronomasia, a l l i t e r a t i o n , assonance, and chiasm, reveal once again the an-cient canons of Hebrew poetry in f u l l play. The meter scans as follows: 1:1

2(b:b) 2 (b:b:b) 1:1

a. 1:1 (Isaiah 25:6a)

Yahweh of Hosts has made 7 עשה יהוה צבאות 2

For a l l peoples on t h i s mount: 7 לכל עמימ בהר זה

1. Verses 4d through 5 appear to be a gloss.

2. Following suggestions made by Cross i n conference: Verse 6: "either r u b r i c , or 1:1 (7:7) with caesura despite 1run-on.'" Verses 7-8: "Read as short l i n e s with.some run-on due to poetic l i c e n s e . See the Lament of David and Exodus 15."

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b. 2 (b:b) (Isaiah 25:6b)

A feast of o i l ם ; י נ מ ( m g ע

A feast of wine; ם י ר מ m 5 ע

Fat, well cured;

The best of wine. 7 שמנים ממחים

7 שמרים מזקקים

25:6b 5 a b 5 a b 1

7 b e b ל 1 c.

2(b:b)

The poetry of the b i c o l a above could hardly be more beau-t i f u l l y constructed. The rhyme, the assonance and c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m are superb.

c. 2(b:b:b) (Isaiah 25 7-8a) He w i l l swallow on t h i s mount בלע בהר זה 1 5 The net ensnared 5 פני לוט הלוט About a l l the people; 4 על כל עמים

The web woven 6 מכסה נסוכה About a l l the nations. 4 על כל גוימ He w i l l swallow Death forever בלע מות לנצח 1 5

25:7 5 a b c 2 (b:b: b) 5 d e f 4 g h i

:8 6 4 5 a e 2 j

e l f1 g h !

1. Note the i n c l u a i o in the use of בלע.

42

It i s the i n o l u s i o of בלע that gives t h i s strophe shape. The l i n e s are run-on, but the p a r a l l e l i s m i s obvious. The c l i -max i s reached with the swallowing of Death.

d. 1:1 (b:b::b:b) (Isaiah 25:8b-c) 6 מחה1 יהוד

-11 He w i l l wipe the tears 6 מחה1 יהוה דמעה

From a l l faces. 5 מעל כל פנים

The reproach of his people he 6 חרפת עמו יסיר w i l l remove

From a l l the earth. 4 מעל כל אי־יי

25:8 11 d e f 1=1

10 c, g a, d e f ±

Chiasm i s used again i n very long l i n e s . The length i s broken up, however, as the separate units within the li n e s stand i n p a r a l l e l with one another.

5. Closing Bicolon (Isaiah 25:9): 1:1

Our God, for whom we wait 2 1 הנה אלוהינו זה קוינו לו 1i s here;

Let us sing, and r e j o i c e i n 11 נגילה ונשמחה בישועתו his v i c t o r y !

25:9 11 c d e 1:1

11 άχ d 2 f

Our study of the text and prosody of Isaiah 24:l-16a and 24:16b-25:9 w i l l be h e l p f u l i n dealing with the remainder of the Apocalypse. The text, so f a r , scans as follows:

1. Delete אדני m e t r i c a u s a .

2 . The variant reading, יושענו זה קוינו לו, has been con-f l a t e d into the MT. יהוה glosses זה.

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3(b:b:b) 4(b:b) b:b:l::b: b:b 4(b:b) b:b:b

4(b:b) b:b:b

1:1 8 b:b:b 6 1:1 7

1:1 11 b:b:b 8 (b:b):1:1 11

4(b:b) 1:1 1:1: (b:b)

1:1 2(b:b) 2(b:b:b) 1:1

1:1

The analysis of the text of 24:1-25:9 has revealed an ex-c e l l e n t example of Hebrew poetry. In addition to a l l i t e r a t i o n , rhyme, assonance, paronomasia and onomatopoeia, the author has made f u l l use of chiasm: 24:2, 18c, 23; 25:8; chiasm with i n -tervening l i n e s : 24:10, 12; i n o l u s i o : 25:7 ( 2 בלע); 24:21, 2There are many examples of c .(פקד) l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m . See 24:7, 8, 13, and 20 for the better passages. Frequent use of i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m was made: 24:16b, 17a, 23; 25:4. The metric unit b : b : l , r e p e t i t i v e p a r a l l e l i s m , cataloguing and the poetic device of l i f t i n g the voice to shout are ancient char-a c t e r i s t i c s known i n U g a r i t i c poetry. These a l l form an i n t e -g r a l part of our passage.

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C. Isaiah 25:10-26:8

1. Isaiah 25:10-12, Prose

Using the prosodie information gleaned from the material above, i t i s possible to bring to a r e l a t i v e state of order much of the remainder of 24-27. The text does, however, get progressively worse as one works through the material. The frequent occurrence of the 4(b:b) pattern and the a l t e r n a t i o n between b i c o l a and t r i c o l a can be documented throughout. When the text diverges from these patterns, i t i s usually hopeless, m e t r i c a l l y . When the text conforms to the patterns, the qual-i t y of the poetry i s usually much better.

Textual analysis leads us to suggest that i f there i s poetry underlying the current text of 25:10-12, i t has been prosaized almost completely. A reconstruction as poetry, therefore, i s problematical. The versions are of no help since f o r the most part they follow the Massoretic Text.

The following textual remarks can be made about Isaiah 25: 10-12: the imbalance i n s y l l a b l e count argues against the en-t i r e section being poetry; the i n t e r n a l rhyme of l i n e lOb-c and the p a r a l l e l i s m of the following two l i n e s i n d i c a t e , however, that i t i s at l e a s t poetic prose.

The support for the tentative reconstruction of Isaiah 25:12 comes from two d i r e c t i o n s : 1) the very short l i n e s open-ing chapter 26 (4/5) and 2) the vocabulary of 26:5 wherein !השד i s associated with שפל ;נשגבה with ארץ; and יגע with עפר. The current status of 25:12 can be understood as a c o n f l a t i o n of two verses:

The high stronghold He humbled; 4 משגב הטח

He reduced, to the ground. 4 השפיל לארץ

The f o r t i f i c a t i o n . Your walls ומוחך Π 6 מבצר

He razed to the dust. 5 הגיע עד עפר

4 25:12 a b 4 b 2 c

6 3]_ a 2

5 b- c.

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In t h i s reconstructed passage, note that each bicolon be-gins with a noun of the m i k t a b type. The h i p h i l i s used f r e -quently. There i s i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m i n the f i r s t l i n e of the second bicolon; a l l i t e r a t i o n i n the second l i n e .

2. Isaiah 26:1-8

With the unit opening chapter 26, we are back into the metrical patterns c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of chapter 24:

4(b:b) b:b:b 4(b:b) b:b:b

a. 4(b:b) (Isaiah 26:1-3) Our c i t y i s strong! ו נ ז ל ר ע י ע 1

Victory i s established! 4

5 ישועה ישית

Walls and rampart (in place) 4 ל ח ת ו ו ס ו ח

Open the gates! 5 ם י ר ע ן ש ״ ת פ

Let the v i c t o r s enter; 5 יבא גוי צדיק He who keeps f a i t h ם , י נ מ ר א ם ש

26:1 4 5

4(b:b)

5

He who i s steadfast, 4 ך ו מ ר ס צ י

He who established peace. 3 ר שלום 4 צ י 2

1. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the Vulgate i d e n t i f i e s the c i t y as Zion, that i s , Jerusalem. Throughout, Jerome usu-a l l y follows the MT to the word.

2. The Targum and Greek might be t r a n s l a t i n g שמר at t h i s point. The gender i s changed to masculine to make grammatical sense.

3. Delete one שלום as dittography, following the Greek and Syriac.

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26:1 (cont) 4 5

:2 5 5

4 4

a 1 a2 d a3

e f f l 91

f2 g2 f2 93

'ayin and sîn contribute to the assonance of the f i r s t b i -colon; h e t i n the second bi c o l o n . Both b i c o l a end with a long 1 vowel. In the next two b i c o l a note the rhyming and catalogu-ing of q u a l i t i e s that describe the גוי צדיק.

b. b:b:b (Isaiah 26:4) / ״ 1 c

For i n Thee they t r u s t כי בך בטחי 4/5 .Yahweh, Forever! 4/5 יהוה עדי עד

Yahweh, the Eternal Rock! יהוה צור עלמים

4/5 26:4 a b c b:b:b 4/5 b 1 d e 6 b x d x β χ

c. 4(b:b) (Isaiah 26:5-7)

He humbled the haughty ones; כי השח ישבי מרום -13

The exalted c i t y 5 קריה נשגבה .

1. The Greek preserves the metrical balance n i c e l y : 4/5 כי בך בטחו3

יהוה עדי עד 1 5 4/5 6 °יהוה צור עולמים

a. Dittography i n the Hebrew text. Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s supported also by the Syriac and l Q I s a a texts, b. The ב on Yahweh i s dittography. c. כי ביה i s dittography of כי בכה from the previous l i n e . See IQIsaa for the s i m i l a r i t y i n or-thography and s c r i p t . The ה indicates ä. d. Notice the f r e -quent use of ע.

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He razed i t to the ground; 6 ישפילנה עד ארץ -13

He reduced i t to dust. 7 י נ יענה עד עפר

Feet of the poor trampled i t 8 תרמםנה2 רגלי ענ ;

Steps of the oppressed. -13

5 פעמי דלים

The way of the righteous is smooth; 36 ארח לצדיק מישר The track of the v i c t o r s , make s t r a i g h t תפלס !

-13 7 מעגל צדיק

26:5 8 -13

a b c d 4(b:b) 5 c l d l

6 -13

b-̂ e f

7 b 2 e f1

8 -13

b 3 g h

5 91 h l

6 -13

i כ k 7 i

This i s a good example of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m . The poet began with the mention of those l i v i n g i n high places. They were brought down by Yahweh. The "down" was expanded "to the ground." This, i n turn, was expanded by describing the feet of the poor who trampled to the dust the exalted c i t y . Such an image c a l l e d to mind immediately the return across the highway

1. One of the ישפילנה may be deleted as dittography f o l -lowing 1Q1sa a. The Greek has יטפלנה ויניענה עד עפר . The עד i ארץ s to be retained for metrical balance. Its absence i n the Greek can be explained by haplography.

2. See the Greek, Syriac, and l Q I s a 3 for textual support i n d eleting רגל as dittography.

3. Reading the dittography of מישר. The ם of מישרים be-longs with ישר. Repoint the consonants to read מישר, a l e v e l place. The p a r a l l e l with Second Isaiah's Highway i n the desert as the processional way for the New Exodus seems c l e a r (Isaiah 40:4) .

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i n the desert of Second Isaiah. This i s the highway alluded to in the f i n a l bicolon of the strophe.

d. b:b:b (Isaiah 26:8)

Yea, the Way of Yahweh i s J u s t i c e אף! ארח1 יהרה משפט 7 ! ל

We wait on Thy name; 6 קוינו לשמך Thy memory, for which our 5 4 לזכרך3 תאות נפשנו 7

soul longs.

The f i r s t l i n e appears to be a commentary on the l a s t b i -colon of the previous strophe. There i s a nice example of chiasm i n the l a s t two l i n e s of t h i s t r i c o l o n .

Isaiah 26:9 could be connected with verse 8. I t would break, however, the pattern already established, y i e l d i n g a b:b:b:: 1:1:1. Since the text i s i n rather bad shape at t h i s point, we have decided to read 26:9 as a poetic expansion on the motif of the soul's longing for Yahweh mentioned i n verse 8.

1. Following the Greek which preserves the metrical b a l -ance with the preceding material and makes sense.

2. The lack of s u f f i x i s supported i n the Greek, the Tar-gum, the Syriac and l Q I s a 3 . I t s occurrence i n the MT i s due to dittography.

3. Following the MT to preserve the p a r a l l e l i s m with לשמך.

4. The p l u r a l s u f f i x , following the Greek and Syriac, preserves the balance with קו י נ ו.

5. The f i r s t part of 26:9 i s good poetry: My soul longs for Thee i n the night; 9 נפשי אויתיך בלילה 3

Yea, my s p i r i t searches for Thee i n 9 אף5 רוחי בבקרי1 אשחרך the morning.

Because Thy j u s t i c e i s l i k e l i g h t 9 כי כאור0 משפטך לארץ on the earth.

a. The text as reconstructed, of t h i s and the preceding l i n e i s preserved i n the Syriac. The נפשי אויתיך may have been l o s t by haplography i n the Greek. b. Following the Greek which pre-serves a better balance with בלילה. c. Following the Greek. The אשר would not have appeared i n the o r i g i n a l text. אור makes good sense i n t h i s context and preserves the s y l l a b i c symmetry. An a l t e r n a t i v e suggestion, communicated i n confer-ence, i s that of Talmon which retains the MT: "Like a s t r a i g h t path i s thy J u s t i c e for the earth." אשר.

49

Put together, Isaiah 25:10-26:8 scans as follows: Isaiah 25:10-12 Prose

26:1-8 4(b:b) b:b:b 4(b:b) b:b:b

D. Isaiah 26:11-27:6

Isaiah 26:9d and 10 do not f i t i n t o the passage metrically, nor do they make any sense. When compared with 24:5 (see note 3, page 27) and 24:20b (see note 2, page 35), these verses read much l i k e a gloss to elaborate on what the righteous are to do. Verse 11 brings us back into the previous metric patterns. There i s a r e p e t i t i o n of the b:b:b:: 1:1:1, but the text i s not in very good condition. The reconstruction i s regarded as ten-t a t i v e . The subsequent unit of 4(b:b) followed by b:b:b i s better poetry.

1. Isaiah 26:11-15

a. b:b:b (Isaiah 26:11-12) 1:1:1

Yahweh, Thy hand i s ra i s e d יהוה רמה ידך 6 !

Let those who w i l l not see, see! 1 בל יחזיון יחזו 6

Let the antagonists of Thy people 6 יבשו קנאת2 עם be abashed!

1. That t h i s might be dittography i s very p o s s i b l e . The MT was retained because of metrical symmetry. The Greek either lacks יחזו or i s h o m i l e t i c a l : και ούκ fiSeLoav γνόντες δε αίαχυνθήσονται..

2. The sense of t h i s l i n e i s very d i f f i c u l t . Dahood translates קנא "antagonists" following A l b r i g h t ' s discussion of to r" קנא i v a l , oppose." See Dahood, P s a l m s I I I , p. 189. See also A l b r i g h t , VT 9 (1959), p. 314.

50

Yea, with f i r e , consume Thy enemies! 8 אף אש צריך תאכלס

Yahweh, spread peace i n our midst; 8 יהוה תשפת שלום לנו

E s t a b l i s h f o r us our deeds! 1 נס מעשינו פעלת לנו 9

26:11 b:b:b 1:1:1

Dahood arranges two of the

The antagonists of your people w i l l look and wither.

With your f i e r y wrath w i l l you devour your adversaries.

The sense and metrical symmetry f i t with the surrounding l i n e s , our reconstruction as tentative

b. 4(b:b) (Is

Oh Yahweh, our God!

Lord, Thou hast ruled us.

Apart from Thee, we know nothin

Thy name alone, we acknowledge.

l i n e s as follows:

9 יחזו ויבשו קנאת עם

8 אף! אט צריך תאכלם

i s excellent but i t does not As indicated above we regard

liah 26:13-14)

6 יהוה אלהינו

ד בעלונו אדנים

6/7 זולתך בל נדע2 .ז

7/9 לבד בך נזכיר שמך

1. As 12b now stands i n the MT, i t i s too long. I t reads very much l i k e a c o n f l a t i o n of two variant readings. A l l but the Greek versions follow the MT. Drawing the clue from the Greek, the variants could be: כי כל פעלת לנו (πάντα γαρ άπέδωκας Λμΐν) and גם מעטנו פעלת לנו.

2. Following the Greek έκτος σοϋ άλλον ούκ οίδαμεν. The άλλον i s perhaps t r a n s l a t i n g the לבד of the next l i n e .

51

The dead w i l l not l i v e !

The Shades w i l l not r i s e !

So, attack and wipe them out!

Destroy a l l memory of them!

5 נ>תים בל יחיו

7 !יפאים בל יקמו

ך פקדת ותשמידם

7 תאבד כל זכר לםו

26:13 6 7

6/7 7/9

5 7

7 7

כ !נ

4 (b:b)

The poetry of t h i s strophe i s not the best we have en-countered i n Isaiah 24-27. But the s y l l a b i c symmetry i s regu-l a r and each bicolon i s a unit unto i t s e l f .

c. b:b:b (Isaiah 26:15) Yahweh, Thou hast increased

the nation!

Thou hast increased the nation, Thou art honored!

Thou hast enlarged the horizons of the earth!

7 ־1•יספת לגוי יהוה

8 יספת לגוי נכבדת

7 רחקת כל קצוי ארץ

26:15 a b c a b d e f g

b:b:b

1. The metric pattern of 4(b:b) followed by b:b:b i s well documented i n Isaiah 24-27 and accounts for the MT n i c e l y .

52

This i s a good example Df r e p e t i t i v e p a r a l l e l i s m , very

s i m i l a r i n structure to 24:8 The f i r s t two l i n e s begin with

the phrase. The l a s t l i n e expands on what has been enlarged.

2. Isaiah 26 :16-20; mixed meter

a. 1:1 2(1:1:1)

(Isaiah 26:16-18)

Yahweh, i n d i s t r e s s , we looked to Thee;

8 יהרה בצר פקדנוך1

In the throes of Thy chastisement of us.

8/9 בצוקת לחץ מוסרך לנו2

Like a pregnant woman about give b i r t h ;

to 9 כמו חרה תקריב ללדת

She writhes and c r i e s i n her labor. 9 תחיל תזעק בחבליה

So were we because of Thee, Yahweh 9 כן היינו מפניך יהוה

We were with c h i l d ; we writhed; We brought f o r t h wind.

9 הרינו הלנו ילדנו רוח

Vic t o r y we have not made foi earth;

- the 7 ישועה בל נעשה ארץ

The inhabitants of the worl< not f a l l e n .

J have 9 ובל יפלו ישבי תבל

26 :16 8 a 8/9 Β

b c 1:1 2(1:1:1

:17 9 a b c d 9 0j_ 9 e

c2 f

d 1 g h

:18 9 ί χ

7 J f2 f3 כ

9 Jj

1. Following the Greek.

2. Following the Greek.

53

b. 3(b:b) (Isaiah 26:19)

Let Thy dead l i v e יחיו מתיך 5 !-12

Let Thy corpses r i s e נבלתיך יקומון 7 !

Let them awake and shout i n v i c t o r y יקיצו וירננו 7 ;-12

The dwellers of the dust! שכני עפר

Thy dew i s the dew of the F i e l d s טל אורת1 טלך 6 ;-12

Let i t f a l l on the land of Shades! 6 ארץ רפאים תפיל 26:19

-12

-12

-12

3(b:b)

This strophe makes good use of chiasm. In the f i r s t b i -colon even the rhyme i s arranged c h i a s t i c a l l y . Note the i n t e r -nal p a r a l l e l i s m of the f i r s t l i n e of the second bi c o l o n . Note, too, that dew and l i f e are linked i n Psalm 137.

c. b:b::l::b:b (Isaiah 26:20)

Go, my people! 4 לכה עמי -10

Enter your rooms! 6 בא בחדריך

1. Dahood has made an i n t r i g u i n g suggestion concerning the t r a n s l a t i o n of '!jr. Drawing on his extensive research into the impact of Canaanite mythology on I s r a e l i t e r e l i g i o n , as re-fle e t e d i n the Psalms, he proposes a d i s t i n c t i o n between the homographs 'wr C a r ) , " l i g h t " and 'wr C u r ) , " f i e l d . " In our context the f i e l d s r e f e r to the E l y s i a n F i e l d s , or the "abode of the blessed a f t e r death." Such a t r a n s l a t i o n i s reinforced by the fac t i t stands i n p a r a l l e l with the land of the Shades. Dahood l i s t s many obscure passages which read much better with 'ûr rather than " o r . See M i t c h e l l Dahood, P s a l m s I , pp. 222-223.

54

Lock the doors behind you!

Hide for a l i t t l e while;

U n t i l the wrath i s past.

10 וסגר דלתיך בעדך

6 חב י כמעט רגע

4 עד יעבור זעם-10

26:20 4 -10

6

a

a l

b

c

b:b::1::b:b

10 a2 c l d

6 -10

4

a3 E l

Ε

The suspense i s maintained throughout t h i s strophe by the use of imperatives and c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m . The grounds f o r hope i s that Yahweh i s f i g h t i n g the forces of chaos. His v i e -tory w i l l b r i n g the dead to l i f e . For a short while, however, the f a i t h f u l must hide and wait.

3. Isaiah 26:21-27:1

a. 2(1:1) (Isaiah 26:21)

Yahweh comes f o r t h from h i s place now !

To punish the inhabitants of the land for t h e i r i n i q u i t y .

The earth w i l l reveal her blood.

I t w i l l not conceal anymore her s l a i n .

8 •1־הנה יהוד! יצא ממקומו

8/9 לפקד עון ישב ארץ עליו

ד וגלתה ארץ דמיה

9 לא תכסה עוד על הרוגיה

1:1::1:1:1 (Isaiah 27:1)

In that Day, Yahweh w i l l attack with his sword.

His f i e r c e , great and strong (sword),

ביום הוא יפקד יהוה בחרבו

קשה וגדולה וחזקה

1. Read e i t h e r as prose or as long poetic l i n e s , run-on.

55

Leviathan, the primordial serpent, 2ל לויתן נחש ברח ע 1 8

The twisting serpent. 8 ועל3 נחש עקלתון

He s h a l l slay the dragon which i s in the Sea.

7 והרג4 תנין בים

27:1 9 a b c d e 1:1::1:1:1 9 e x e2 e3

8 f g g 1 h 8 f 7 c x

g l g2

h l i

The vocabulary, scansion, i n t e r n a l p a r a l l e l i s m , paronoma-s i a a l l t e s t i f y to the an t i q u i t y of t h i s passage I f that were not enough, however, i t i s almost a d i r e c t quote from U g a r i t i c text 5.1.1-5.

4. Isaiah 27 2-6

5(b:b) 2(b:b:b)

D e l i g h t f u l vineyard, sing of i t 5 כרם5 חמד6 ענו לה7 !

ι, Yahweh, watch over i t . 0 אני יהוה נצרה 6

1. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the mythological beasts are almost completely suppressed i n the Targum. They are read as references to Pharaoh and Sennacherib, proto-types of c r u e l kings, the l i k e s of whom are the object of Yahweh's wrath and sword. Many scholars have attempted to e s t a b l i s h the i d e n t i t y of the beasts. In Proto-Apocalyptic, however, t h i s i s of less concern than the recovery of the creation myth i t s e l f and i t s implications for the study of Is r a e l ' s r e l i g i o n .

2. See Albright's discussion of b r h as "eternal" i n , "Are the Ephod and the Teraphim Mentioned i n U g a r i t i c L i t e r a t u r e ? " ΒAS OR, LXXXIII (1941), pp. 39ff.

3. Dittography. As the l i n e stands, i t i s too long.

4. Deleting את, the a r t i c l e , and אשר as prosaisms.

5. Of the versions, the Greek diverges the most. The subject i s a f o r t i f i e d c i t y (πόλις Οσχυρά πόλι,ς πολι,ορκουμένη) . A l l the a l l u s i o n s , however, are to the tending of a garden. The changing of יהוה נצרה to עיר עז עיר נצורה (see 26:1); (cont)

56

Regularly, I water i t ,

Lest (something) be missing of

Night and day I watch over i t

לרגעים אשקנה 6i t 2ד פן יפקד עליה .

ד לילה ויום אצרנה

-suggest secondary emenda (φυλάσσει-v) טמיר to שמיר ;ח'?ןה to חמהtions to bring the song of the vineyard into l i n e with the re-current c i t y motif of Isaiah 24-27. For a discussion of the Greek and Hebrew texts of Isaiah 27:2-5, see Paul Lohmann, pp. 37-38, 40-49. He suggests the Hebrew text with which the tran s l a t o r was working was so fragmentary that only an occa-s i o n a l word was l e g i b l e . The t r a n s l a t o r took the words and wrote his passage i n l i n e with the c i t y motif he had already encountered many times i n t r a n s l a t i o n .

In whatever manner the Greek did come about, I would agree with Lohmann that we do not have i n the Greek an e n t i r e l y new song. There are enough words which can be pointed d i f f e r e n t l y to y i e l d the key elements of the Greek to substantiate secon-dary emendation. The Targum i s h o m i l e t i c a l , but the underlying MT can be discerned.

6. The d and מ can be confused with each other i n t h i s period. The Greek (dittography i n the text) and Targum read Syriac and Vulgate follow MT. l .חמד Q I s a a reads חומר which might be "clay" or "mire." For the use of כרם חמד elsewhere i n prophecy, see Amos 5:11.

7. Note the feminine s u f f i x r e f e r r i n g to כרם which usu-a l l y i s masculine. The Syriac takes כרם as masculine through-out except for the strange occurrence i n verse 4 of * י? and ~> ̂ JSf, second person feminine. Some Lucianic manuscripts i n

the Greek read masculine αύτου for αυτής i n verse 2. l Q I s a a , Vulgate and Targum a l l follow MT with the feminine.

8. Note i n passing πόλις ισχυρά πόλις τιολιορκουμένη which equals עיר עז עיר נצורה. The t r a n s l a t i o n may have been i n f l u -enced by 26 : l b .

1. See Greek μάτην. Lohmann suggests the t r a n s l a t o r i s reading לריק or ־י^ם}. Lohmann, p. 44.

2. The Greek and Vulgate take יפקד passively. The Syriac changes the sense by reading . . . _ j >χΚ»$0» >0>Aji0 , "and I v i s i t i t during the night and during the day." Duhm's sugges-ti o n , following e a r l i e r commentators, to take עליה as עלה, "leafage" i s i n t e r e s t i n g , but not necessary.

i חמה אין לי .3 s a very short l i n e and does not make much sense. Cross's suggestion, communicated i n conference, of would make very good sense, e חמר אין לו s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t of Isaiah 5:2c ויקר לעטות סובים ויעש באשים. The ויעש באשים opened by the waw adversative marks the turning point of the (cont)

57

Would that I were thorns,

Briars i n flame, ל מי יתנני טמיר ך שית במו להבה1

I would advance against i t ;

I would kindle i t altogether. 4 אפשעה בה

6 אציתנה יחד

Or, l e t them lay hold of my protection! י ז ו ע מ ק ב ז ח ן י ך א

Let them make peace with me; י ם ל ן ל ה ש ש ע g י

Peace, l e t them make with me! י ה ל ע ע ם י ן ל fi ע

In the future Jacob s h a l l take root;

I s r a e l s h a l l blossom and put f o r t h shoots.

And f i l l the whole world with f r u i t .

7 הבאים ישמש יעקב 7 יציץ פרח ישראל

7 מלאו פני תבל תנובה

27:5 2(b:b:b)

Although the p a r a l l e l i s m does not extend from one t r i c o l o n to the other, each t r i c o l o n i s a unit unto i t s e l f . The chiasm i s very nice i n the f i r s t t r i c o l o n . The second t r i c o l o n i s a good example of the kind of c l i m a c t i c p a r a l l e l i s m we have

song. From t h i s point on, Yahweh's disappointment turns into wrath against the vineyard. The לו could e a s i l y explain the לי of the MT but the masculine gender raises a problem of why the i כרם s re f e r r e d to i n the feminine throughout the rest of the song. The r e s u l t i n g t h r e e - s y l l a b l e l i n e does not help the metrical symmetry. Wall (חצזה) i s read by the Greek and Syriac, but does not help much.

1. Following Cross's reading, suggested i n conference. For the possible interchange of ה with ח and ב with n, see l Q I s a a . The r e s u l t i n g symmetry, p a r a l l e l i s m and good sense a l l argue in favor of t h i s reading.

58

encountered many times i n the Apocalypse. The expansion or climax builds i n t e r n a l l y . The t r i c o l o n begins simply by men-t i o n i n g that Jacob w i l l take root. In the second l i n e I s r a e l blossoms and sends forth shoots. And f i n a l l y i n the t h i r d l i n e , f r u i t covers the face of the world. I t i s d i f f i c u l t not to draw the p a r a l l e l with the feast on the mount motif and Second Isaiah's rejuvenation of the desert when the e x i l e s were to return home i n v i c t o r y .

Ε. Isaiah 27:12-13 1

Isaiah 27:12-13 i s prose with strong support from the ver-sions. However, a poetic undertone i s s t i l l very noticeable. I t stands at that point when poetry i s breaking into prose. The s y l l a b i c symmetry i s abandoned. Long l i n e s are run on but the technique of poetic p a r a l l e l i s m seems s t i l l to be exerting pressure on the w r i t i n g of the poet.

And i t s h a l l happen i n that Day, והיה ביום הוא 2

Yahweh w i l l thresh יחבט יהוה From the bank of the 3מטבלת נהר

r i v e r (Euphrates)

το the wadi Egypt. עד נהל מצרים

sons of I s r a e l , you w i l l אתם תלקטו לאחד אחד בני יטראל

be gleaned, everyone.

And i t s h a l l happen i n that Day, והיה ביום הוא A b l a s t s h a l l be sounded on יתקע בטופר נדול

the Great Horn 4

And they w i l l come: those ובאו אבד ים בארץ אשר l o s t i n the land of Assyria;

1. Isaiah 27:7-11 i s l e f t out of the current discussion because the text i s corrupt and provides no s o l i d clue for a probable reconstruction.

2. Aramaic: יתרמון קטילין קדם ירי: "The s l a i n s h a l l be raised before Yahweh," i s h o m i l e t i c a l .

3. Greek: "Ρινοκορούρων i s a proper name.

4. Syriac: Egypt and Assyria are interchanged i n d i c a t i n g poetic p a r a l l e l i s m i s s t i l l at work.

59

And those banished i n the ונדחים בארץ מצרים land of Egypt.

And they s h a l l prostrate them- והשתחוו ליהוה בהר קדש 1

selves before Yahweh on the בירושלם Holy Mount i n Jerusalem.

F. Summary of Isaiah 24-27

Our analysis of the text and prosody of Isaiah 24-27 has revealed the following generalizations: 1) The elements of paronomasia, a l l i t e r a t i o n , assonance, chiasm, i n o l u s i o and c l i -mactic p a r a l l e l i s m are i n evidence throughout most of the Apoc-alypse. 2) The most common prosodie pattern i s the a l t e r n a t i o n between b i c o l a and t r i c o l a . The patterns 4(b:b) followed by b:b:b, with v a r i a t i o n s , are found i n more than one context. The 1:1::1:1:1 i s also frequent. 3) When the above metric pat-terns are abandoned, the poetry i s usually bad and the sense secondary. When adhered to, the q u a l i t y i s usually very good. The following chart compares the prosodie patterns of the units which we suggest make up the Apocalypse.

It i s not the purpose of t h i s study to present a f u l l pro-sodic analysis of U g a r i t i c poetic s t y l e or that of Second

2 Isaiah. We include here, however, two representative samples, a passage from U g a r i t i c text 5 and Isaiah 51:9-11. In both cases the textual work has been done independently by another scholar. I t i s intended to show that the prosodie s t y l e we have encountered i n Isaiah 24-27 has close a f f i n i t i e s with what i s generally recognized as good Hebrew poetry.

1. Syriac: J s j j p ל c O ü k ^ O I O ) . ^ f t l Ο i s expansion-i s t i c י •י .

2. For h e l p f u l discussions, see William F. A l b r i g h t , Y a h -w e h a n d t h e G o d s o f C a n a a n , chap, one, and Frank M. Cross, C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n d H e b r e w E p i a , p a s s i m . Richard Whitaker, "A Formulaic Analysis of U g a r i t i c Poetry," (Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n . Harvard University, 1971) i s also very h e l p f u l .

3. See respectively, Marvin Chaney, "Mythology and Holy War i n Isaiah 34:1-17 and 51:9-11," (Unpublished seminar paper. Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and L i t e r a t u r e s , Harvard Uni-v e r s i t y . F a l l , 1965) and Frank M. Cross, "Song of the Sea...," p. 7.

61

In terms of a chronology of prosodie s t y l e s , research done in the prosody of Ear l y Apocalyptic has shown that established poetic patterns eventually dissolved u n t i l prose became the dominant l i t e r a r y form of apocalyptic. Thus, our textual study of Isaiah 2 4-27 leads us to conclude that t h i s work, on prosod-i c grounds, needs to be placed early i n the t y p o l o g i c a l chron-ology, close to Second Isaiah.

1. Isaiah 5 1 : 9 - 1 1

a. l : b : : l : b l:b: : l : b : : l : b

Awake, awake, clothe yourself i n power,

Ο Arm of Yahweh!

Awake as i n the days of old;

Generations of long ago!

Was i t not Thou who smote Rahab ;

Who pierced Dragon?

עורי עורי לבשי עז

זרוע יהוה

עורי כימי קדם

דרות עולמים

הלא המדוצת רהב

מחיללת תנון

-11

-11

-11

Was i t not Thou who d r i e d up Sea;

The Waters of the Great Deep?

הלא המחרבת ים

מי תהום רבה-11

Who made the depths of the Sea a Way

For the Redeemed to pass over.

השמה מעמקי ילז דרך

לעבר גאולים-12

5 1 : 9 •11

l : b : : l : b l : b : :1 :b: ! l:b

1. See the work i n "Third" Isaiah and Second Zechariah by Paul Hanson, D a w n , p a s s i m .

60

Isaiah 24:l-16a

Isaiah 24 :lBb-25: 9

Isaiah 25: 10-26:

8

Isaiah 26: 11-27:6

24:1

3(b־b־b)

24:16b

2(b־b>

25:10-12

Pros

e 26:11

1J

b.D.o

,

7

b:b:b

16

1:1 17

2(1:1:1)

14

4(b:b)

16

b:b־b

21

l־l

:b

19

3

23

(b:b):l:l

20

b:b::l::b:b

25:1

4(b:b)

21

?(J-

:1>

3 χ.!

27:1

1:1

4 l:l:(b:b)

1:1:1

6 1-1

2

5(b:b)

6b

2'(b:b)

5

2(b:

b־b)

7

2(b:b:b)

8 1:1

9 1:1

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51:9 (cont) 6

5

6

5

-11

g

h. -12

1

1 l

1 l k

j 2 k

The point develops c l i m a c t i c a l l y as key words are p a r a i -l e l e d and expanded. This happens many times i n the Apocalypse. Over a l l , the l i n e s are very long, and can be scanned as 1:1::1:1:1. Each l i n e breaks down into a l:b u n i t . Note the use of b i c o l a and t r i c o l a . The motif of sla y i n g the dragon i s to be compared with Isaiah 27:1.

b. 1:1::1:1:1

The ransomed of Yahweh s h a l l return.

They w i l l come to Zion amidst shouts of v i c t o r y .

E v e r l a s t i n g joy s h a l l be upon t h e i r heads.

They s h a l l a t t a i n joy and gladness.

Sorrow and sighing s h a l l f l e e away.

8 פדויי יהרה ישובון

8 ובאו ציון ברנה

8 ושמחת עולם על ראשם

8 ששון ושמחה ישינון

8 נסו ינון ואנחה

51:11 1:1::1:1:1

Note the chiasm of verbs i n the bi c o l o n . The l a s t two l i n e s of the t r i c o l o n are arranged c h i a s t i c a l l y . The p a r a l l e l members are contrasted as opposites.

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2. U g a r i t i c Text 5.1.1-5

1:1:1::1:1

kï-timhas lôtâna batna bariha 11

t a k a l l i y u batna 'aqalatäna 11

äilyata d i sab'ati ra'asïma 11

titkahu titrapü samimi 9

ka-ru<ku>si ' i p i d i k a 8

When you (Baal) smote LÔtân, the ancient dragon, Destroyed the crooked serpent, S h i l y a t with the seven heads,

(Then) the heavens withered (and) drooped Like the folds of your garments.

UT 5.1.1-3 11 a b e d 1:1:1 11 c d^ 11 b e f g

The t r i c o l o n i s to be compared with Isaiah 27:1. See Isaiah 34:4 for a close p a r a l l e l with the bicolon. On many l e v e l s , the wri t e r of Isaiah 24-27, Second Isaiah and Canaanite poets, share commonalities. Not the l e a s t of these commonali-t i e s i s the s i m i l a r i t y i n prosodie s t y l e .

ז

I I I . THE STRUCTURE OF ISAIAH 24-27

A. A Thematic Analysis of Isaiah 24-27

To deal with the problem of structure, we have chosen to begin with a thematic analysis of these chapters. A close study of the themes of Isaiah 24-27 reveals the frequent use of portions or a l l of the following pattern: threat, war, v i e -tory and feast.

1. Isaiah 24:l-16a

Threat: War: 24:1-13 Vic t o r y : 24:14-16a Feast:

The two items always present are war plus v i c t o r y as i n Isaiah 24:l-16a. A b r i e f synopsis of the scenes described i n these passages i s as follows. Yahweh i s attacking the earth. As the surface i t s e l f i s l a i d waste, no one i s exempt. Those in positions of power (priest, master, mistress, creditor) are no less vulnerable than the average person (servant, maid, debtor). Yahweh's attack has gone beyond the simple punishing of an enemy of I s r a e l . The earth i t s e l f i s being emptied. The world shudders as a curse from God devours the created order. A l l signs of f e s t i v i t y are gone. Chaos has consumed the c i t y . The c i t y stands desolate as a ruin, a r e f l e c t i o n of the p l i g h t of the entire land.

A l l i s not black, however, for from afar come shouts of triumph. Yahweh i s proclaimed v i c t o r and praised. He i s the God of I s r a e l , the Just One to be honored i n t h i s event. From the ends of the earth comes a song of joy.

2. Isaiah 24:16b-25:9

Threat 24:16b-18b War: 24:18c-23 Vic t o r y : 25:l-4c Feast: 25:6-8

65

66

Here we have the f u l l e s t expression of the pattern. In our textual study of 24:16b-18b we noted a s h i f t i n meter at 24:16b and suggested, judging from content, that the b:b pat-tern may be understood as a precursor to the l a t e r l : b , q i n a h

meter, of lament.

a. Threat (Isaiah 24:l"6b-18b)

There are those who are s u f f e r i n g . They are facing the threat of treacherous ones. The inhabitants of the land have been attacked as i f by a pack of dogs. There i s no escape from the marauders. One i s encompassed about by P i t and Snare. A shout of anguish i s raised: "I am wasted! Oh, woe i s me!"

b. War (Isaiah 24:18c-23)

Such anguish, however, i s but a microcosmic r e f l e c t i o n of a cosmic catastrophe. The days of the ancient flood are re-turning. The windows of heaven open. The foundations of the earth tremble. The earth shakes, i s rent asunder, i s broken in pieces, sways l i k e a drunk i n the wind.

The poet's v i s i o n suddenly bursts forth with Yahweh, him-s e l f , the great cosmic Warrior, charging in b a t t l e against the gods i n heaven, and against the kings of earth. They are van-quished and locked i n a great p i t - l i k e Dungeon. The sun and moon themselves cringe i n confusion. The enemies of Yahweh have been put down. Why? Because the kingship of Yahweh i s to be recognized by a l l . Yahweh resumes his place at Zion. In Jerusalem his cloud of power and honor r e s t s , reaffirmed i n the f a i t h of his elders.

c. Victory (Isaiah 25:l-4c)

The v i c t o r y i s celebrated with a song of p r a i s e : "Yahweh, You are my God. You have destroyed the f o r t i f i e d c i t y . The palace of aliens i s naked, never to be r e b u i l t . You are a refuge to the poor and needy. The powerful and haughty of the world w i l l now worship only You."

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d. Feast (Isaiah 25:6-8)

The songs of praise have a f u l l e r context i n that Yahweh prepares on his mount, for a l l people, a feast. This i s a feast of f i n e o i l and wine to celebrate his v i c t o r y over the powers of chaos. Death, i t s e l f , i s to be swallowed at t h i s feast. Death's web, that brings tears of fear and anguish to his people, w i l l be removed forever from a l l the earth. "Our God, f o r whom we wait i s here! Let us sing and r e j o i c e i n his v i c t o r y !"

3. Isaiah 25:10-26:8

Threat: War: 25:10-12 Victory: 26:1-8 Feast:

The theme of 25:10-12 i s war against Moab. Moab i s trod-den upon as i s straw i n a dung heap. Moab stretches out his arms as does a swimmer seeking safety. But Yahweh crushes the pride of Moab. The stronghold, the walls, the f o r t i f i c a t i o n s are a l l humbled before Yahweh, razed to the dust.

A v i c t o r y hymn follows, acknowledging the strength of Yah weh's c i t y . Walls and rampart are i n place. The v i c t o r s are i n v i t e d to enter. Those who are steadfast i n f a i t h , and t r u s t of Yahweh, come before Him, t h e i r Eternal Rock.

As did the hymn of praise i n 25:1-4, the reason for the joy i s given. Yahweh has humbled the haughty ones. He has re duced the exalted c i t y to the ground. The poor and the op-pressed dare to trample i t under feet. The Way of Yahweh i s J u s t i c e . His righteous way has been established.

4. Isaiah 26:11-15

Threat: War: 26:11-12 26:13-14 Vic t o r y : 26:15 Feast:

The poetry of 26:11-12 i s not as good as we have encoun-tered i n other portions of the Apocalypse but the theme i s

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c l e a r l y one of war. Yahweh raises his hand against the antag-onists of his people. With f i r e , he w i l l consume h i s enemies. The deeds of h i s f a i t h f u l ones are to be established.

Verses 13-14 of chapter 26 return to the frequently en-countered pattern of 4(b:b), b:b:b and the themes of war plus v i c t o r y are i n t a c t . "Yahweh, apart from Thee, we acknowledge no other gods. Attack the dead, the Shades, and wipe them out! Destroy a l l memory of them!" And then the a f f i r m a t i o n of v i e -tory: "Yahweh, You have increased the nation. You have enlarged the horizons of the earth!"

5. Isaiah 26:16-27:6

Threat: 26:16-19 War: 26:20-27:lb Vic t o r y : 27:1c Feast: 27:2-6 (Rejuvenation of the Land)

The above sequence of passages appears to be put together secondarily from older materials. The meter i s mixed. There are traces of a lament of the people, a salvation oracle, an ancient Divine Warrior hymn and a song of the vineyard. Each seems, however, to be modified by the current context. We sug-gest that i t i s the p r e v a i l i n g pattern of themes (threat, war, v i c t o r y and feast) that has guided the creator or e d i t o r of these materials.

a. Threat (Isaiah 26:16-19)

There are many elements present i n Isaiah 26:16ff which Westermann 1 reconstructs for the communal lament.

Address: "Yahweh, i n d i s t r e s s , we looked to Thee...." Lament: "In the throes of Thy chastisement of us....

We were with c h i l d , we writhed, vie brought fo r t h wind....Victory we have not made.

P e t i t i o n : "Let Thy dead l i v e ! Let Thy corpses r i s e ! Let them awake and shout i n v i c t o r y ! " (This i s a reference to themselves.)

1. Claus Westermann, T h e P r a i s e of G o d i n the P s a l m s , trans, by Keith R. Crim, (Richmond: John Knox Press, 1965), pp. 52-64. Hereinafter referred to as P s a l m s .

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Westermann also notes that i n a number of the laments of the people which he studied, there was substituted f o r the vow of praise (which normally concluded the psalm of lament) a part which depicted God's answer to the supplication of his people. This s u b s t i t u t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y noticeable i n prophetic works. 1 Isaiah 26:20 could be such an oracle of salvation an-nouncing God's intention on behalf of his people.

Go, my people! Enter your rooms ! Lock the doors behind you! Hide for a l i t t l e while U n t i l the wrath i s past.

b. War (Isaiah 26:20-27:lb)

This announcement of salvation moves the theme from one of lament i n the face of threat, to the theme of Yahweh, the Di-vine Warrior, marching forth to punish the e v i l i n the land. He comes forth from his place, a stock image frequently en-countered i n such war passages. He w i l l punish the inhabitants of the land for t h e i r i n i q u i t y . The earth w i l l reveal the blood of those unjustly s l a i n . Isaiah 27:1 contains the b a t t l e scene quoting a passage which goes back at lea s t to Ugarit wherein Baal i s credited with slaying Lôtân, (= Leviathan), the Dragon of chaos.

c. Victory (Isaiah 27:1c)

"He s h a l l slay the dragon which i s i n the Sea."

d. Feast (Isaiah 27:2-6)

The theme of celebrating Yahweh's v i c t o r y through feasting was strong enough to transform the judgment intent of F i r s t Isaiah's use of the Song of the Vineyard. In Isaiah 27, the image becomes a v i s i o n of a rejuvenated and f e r t i l e land.

Yahweh sings of his d e l i g h t f u l vineyard, I s r a e l . He cares for i t , watches over i t . Suddenly the mood changes as i n Isaiah 5. Yahweh becomes angry and turns against his vineyard i n wrath. He would destroy i t in flames.

1. I b i d . , pp. 61-64.

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The b i c o l a i n which the above theme was expressed then s h i f t to t r i c o l a i n verse 6. The mood changes again. This time Yahweh's attitude of h o s t i l i t y changes to one of protec-t i o n and peace. "Let them make peace with me....Jacob s h a l l take root. I s r a e l s h a l l blossom and put f o r t h shoots, and f i l l the whole world with f r u i t . "

We suggest t h i s s h i f t i n mood comes from the pressure throughout these chapters of the pattern: threat, war, v i c t o r y and feast. The theme of feasting was strong enough to trans-form the h o s t i l e i n t e n t of the Song of the Vineyard i n h e r i t e d from F i r s t Isaiah, to a v i s i o n of his vineyard, I s r a e l , taking root, blossoming, and putting forth shoots to f i l l the whole world with f r u i t . Vie w i l l suggest below that t h i s l a t t e r theme probably came from Second Isaiah who envisioned the coming to l i f e of the desert to provide food and water for Yahweh's ex i l e s on t h e i r journey home on the triumphal way from Babylon.

6. Isaiah 27:12-13 The themes of war and v i c t o r y , discussed above, are re-

expressed i n the prose of 27:12-13. Yahweh i s threshing the nations from the Euphrates to the Wadi Egypt, gleaning the sons of I s r a e l . At the sound of the v i c t o r y trumpet, the l o s t w i l l return home to Zion, to prostrate themselves before Yahweh's holy Mount i n praise.

7. Summary

The following chart summarizes our analysis of the basic thematic pattern we see i n Isaiah 24-27.

2 4 : l - 1 6 a 2 4 : 1 6 b - 2 S : 9 2 5 : 1 0 - 2 6 : 8

Threat: 24:16b-18b War: 24:1-13 24:18c-23 25:10-12 Vic t o r y 24:1416a 25:l-4c 26:1-8־ :Feast: 25:6-8

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2 6 : 1 2 - 1 6 2 6 : 1 6 - 2 7 : 6 2 7 : 1 2 - 1 1

Threat: 26:16-19 War: 26:13-14 26:20-27:lb 27:12 Victory: 26:15 27:1c 27:13 Feast: 27:2-6

(Rejuvenated Land)

B. Thematic Patterns i n the Baal-'Anat Epic

Judging from the thematic pattern noted above, i t would appear that ancient mythic themes were being r e u t i l i z e d i n early apocalyptic expression. To understand these l a t e r de-velopments, we turn now to a d e s c r i p t i o n of very s i m i l a r pat-terns i n Canaanite r e l i g i o n .

I t i s premature to become too dogmatic when i t comes to U g a r i t i c studies. We recognize that the texts we now have, that can be used to reconstruct the mythic themes of Canaanite mythology, are fragmentary and sometimes r e f l e c t complex i n t e r -na l developments. We f e e l , however, there are enough data to propose what may be described as thematic patterns.

Such a study provides, as well, a necessary c o r r e c t i v e by s h i f t i n g our attention from Persian thought as the primary source of apocalyptic themes to the recognition that much ma-t e r i a l that appears l a t e can be traced back to Canaanite r e l i -gion.

The Kingship of B a a l 1

Once upon a time, ages ago, a quarrel arose between two of the younger gods. Yamm, who

1. The purpose of t h i s reconstruction of the s t o r y - l i n e of the Baal-'Anat epic i s to describe the thematic patterns that can be discerned i n these texts. We w i l l l a b e l only the major themes. The s t y l e of paraphrase was suggested by a simi-l a r device, employed for another purpose, by Theodore Gaster i n his O l d e s t S t o r i e s i n the W o r l d (New York: Viking Press, 1952). More l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s of the o r i g i n a l poetry, with proposed reconstructions, can be found i n the following works: Theodore Gaster, T h e s p i e : R i t u a l , M y t h a n d D r a m a i n the A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950); Cyrus H. Gordon, U g a r i t i c L i t e r a t u r e (Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1949); H.L. Ginsberg, " U g a r i t i c Myths, Epics and Legends," All Ε Τ (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955), pp. 129-142; Joseph (cont)

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c o n t r o l l e d the powerful deeps of Ocean and the many fingers of River, thought he should be king. His father, Έ 1 , was getting old and the rule would soon pass from his hands. Έ 1 thought highly of Yamm and indeed i t was rumored that he had already commissioned Kothar-wa-Hasis, the Craftsman of the gods, to b u i l d a palace for Yamm from which he would r u l e . 1

A l l would have gone well were i t not for the ambitious and powerful god Baal, who c o n t r o l l e d the rains and f e r t i l i t y . His storm cloud, ac-companied by thunder and l i g h t n i n g , was a match for the roaring waves and flooding waters of Yamm.

2 THREAT One day, the gods were seated to dine.

Baal was attending to the needs of Έ 1 . Yamm sent his messengers to the divine banquet h a l l and demanded that ׳E1 turn over Baal to be his prisoner. The other gods, including ׳E1, over-whelmed by th i s blatant show of power, hid t h e i r heads i n t h e i r laps. Only Baal, not to be i n t i -midated by the messengers of Yamm, stood his ground.

But Έ 1 was s t i l l king. Acting under threat, to be sure, he nevertheless ordered that

A i s t l e i t n e r , D i e M y t h o l o g i s c h e n u n d K u l t i s c h e n T e x t e a u s R a s S c h a m r a (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1964); Anton J i r k u , K a n a a n a i s a h e M y t h e n u n d E p e n a u s R a s S o h a m r a - U g a r i t (Gütersloh: Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1962; G.R. Driver, C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n d L e g e n d s (Edinburgh: Τ & Τ Clark, 1956) .

1. UT 1.3 ('nt p l . i x ) ; UT 1.4.13-15 C n t p l . χ) ; UT 2 .3 . 1-9 (129). The numbers r e f e r to the c o l l e c t i o n of U g a r i t i c texts made by Andrée Herdner, C o r p u s d e s T a b l e t t e s e n Cunéi-f o r m e s Alphabétiques (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963). The numbers i n parentheses r e f e r to the numbering of Cyrus Gordon, U g a r i t i c T e x t b o o k (Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1965). Gordon places the 'nt p i . i x and χ a f t e r the 'nt text (see U L , pp. 24-27) but the story seems to r e f l e c t a period when Έ 1 f a -vored Yamm over Baal as successor. See Marvin Pope's discus-sion in 'El i n the U g a r i t i c T e x t s (Leiden: E.J. B r i l l , 1955), pp. 91-93.

2. UT 2.4 (68) .

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Baal be handed over to Yamm. Baal would bring g i f t s . He would bring t r i b u t e as would a l l the gods. This was a f i t t i n g jesture toward t h i s new pretender to the throne, Yamm.

COMBAT Baal, however, was not to be so e a s i l y d i s -missed. Kothar-wa-Hasis chose to defend the po-s i t i o n of B a a l , 1 and made for him two magic clubs, clubs that would f l y from Baal's hands s t r i k i n g deadly blows upon the adversary. The clubs were given names and charged to drive out Yamm, so that Baal might assume his place on the throne. The ba t t l e was f i e r c e as anyone would know who had ever witnessed a dark thunder cloud charging at the surface of the sea. Lightning, wind and waves bore witness to a frightening struggle between these two powerful gods.

VICTORY The v i c t o r was Baal. The flooding waters of sea and r i v e r receded back to t h e i r r i g h t f u l place while Baal returned to his gentler a c t i v i t y

FEAST of assuring f e r t i l i t y to the earth. A banquet, with sumptuous meat and drink, was prepared to

2 honor Prince Baal. There was music and song for Baal as he enjoyed the company of h i s daughters: Pdry, Tly and 'Arsy.

Baal had a s i s t e r . Her name was יAnat. 3

Above a l l , she loved the excitement and danger of war. Many feared her for she would slay and k i l l for pleasure. How many times had she waded through the blood and gore of s l a i n troops to p i l e severed heads and hands as trophies. She derived her zest for l i f e from such e x p l o i t s . At the end of the day she would wash her hands and body i n the fresh waters of r a i n and dew r e l i s h -ing the pleasures of the day.

1.

2.

3.

UT 2.4 (68) .

UT 3.A ('nt) .

UT 3 .Β ( 'nt) .

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BUILDING But one day as she was r e s t i n g about her BAAL'S house, she saw the messengers of Baal approach ABODE ן

her abode. She was s t a r t l e d at f i r s t since so often messengers brought bad news. Had her brother been banished from his throne? Had Yamm once again threatened to attack? Had any of the numerous monsters and dragons who c o n t r o l l e d the e v i l powers of chaos escaped to challenge the peace of the world?

When the messengers arrived, seeing that ,Anat was v i s i b l y shaken, they assured her that no harm had come to Baal. Rather he wished to speak with his s i s t e r . He had a matter of great importance that he would discuss with her. Could she hasten to meet with him so that peace and concord could continue to reign i n the land.

She agreed to come and soon was i n sight of her brother's mountain. He treated her to food as would any generous host. Then he revealed h i s concern:

Baal has no house l i k e the gods; ^ Nor a court l i k e the sons of 'Asherah.

It was only f i t t i n g that a king should have a palace. He had proven himself i n b a t t l e against the raging power of Yamm. He must now secure for himself a place from which to r u l e . But even though many of the functions, o r i g i n a l l y perform-ed by the old god, Έ 1 , were being taken over by the younger Baal, permission to b u i l d a palace s t i l l had to be obtained from ׳E1. 'Anat i n her impetuous way agreed to help. She announced that she would v i s i t Έ 1 and demand that a house for her brother be b u i l t . Indeed i f י E l would not agree, she would kick him l i k e a lamb to the ground and beat him u n t i l the grey of h i s h a i r and beard flowed red with blood!

1. UT 3.D-F (' nt) .

2. UT 3.IV E.l-2.

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'Anat made the t r i p to Έ 1 but apparently she was not successful for soon we witness Baal and 'Anat making plans to v i s i t 'Asherah, the wife of ' E l . 1 Baal and 'Anat arranged with the Craftsman god to have many s p e c i a l g i f t s made from s i l v e r and gold. These would be presents for 'Asherah, g i f t s to win her favor.

Like ,Anat before, when 'Asherah looked up from her chores to see Baal and 'Anat coming, she

2 thought the worse. Well aware of Baal's youth-f u l power and 'Anat's reputation for violence, she feared they might be coming to do harm to her and her ch i l d r e n . As they drew clo s e r , however, she saw they c a r r i e d not weapons, but g i f t s . This assured her that perhaps t h e i r intentions were peaceful.

Baal t o l d h is story to 'Asherah. 3 He wanted a house. I t was u n f i t t i n g that a king not have a palace. Indeed, the other gods were beginning to ta l k . I t was becoming embarrassing f o r him to appear i n pu b l i c . 'Asherah asked why they didn't approach Έ 1 d i r e c t l y , since i t was he who made such decisions. They r e p l i e d that they intended to do so, but decided f i r s t to approach his wife. They needed her to break the i c e . 'Asherah agreed to ta l k with her husband. Having s e t t l e d t h e i r business the three dined.

A f t e r a b i t , 'Asherah had her servants 4

saddle her donkey. She had them deck i t out i n i t s most splendid trappings. Then she mounted the animal and was led by a glowing star to the abode of Έ 1 .

1. UT 4.1 (51).

2. UT 4.2.12ff (51).

3. UT 4.3 (51).

4. UT 4.4 (51).

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(THEOPHANY ANTICIPA-TED)

BANQUET

When she arrived, her husband was delighted to see her. He offered her food and drink. His love for her warmed the room. When she had r e s t -ed from her t r i p , he asked her why she had come. She re l a t e d to him Baal's concern for a palace. Έ 1 granted his permission t h i s time but stressed the f a c t that i t was not he who should carry the trowel or 'Asherah who should make the b r i c k s . That was work for others than the father and mother of the gods. 'Asherah was delighted with 'El's d e cision. She complimented her husband on his wisdom and noted that now the season of the rains would come. Baal's voice would sound i n the clouds and h i s l i g h t n i n g would f l a s h i n the skies. The joy of his f e r t i l i t y would f i l l the earth and a l l would be well once more.

Kothar-wa-Hasis was commissioned by Baal to do the work. 1 The materials were gathered and set i n place. Then for s i x days the house burned

2 in f i r e as the flames melted the precious metals. On the seventh day the f i r e went out; the gold and s i l v e r were poured into blocks and b r i c k s . Thus the house, worthy of a king, was f i n i s h e d .

There was a discussion between Baal and the Craftsman god over whether or not to b u i l d a

3 window i n the house. At f i r s t Baal said no, but he l a t e r acceded to the suggestion. Some have thought t h i s would a n t i c i p a t e the opening of the windows of the heavens themselves to l e t i n the

4 rains of Baal.

At the completion of the palace a great ban-quet was arranged. The gods were i n v i t e d from

1. UT 4.5 (51).

2. UT 4.6.22ff (51).

3. UT 4.5.120ff (51).

4. See the discussion of Kapelrud, B a a l i n the R a a S h a m r a T e x t s (1952), p. 95.

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near and f a r . Everyone ate and drank t h e i r f i l l as one would expect at the dedication of a new palace for a new king.

THEOPHANY Soon a f t e r the celebration, dedicating the new palace of Baal, the windows of his house were i n s t a l l e d . 1 This pleased Kothar-wa-Hasis very much. Rains could now reach the earth. The thunderous voice of Baal would f i l l the sky. In-deed, so v i v i d was the presence of the new king, Baal, that his enemies f l e d i n t e r r o r . The king had assumed his throne from whence he would r u l e .

* * * * *

THREAT A l l was not well, however, for deep i n the nether reaches of the earth brooded another of the

2 gods, Death, Mot. Because of his power to de-destroy and bring l i f e l e s s n e s s , he saw himself as the most powerful of the gods. Should not he be king?

Perhaps a n t i c i p a t i n g some trouble, Baal sent messengers to Mot with word to the e f f e c t that he, Baal, was supreme. 3 His palace was b u i l t . The s i l v e r and gold were v i s u a l testimony to h i s p o s i t i o n . Baal warned his messengers, however, to be cautious i n t h e i r descent into the under-world. I t was hot and a r i d there due to the lack 4 of r a i n . The sun was an agent of Mot and each night she would dip below the horizon to burn the nether regions with her incessant heat. Mot, himself, consumed a l l those who came too close, as one would consume a freshly slaughtered lamb.

The messengers c a r r i e d Baal's message to Mot who was not to be intimidated. Rather he sent the

1. UT 4.7 (51) .

2. UT 4.7 (51) .

3. UT 4.8 (51).

4. See A i s t l e i t n e r , T e x t e , p. 46, n. c.

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DESCENT IN-TO UNDER-WORLD

STERILE LAND

messengers back to Baal with a threat of his own.1 Because Baal had s l a i n the dragon, Lôtan, one of the many monsters of the Sea, the heavens drooped and withered. So now would Mot destroy Baal by swallowing him as one would an o l i v e . The rains with t h e i r l i f e - g i v i n g power would stop. The heat of the sun would scorch the land. Mot would reign supreme while f e r t i l i t y would vanish from the earth..

Baal knew that he must face Mot and have i t out with him. Recognizing the dangers involved in descending into the nether regions of the world, just p r i o r to his journey, Baal made love to a young h e i f e r which soon gave b i r t h to a young l a d . 2 Some have suggested that t h i s was Baal's desire to regenerate a b i t of himself be-fore entering the region of Death. There was the r i s k that he might not return from the powers of Mot. 3

Baal then entered the lower regions at the base of a mountain and immediately the earth showed signs of dying. The worst was feared. Their god was dead. He had been swallowed by Mot. Baal's body was found f a l l e n on the ground. In g r i e f , messengers brought the news to Έ 1 who immediately entered a state of profound anguish. He s l i d from h i s throne, to his f o o t s t o o l , to the ground. He poured ashes of mourning on his head. He cut his arms, his chest, his back. He raised his voice and c r i e d ,

Baal i s dead! Woe, Oh people of Dagon's Son! Woe, Oh multitudes of B a a l ! 5

1. UT 5.1 (67).

2. UT 5.5.17ff (67).

3. See the discussion of Kapelrud, B a a l , p. 121.

4. UT 5.6.8ff (62).

5. UT 5.6.22-24 (62) .

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SEARCH FOR LOST BAAL

COMBAT ('ANAT-MÔT)

VICTORY

'Anat, too, grieved over the death of her b r o t h e r . 1 She searched f a r and wide for his l o s t body, with the help of Samsu the body was found. ,Anat asked Samsu to load Baal on her back that she might carry him to his mountain for a proper b u r i a l . A f t e r o f f e r i n g the appropriate s a c r i -f i c e s , she buried her brother, weeping b i t t e r l y over her l o s s .

In the meantime, Έ 1 requested of h i s wife, 'Asherah, that she recommend another of her sons

ο to be king. Someone had to take the place of Baal. She recommended 'Attar the T e r r i b l e . He was thought by some to be the god of i r r i g a t i o n . 3

To be sure, he would be no match for the god of natural r a i n , that i s , Baal, but he would give i t a t r y . 'Attar attempted to ascend the throne of Baal but was too short. Neither did his feet reach the f o o t s t o o l , nor d i d his head reach the top of the chair. He came down from Baal's moun-tain to rule on the earth instead.

'Anat had found and properly buried her brother's body. She continued her search for his l i f e essence, his soul as i t were. 4 She encoun-tered Mot whom she expected as the one holding him prisoner. She demanded that Baal be released. Then, true to her warlike nature, she seized Mot, s p l i t him with her sword, winnowed him with a sieve, burned him with f i r e , ground him with a millstone and planted his remains i n a f i e l d .

Elsewhere, i t was revealed to Έ 1 i n a v i s i o n that he would recognize the r e b i r t h of Baal when the heavens once again rained o i l and

1. UT 6.1 (49+62).

2. UT 6.1 43ff (49+62).

3. See the discussion of 'Attar i n Gaster, T h e s p i s , p. 19 8.

4. UT 6.2 (49+62).

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the wadies ran with honey. Then would he know that the Mighty Baal l i v e d again. And so i t happened. The heavens began to ra i n down o i l and the wadies ran with honey. ׳E1, much r e l i e v e d , sat back, put his feet on his f o o t s t o o l and laughed for joy. The Mighty Baal was a l i v e again! The earth would be f r u i t f u l once more. 'Anat and Samsu were sent to greet Baal.

Baal had been released from the clutches of Mot with the aid of 'Anat. Once released, Baal himself attacked Mot. He beat him on the shoul-der, smote him with a club, kicked him to the earth. The b a t t l e continued on the mount of B a a l . 3 They shook each other. They gored one another l i k e buffaloes. They b i t one another l i k e serpents. They kicked l i k e raging s t a l -l i o n s .

I t was Samsu who intervened and threatened Death with a word from Έ 1 , "Cease t h i s f i g h t against Baal or I w i l l remove my support from

4 your rule i n the nether regions. This was enough to f r i g h t e n Mot. The f i g h t stopped and Baal returned to his throne from which he estab-l i s h e d h i s rule as the greatest of a l l k i n g s . 5

* * * * *

There appear to be two major cycles of t r a d i t i o n i n these s t o r i e s : a Baal-Yarran cycle and a Baal-Môt cycle. The over-r i d i n g theme of both i s kingship. On one l e v e l , these s t o r i e s describe and i n t e r p r e t events of nature. Yamm symbolizes the overt powers of sea and flood, that i s , physical force, which,

1. UT 6.3 (49+62).

2. UT 6.5-6 (49+62).

3. UT 6.6.12ff (49+62).

4. UT 6.6.24-29 (49+62).

5. UT 6.6.33-35 (49+62).

REJUVENA-TION OF THE LAND

COMBAT (BAAL-MÔT)

VICTORY

KINGSHIP

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when unleashed and uncontrolled, destroy. Mot symbolizes the s i l e n t power of death which spreads disease, drought and s t e -r i l i t y . In the mind of raythopeic man, for one to be king, one must have the power to control these destructive forces.

On another l e v e l , 1 the tension between Baal and י E l may r e f l e c t the p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s of a young pretender to the throne seeking to e s t a b l i s h himself where an older, recognized king, once stood. Baal had to deal with the power of authority that Έ 1 s t i l l enjoyed. As well, a new king must prove he can handle overt physical threat, e i t h e r from nature or from an invasion of an enemy army (Baal-Yamm). And a king must prove he can control the powers of death (Baal-Môt). Once proving his a b i l i t y i n handling these various forms of power, the new king merits a house. Baal sought such a house. Once accom-p l i s h i n g the goal of e s t a b l i s h i n g his kingship, there was much feasting and r e j o i c i n g .

The following chart summarizes the thematic patterns we have discerned in the Baal-'Anat epic.

Baal-larnm

Threat

Combat (Baal-Yamm) Victory Feast Building of Abode Banquet Theophany

B a a l - Anat-Môt

Threat Descent i n Underworld S t e r i l e Land Search for l o s t Baal Combat ('Anat-Môt) Vict o r y

Rejuvenation of Land

S a a l - M o t

Combat (Baal-Môt) Victory

Kingship

I t would seem cl e a r that the thematic pattern encountered in Isaiah 24-27 i s ancient, perhaps even having i t s o r i g i n i n Canaanite r e l i g i o n . We turn now to the subject of Israel's use of some of these themes and motifs i n her r e l i g i o u s t r a d i -t i o n .

1. For an e x c e l l e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the p o l i t i c a l d i -mensions of E n u m a E l i s h , see T. Jacobsen, "Mesopotamia," B e f o r e P h i l o s o p h y (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1946), pp. 184-199. For the connection between the Baal-Yamm epic and that of Enuma E l i s h , see Jacobsen, "The Battle between Marduk and Tiamat," J A O S 88 (1968), pp. 104-108.

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C. The Divine Warrior Hymn and the Processional Way i n the Royal Theology of Hebrew T r a d i t i o n

For purposes of discussion, we w i l l l a b e l the basic the-matic pattern of Yahweh as Divine Warrior, responding to a threat against his people, by entering into b a t t l e with the enemy, being v i c t o r i o u s and then celebrating the reaffirmation of his r u l e , a Divine Warrior Hymn. Our reasons f o r c a l l i n g i t a hymn w i l l become cl e a r below. To anticipate the discussion, we f e e l the persistence of the pattern i s evidence of i t s re-current use i n r i t u a l re-enactment i n the c u l t i c l i f e of Is-rael's r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y .

Exodus 15, from the period of the T r i b a l League, i s a good example of the power of mythic themes to shape the expression of t r a d i t i o n a l material even within a t h e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g i n which God's action i n h i s t o r i c a l events was c e n t r a l to the com-munity's f a i t h . Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, marched in b a t t l e against an enemy that was threatening his people. Although the imagery of the sea i s s t i l l very much a part of the poem. Yah-weh was not f i g h t i n g Yamm, the god of chaos i n Canaanite myth. The b a t t l e had s h i f t e d to the h i s t o r i c a l enemy, Egypt. The themes of Yahweh's v i c t o r y , however, and the subsequent estab-lishment of his mountain abode, from which he would rule as king, remain i n t a c t . 1

During the Royal Period, the pattern of the Divine Warrior 2

Hymn was to enjoy a renewed l i f e i n the c u l t of the monarchy. Indeed, because there was now a temple, because there was a

1. Many of the assumptions here are based on the exten-sive work i n early Hebrew poetry and the r e l i g i o n of I s r a e l ' s T r i b a l League done by Frank M. Cross. See, f o r instance, his "Song of the Sea...." or, more f u l l y , C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n d H e b r e w E p i a . See, also, Paul Hanson's use of the poem's out l i n e i n his discussion of apocalyptic o r i g i n s i n D a w n , p. 301:

Combat-victory (Exodus 15:1-12) Theophany of Divine Warrior (15:8) Salvation of the I s r a e l i t e s : (15:13-16a) Building of the temple and procession (15:16b-17) Manifestation of Yahweh's uni v e r s a l reign (15:18)

2. Hanson has gathered a l i s t of 18 psalms whose thematic pattern i s threat, combat, v i c t o r y procession, celebration of Yahweh's eternal reign. D a w n , pp. 305-308.

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palace and a king involved i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s , the près-sure was on to be l i k e the other nations of the Near East. What more of an i n v i t a t i o n was needed—even within a community where God's action i n h i s t o r i c a l events was so i m p o r t a n t — f o r old mythic patterns, which originated i n such a context, to a r i s e once again to the surface. There i s evidence that the epic t r a d i t i o n s of the T r i b a l League were even i n danger of being swallowed up by the f i r m l y entrenched patterns of ancient Near Eastern myth. That such d i d not happen can be credited i n large part to the work of the prophets during t h i s period.

A motif which p e r s i s t s from the theology of the T r i b a l League to that of early apocalyptic i s that of the processional way. This may account, at l e a s t in part, for the continuity i n the use of the Divine Warrior Hymn i n t r a d i t i o n . The procès-sion a l way had been the route of l i b e r a t i n g exodus and con-quest. It had been the route of Yahweh's march to b a t t l e the

2 forces of chaos and return i n v i c t o r y . I t was the route of a Second Exodus, a way over which the e x i l e s of Babylon would re-

3 turn to Jerusalem. I t would be the processional way for the new Messiah. 4

To account for t h i s persistence i n t r a d i t i o n , we suggest there was i n fa c t a processional way i n I s r a e l ' s c u l t i c l i f e over which the basic themes of threat, combat, v i c t o r y and feast were re-enacted and celebrated. During the period of the T r i b a l League, these themes were used to celebrate the Exodus-Conquest event that created the nation. During the Royal Per-iod, they were used to celebrate the b u i l d i n g of Yahweh's abode on Mount Zion. And during the e x i l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the v i -sions of Second Isaiah and his followers, they were used once again to r e a f f i r m the basic f a i t h that Yahweh was king. He

1. Note the c u l t i c nature of many of the Joshua s t o r i e s and the reference i n Micah 6:5 to the route (processional way?) "from Shittim to G i l g a l . "

2. This i s what we w i l l reconstruct for the Royal Period.

3. See the processional way frequently r e f e r r e d to i n Second Isaiah.

4. See t h i s image of early apocalyptic i n Zechariah 9:9.

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would rescue his l o s t ones and as of old make manifest to a l l , h i s kingship.

To elaborate on the use of the processional way as a cen-t r a l motif i n the theology of the royal c u l t , we turn now to a discussion of t h i s matter by Mowinckel and his c r i t i c s .

Mowinckel proposed that we take s e r i o u s l y the c u l t i c func-tio n of the psalms. Indeed, he argued, there i s evidence "the psalms a r e — w i t h very few exceptions--real c u l t psalms, made for c u l t i c use.'י 1 He argued that to understand f u l l y the na-ture of the psalms, one must ask the question of function. Could one v i s u a l i z e a psalm's use within an established r i t u a l or f e s t i v a l ?

Important s i t u a t i o n s i n l i f e tend to become hedged by fix e d r i t u a l s . . . . I n the de c i s i v e s i t u a t i o n s of l i f e , i n l i f e ' s supreme moments, i t i s necessary that some-thing v i t a l be created and obtained; and the means by which i t was to be attained were e f f i c a c i o u s r i t e s and words. 2

Myth and hi s t o r y blended to enable the c u l t to "regener-ate" communal l i f e .

The "world" i s worn out i f i t i s not r e g u l a r l y re-newed, as anyone can see by the annual course of l i f e and nature. Thus i t i s the " f a c t of sa l v a t i o n " which i s actualized in the c u l t . . . . s a l v a t i o n which takes place i n a r e p e t i t i o n of a f i r s t s a l v a t i o n which took place in the dawn of time.3

History i n I s r a e l ' s royal c u l t , according to Mowinckel, had been mythicized.

It i s e s p e c i a l l y the h i s t o r i c a l facts of salvation which are "remembered," and thereby turned into new e f f e c t u a l r e a l i t y by Yahweh's presence at the f e s t i -v a l . A l l he formerly did, gave, and secured, he does, and gives and secures again when he "appears" at h i s f e s t i v a l . ' *

1. Sigmund Mowinckel, The P s a l m s i n I s r a e l ' s W o r s h i p , trans, by D.R. AP-Thomas, 2 v o l s . (New York: Abingdon Press, 1962), p. 30. Hereinafter referred to as T h e P s a l m s .

2 . I b i d . , p. 27.

3. I b i d . , pp. 18-19.

4. I b i d . , p. 19.

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For our purposes, i t was Mowinckel's treatment of the so-c a l l e d enthronement psalms that i s of primary importance be-cause of t h e i r possible connection to material in Isaiah 24-27. He postulated a " f e s t i v a l which has...been celebrated as a fes-t i v a l of the enthronement of Yahweh."1 Rather than look for a new, as yet undiscovered f e s t i v a l , we are to notice the " h i t h -erto unheeded aspect of the well-known and frequently mentioned

2 feast of tabernacles i n i t s character of new year f e s t i v a l . " Possibly on the seventh day of t h i s f e s t i v a l , the climax was reached as the re-enthronement of Yahweh as king was célébra-ted. The formula introducing psalms that would be used i n such a f e s t i v a l celebration was Y a h w e h m a l a k . One i s reminded of the s i m i l a r formula, "Marduk i s king," used i n the a k l t u f e s t i -val of babylonian r e l i g i o n .

I t i s not a l a s t i n g condition that the poet describes with t h i s expression....The poet's v i s i o n i s of some-thing new and important which has just taken place: Yahweh has now become king; hence the new song of joy and praise to be sung.3

The c e n t r a l event during t h i s celebration of "Yahweh's Day" was the processional entrance of the Ark. P r i o r to the procession i t s e l f , Mowinckel postulated " r i t u a l f i g h t i n g games," and possibly a circumambulation of the c i t y wall re-enacting Yahweh's f i g h t with the dragon of chaos. Mowinckel suggested that Psalms 68, 132, 24 and 118 gave textual evidence for the procession. He saw Psalm 48:12-13, Nehemiah 12:31ff, and Psalm 118:27 r e f l e c t i n g the r i t u a l act of circumambulation. In the l a t t e r , he interpreted h a g as a c i r c u l a r dance, circumambulat-ing e i t h e r the a l t a r or the c i t y w a l l .

The suggestion of circumambulation of the c i t y wall i s i n -t r i g u i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in l i g h t of Isaiah 26:1-2, where hömot

wahêl are mentioned. Yet, i t must be admitted that the e v i -dence for such an established r i t u a l i s tenuous. Nehemiah 12: 31ff did involve a r i t u a l celebration at the wall, but the ceremony had as i t s prime function the dedication of the newly

1.

2.

3.

I b i d . , p. 112.

I b i d . , p. 121.

I b i d . , p. 107.

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restored wall. This i s s l i g h t evidence that they were rehears-ing an ancient r i t u a l that could be traced back to the royal c u l t . Psalm 118:27 appears to describe a procession to the a l -ta r . But even i f we tran s l a t e hag i n the sense of c i r c u l a r dance, the most that can be implied i s a circumambulation of the a l t a r . To use t h i s as evidence for circumambulation of the c i t y wall i s hardly convincing.

Psalm 4 8 envisages the elevated, mythic mount of the north, associated with Zion (vv. 1-3). There i s a threat to Zion (vv. 4-5). Verses 6-9 describe a b a t t l e and v i c t o r y . A vi c t o r y shout i s raised i n verses 10-12. And then the c i r c l i n g of Zion i s described i n verses 13-14. Rather than circumambu-l a t i o n , i t may be s u f f i c i e n t , however, to read 48:13-14 as a reference to a procession through the c i t y .

Although H. J. Kraus argued i n favor of a royal Zion fes-t i v a l , he challenged Mowinckel's concept of i t as an enthrone-ment f e s t i v a l . His objections were as follows:''•

1) I t presupposes a time when Yahweh was not king.

H. Schmidt has made i t unmistakably c l e a r what the theological context of a " f e s t i v a l of Yahweh's en-thronement" would have to be. Schmidt assumes that the God of I s r a e l — l i k e a l l other vegetation d e i t i e s — " a c t u a l l y loses for a period" his suprem-acy in the natural rhythm of the seasons and de-clares that t h i s i s a myth s i m i l a r to that of the perio d i c descent of the gods to the underworld and t h e i r resurrection....There i s no evidence within the Old Testament of t h i s idea of a "mythicizing" of Yahweh, the Lord of H i s t o r y . 2

2) The procession of the Ark in t o the temple was not a re-enactment of Yahweh's enthronement, i t was simply the introduc-t i o n of Yahweh's throne into his temple. In Psalm 24:7ff, for instance,

1. See also DeVaux's summary of the major arguments for and against the concept of an enthronement f e s t i v a l i n his A n -a i e n t I s r a e l (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961), pp 504-6.

2. Hans-Joachim Kraus, W o r s h i p in I s r a e l , trans, by Geoffry Buswell (Richmond: John Knox Press, 1965), pp. 206-7. Hereinafter referred to as W o r s h i p .

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There is" no mention of Yahweh ascending the throne, but he comes i n as the "King of Glory," and i s there-fore welcomed as the God who i s already present above the throne. We could therefore speak of a royal en-try by Yahweh above the divine throne of the Ark. 1

3) Kraus also took issue with Mowinckel's t r a n s l a t i o n of l a h w e h m a l a k . He drew on I Kings 1:18: wä'atäh h i n n e h 'ädöniy-

y a h m a l a k . "And now, behond, Adonijah i s king." Kraus argued that the word sequence of Y a h w e h m a l a k suggests that i t be translated "Yahweh i s king" rather than "Yahweh has become

2 king." "The reference i s to a state, not an act."

Kraus i s correct i n challenging Mowinckel's t r a n s l a t i o n of Y a h w e h m a l a k . A well-known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Hebrew syntax i s that word order indicates emphasis: " I t i s Y a h w e h who ru l e s . " There i s no debate as to time. He i s now, always has been and always w i l l be king. The theme was theophany. The worshippers were looking for and affirming a remanifestation of Yahweh's presence as king.

I t i s true, too, that Yahweh, the Lord of h i s t o r y i n Is-r a e l i t e r e l i g i o n , did remain supreme. In the Canaanite con-text, Έ 1 submitted to Yamm's demand for Baal, thereby placing Baal, for a time, at the mercy of Yamm. In the Baal-Môt cycle, Baal was imprisoned by Mot. There i s no suggestion of s i m i l a r imprisonment of Yahweh i n the Old Testament. But Kraus' com-ment, "there i s no evidence within the Old Testament of the idea of a 'mythicizing' of Yahweh, the Lord of h i s t o r y , " goes too f a r . There are many passages wherein p e r s o n i f i e d chaos (Yamm/Nahar) threatened creation, c a l l i n g f o r t h Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, to do b a t t l e . Indeed, h i s t o r i c a l b a t t l e s would have been interpreted mythically as the h i s t o r i c a l manifesta-t i o n of war between the gods. We see, too, i n Isaiah 25:8, a transformation of themes i n the Baal-Môt cycle, as Yahweh swal-lows Death (Mot) at the v i c t o r y feast on the Mount. I t i s true that the supremacy of Yahweh was preserved as myth was reworked in i t s I s r a e l i t e context, but Kraus apparently has f a i l e d to underscore enough the r e a l pressure from myth to transform epic

1. I b i d . , p. 207.

2. I b i d . , p. 206.

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t r a d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y during the royal period. Yahv7eh, the lo r d of h i s t o r y was being mythicized, even though he was never quite engulfed by pure myth.

In reference to the procession of the Ark, we can agree with Kraus, Yahweh came not to become king, but because he was king. We would add that the wider context of the procession was Yahweh1s v i c t o r i o u s return from the f i e l d of b a t t l e , having reasserted himself once again as Warrior-King.

I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e , i n passing,, to note Kraus' reconstruc-t i o n of the f e s t i v a l at Jerusalem during the royal period. I t was a pilgrimage f e s t i v a l .

The journey was accompanied by songs of pilgrimage and even on the journey, p a r t i c u l a r l y immediately outside the gates of the c i t y of God, the "Songs of Zion" were sung.

The actual f e s t i v a l c u l t began with the solemn ascent of the Ark to the Temple mount....The pro-cession began with an act of adoration "at his holy h i l l " (Ps. xcix. 9), and the f i r s t hymns were no doubt struck up here coming at t h e i r c l i -max i n the summons to enter the Temple. 2

By means of the c u l t i c drama, the "two p i l l a r s " of the Royal Theology, the e l e c t i o n of Zion and the e l e c t i o n of David, were celebrated.

When the solemn procession was approaching the sane-tuary and had reached the gates which opened into the courtyards the p r i e s t s intoned the "Entrance Torah" (Ps. xv; xxiv A).

Only the saddîqîm could enter.

A f t e r the "Entrance Torah" was completed, the "En-trance Liturgy" proper could begin. We see the connections between the two very c l e a r l y i n Ps. xxiv. ...The climax of the ceremony was the mighty o f f i -c i a l proclamation of the sacred c u l t i c name Yahweh. ...Yahweh i s to be known as Yahweh ssbâ'at....The procession into the sanctuary came to i t s conclu-sion and i t s climax i n the solemn act of adoration before Yahweh.

1. I b i d . , p. 210.

2. I b i d .

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When the day came when the p i l g r i m had to leave the sanctuary, he did so with a "ceremony of departure" such as has come down to us in Ps. c x x i . l

As we w i l l note below, there are differences i n our re-construction from that of Kraus. Notably, we w i l l argue that the c e n t r a l function of f e s t i v a l was a v i c t o r y celebration of Yahweh, the Divine Warrior and King. Kraus does, however, sup-port our general thesis that a regular f e s t i v a l procession of the Ark to the Temple did e x i s t .

Based on his own work i n the categories of the psalms, Westermann raised some important objections to the c u l t i c i n -

2 ter p r e t a t i o n of the psalms. A fundamental thesis of his work was that the true " S i t z i m L e b e n " of the psalms was l i f e i t -s e l f . The exigencies of l i f e led the worshipper e i t h e r to l a -ment or praise. This may have led the worshipper to public worship in the temple. But the s p i r i t and force of that p u b l i c worship d i d not originate i n the c u l t , rather, i t rooted i n l i f e . The psalms are f i r s t and foremost i n d i v i d u a l creations of praise or p e t i t i o n .

We can agree that the fundamental s p i r i t of the psalms came from l i f e and those events i n l i f e wherein God's action or non-action on behalf of his people was transparent. But the fac t that the psalms have certain patterns, or forms, argues strongly that there must have been some i n s t i t u t i o n c e ntral to the l i f e of ancient I s r a e l that taught and preserved these forms. These forms were to influence the work of many i n d i v i -dual creators. The temple and i t s c u l t would be the l o g i c a l source for many of the patterns evidenced i n the psalms.

Westermann argued that "the enthronement psalms do not constitute a category, nor are the so-designated psalms united by regular marks of a category...we are dealing with mixed

3 forms that are taken from quite varied categories." We would suggest, however, that i t i s the pattern of the Divine Warrior

1. I b i d . , pp. 213, 218.

2. Claus Westermann, P s a l m s , pp. 15-35.

3. I b i d . , p. 146.

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Hymn that i s the category searched f o r . The marks of the cate-gory are: 1) Yahweh's march to b a t t l e ; 2) His f i g h t with the forces of chaos which can be e i t h e r an h i s t o r i c a l enemy or gods of chaos; and 3) His vi c t o r y and triumphal return to his abode, where he i s greeted by v i c t o r y celebration.''• Westermann treats these themes under his categories of Eschatological Songs of Praise, Epiphany of God and Vic t o r y Song. Perhaps his fragmen-ta t i o n of these themes into separate categories, often using grammatical tense as the guide, has obscured the more basic unity of the Divine Warrior Hymn pattern.

To summarize our point thus far, because the motif of the processional way i n Isr a e l ' s r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n i s pe r s i s t e n t , and because of the recurrence i n d i f f e r e n t settings of the the-matic pattern we have labeled the Divine Warrior Hymn, we pro-pose there was i n fact a processional way along which were re-enacted i n r i t u a l celebration, the basic themes of threat, war, vi c t o r y and feast. Within the Royal Theology, these themes were used to re a f f i r m the kingship of Yahweh and i n v i o l a b i l i t y of Zion against a l l enemies whether they be foreign armies or gods of chaos.

We would c i t e Psalm 132 as a psalm which r e f l e c t s the id e a l pattern and meaning of such a r i t u a l procession célébra-ting the kingship of Yahweh and h i s anointed one.

1. Threat-Battle

L i s t e n ; we heard of i t i n Ephrathah! ד הן2 שמענוה באפרתה

We found i t in the f i e l d s of Ya'ar! 7 מצאנוה בשדיי יער

2. V i c t o r y

a. The Processional Way

1. The reader i s referred once again to the c o l l e c t i o n of psalms Hanson has gathered that e s s e n t i a l l y follow the above pattern. Hanson, D a w n , pp. 305-8. They include Psalms 2, 9, 24, 29, 46, 48, 65, 68, 76, 77, 89, 97, 98, 104, 106, and 110.

m ,הנה for הן .2 e t r i c a u s a . Reading segholates as one s y l l a b l e and ignoring s h e w a and ?!atep?2-vowels y i e l d s a very regular symmetry.

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Let us go to his dwelling place!

Let us worship at his f o o t s t o o l !

Rise, Yahweh, (go) to/from Your r e s t i n g place!

You and the Ark of Your might !

7 נבואה למשכנותיו 7 נשתחוה להדם רגליו

7 קומה יהוה לנוחך1

7 אתה וארון עזך

1. We are following the p a r a l l e l passage i n II Chronicles 6:41. The very regular s y l l a b i c symmetry i s thereby retained. The word i n the Psalm 132 context may have been influenced by 132:14. The t r a n s l a t i o n i s derived from reading l a m e d as ei t h e r "to" or "from." In e i t h e r case the Ark could have been used i n procession. The "from" would r e f e r to the r e s t i n g place i n which i t was found (132:6) or from i t s r e s t i n g place in the temple to be used i n r i t u a l procession.

Delbert H i l l e r s has argued that the Ark was not used i n "recurring c u l t i c processions, into Jerusalem and in t o the Temple." D. H i l l e r s , "Ritual Procession of the Ark and Psalm 132," CBQ XXX (1968), p. 48. Psalm 132:8 i s the key to his argument since that i s the verse most often c i t e d i n support of such a procession.

A better t r a n s l a t i o n i s e a s i l y obtained by taking l a m e d as meaning "from," a sense now attested i n numerous b i b l i c a l passages, including some i n the Psalms: "Arise, Ο Yahweh, from your r e s t i n g place, You and Your mighty Ark."

"Let us enter i n t o his dwelling; l e t us bow down to his f o o t s t o o l , " s t i l l r e f e r s to approaching the tem-pie. But the s p e c i f i c c u l t i c act or occasion with which the psalm was associated i s no longer c e r t a i n . I b i d . , p. 52.

He suggested the psalm " i s ultimately connected with t r a d i t i o n -a l royal dedicatory i n s c r i p t i o n s , " ( i b i d . , p. 55) p a r a l l e l e d i n some Northwest Semitic i n s c r i p t i o n s .

Perhaps, then. Psalm 132 was one of the "epigraphic" psalms, or since the p a r a l l e l s are mostly general rather than s p e c i f i c , at l e a s t descended from that type of psalm. This does not rule out the p o s s i b i l -i t y that Ps. 132 was r e c i t e d or sung at some point or points i n the temple l i t u r g y ; . . . ( i b i d . , p. 55)

H i l l e r s 1 discussion of l a m e d i n 132:8 may indeed be cor-re c t , but i t does not follow that the r i t u a l procession of the Ark has thereby been disproved. H i l l e r s , himself, does not claim to have disproved the existence of a r i t u a l procession of the Ark. "Some may s t i l l f i n d t h i s probable and the present writer knows of no evidence against the supposition. But i t does seem that t h i s can no longer be regarded as proven" {ibid., p. 52). We would argue d i f f e r e n t l y . The t r a n s l a t i o n (cont)

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Let Your p r i e s t s be dressed i n Righteousness;

Let Your f a i t h f u l ones shout in v i c t o r y .

ד כהניך ילבשו צדק

ד וחסידיך ירננו

b. Kingship

On behalf of David, Your servant,

Do not turn from the face of Your anointed one.

7 בעבור דוד עבדך

ד אל תשב פני משיחך

Yahweh swore to David;

He w i l l not go back on his word.

"One of your sons I w i l l e s t a b l i s h i n your place;

Also t h e i r sons w i l l s i t on the throne.

7 נשבע יהוה לדוד

7 אמת לא ישוב ממנה

7 מפרי בטנך אשית1 לך

7 גם בניהם2 ישבו לכסא3

I f your sons keep my covenant,

And my testimonies which I s h a l l teach them."

7 אם ישמרו בניך בריתי

7 ועדתי זו5 אלמדם

of l a m e d as "to" or "from" makes no difference i n the recon-s t r u c t i o n of the c u l t i c function of the psalm. I t i s s t i l l highly l i k e l y that i t was used i n a r i t u a l procession of the Ark to celebrate Yahweh1s v i c t o r y i n b a t t l e and reaffirmation of h i s eternal kingship.

1. This l i n e and a l l of verse 12 break the meter as they now stand. The reconstruction i s suggested i n order to pre-serve the s y l l a b i c symmetry. The confusion could have begun i f the copyist was using a text printed stychometrically i n which case the condit i o n a l part of the covenant was introduced too early. לכסא לך i s a co n f l a t i o n of two variants i n p a r a l l e l structure, now appearing i n both l i d and 12d. In the recon-s t r u c t i o n the throne stands in p a r a l l e l with לך, an a l l u s i o n to the dynastic succession beginning with David.

2. Reading עדי עד as expansionistic, perhaps from verse 14.

3. See note 1.

4. Rubric.

5. Repointing •זו, the older r e l a t i v e pronoun. See the Greek.

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c. Yahweh's Abode

Because Yahweh has chosen Zion; 7 כי בחר יהוה בציון

He has desired i t for his dwelling place. 7 אוח למושב לו

"This i s my r e s t i n g place forever; 8 זאת מנוחתי עדי עד

Here I w i l l dwell because I have 6 פה אשב כי אותיה desired i t .

I w i l l abundantly bless her 6 צידה ברך אברך provisions ;

Her poor I w i l l s a t i a t e with bread. 8 אביוניה אשביע לחם

Her p r i e s t s ι w i l l clothe with 7 וכהניה אלביש ישע vi c t o r y ;

Her f a i t h f u l ones w i l l r aise the 7 וחסידיה1 ירננו v i c t o r y shout.

d. The Abode of Yahweh's Anointed One 2

There I w i l l r aise forth royal 7 שמ אצמיח קרן לדוד power for David;

I w i l l arrange dominion for my 7 ערכתי נר3 למשיחי Anointed.

His enemies I w i l l clothe with shame. 6 אויביו אלביש בשת

But upon him, his crown w i l l sparkle." 6 ועליו יציץ נזרו

Psalm 132, i n i t s opening verses, refers to that time p r i o r to the b u i l d i n g of the temple: "Remember...how he swore to Yahweh...I w i l l not enter my house... u n t i l I f i n d a place for Yahweh, a dwelling place for the Mighty One of Jacob." The use of a portion of t h i s psalm in II Chronicles 6:41 i n

1. Reading רנן as dittography. As i t stands, the l i n e i s too long.

2. For a discussion of the t r a n s l a t i o n of קרן and נר, see Paul Hanson, "The Song of Heshbone and David's N v r , " HTR, LXI (July, 1968), pp. 297-320; esp. p. 318, n. 29.

3. I b i d .

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conjunction with Solomon's dedication of the temple wherein the Ark was brought, prayers were offered, and a feast was celebrated, suggests that Psalm 132 was used, probably p e r i o d i -c a l l y , i n conjunction with a ceremony i n memory of the b u i l d i n g of the temple.

Below i s a possible reconstruction of the r i t u a l re-enacting Yahweh's b a t t l e with the forces of chaos, his v i c t o r y and the subsequent celebration. The recurrent thematic pattern i s the primary data used i n the reconstruction. I t can be am-p l i f i e d , however, from a l l u s i o n s made to r i t u a l acts, found i n the content of selected psalms.

1. Threat-Battle

A r i t u a l searching for the Ark may have provided the con-text for Yahweh's b a t t l e s . " L i s t e n ! We heard of i t i n Ephrathah!" Yahweh was gone. One i s reminded of 'Anat's search for Baal. I t i s true that there i s no i n d i c a t i o n that Yahweh has descended into the underworld but the theme of his being away at b a t t l e , f i g h t i n g enemy kings, or even the gods of chaos, would not be out of p l a c e . 1

2. V i c t o r y

The recovery of the Ark would be a r i t u a l a f f irmation of Yahweh's v i c t o r y over the powers of destruction. "We found i t i n the f i e l d s of Ya'ar!" I t would then be brought i n procès-sion to the temple. "Let us go to his dwelling place! Let us worship at h i s f o o t s t o o l ! 1 Rise, Yahweh, go to Your r e s t i n g place, You and the Ark of Your might!" He would be returned as v i c t o r i o u s king. Psalm 2 4 suggests that perhaps there was a torah l i t u r g y which determined those who were c u l t i c a l l y pure, that i s worthy to process with the Ark to the temple. "Let Your p r i e s t s be dressed i n Righteousness." These were the Righteous before whom the gates of the c i t y would be opened (Ps. 118:19-20) .

1. See, for instance. Psalm 89:5-14.

2. Recall the f o o t s t o o l ( h d m ) , part of E l ' s furniture i n his divine abode.

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The v i c t o r y procession provided the occasion to sing Yah-weh's "New Song," 1 or v i c t o r y shout, sung to celebrate Yahweh's success over the forces of chaos (Pss. 118:15-18; 98:1-3; 144: 9). "Let Your f a i t h f u l ones shout i n v i c t o r y . " The return of the Ark to the temple reaffirmed Yahweh's eternal kingship (Pss. 132; 118:26-27; 24:7-10; 68:24-25).

3. Feast

The climax probably was reached with a v i c t o r y feast on Yahweh's Mountain, Zion. This could have included s a c r i f i c e s to Yahweh and actual r i t u a l banqueting (I Kings 3:15; 8:65; Amos 5:21; 8:10; Hosea 7:5; 2:15; Jer. 31:10-14; Is. 55:1-5). R e c a l l , too, the covenant meal at S i n a i , Ex. 24:11, and the feasting gods celebrating Baal's v i c t o r y over Yamm and at the completion of the b u i l d i n g of his abode.

D. Transformations i n Second Isaiah

Two frequently encountered forms i n p r e - e x i l i c prophecy were the prophetic oracle against the nation and the Divine Lawsuit ( r i b ) . The former described Yahweh's wrath against a foreign enemy, the l a t t e r depicted the wrath of Yahweh's judg-ment against I s r a e l , h e r s e l f , when she was g u i l t y of breaking covenant with God.

These forms, plus the r i t u a l pattern reconstructed for I s r a e l ' s royal c u l t , were released from t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n a l settings when Jerusalem was destroyed and her people dispersed into e x i l e , i n 587 B.C. The themes of these older forms were regrouped into a new synthesis by Second Isaiah. In a new time of war, the old pattern of the Divine Warrior Hymn was renewed in strength.

1. War

For Judah, the war was over. "Jerusalem had received from Yahweh's hand double for her sins" (40:2). A common prophetic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the d i f f i c u l t days Judah was

1. We understand the "New Song" to be indigenous to the psalm l i t e r a t u r e , a form which Second Isaiah used i n his work, not vice versa. See below, pp. 111-12.

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having to face, rooted i n the covenant theology from the T r i b a l League. Judah had broken covenant and was s u f f e r i n g the curses unleashed by Yahweh against h is own. But now, the pun-ishment was over. In part, we see the co n d i t i o n a l element of the Davidic covenant (Ps. 132:12) being overshadowed by the un-shakable eternal covenant (ברית עולם) of myth. In the l a t t e r , the god was bound to be the protector of his creati o n . As i n the o l d Divine Warrior Hymn, the warrior deity was expected to defend his own. Remembering the days of Noah (Isaiah 54:9-10), though the mountains depart and the h i l l s remove,

My steadfast love s h a l l not 8 וחסדי מאתך לא ימוש depart from you;

Nor s h a l l the covenant of my 7 וברית שלומי לא תמוט peace t o t t e r .

The memory of great days under King David surfaced to influence the theology of Second Isaiah (Is. 55:3b).

ι s h a l l make with you an ever- 7 ואכרתה לכם ברית עולם l a s t i n g covenant;

(Like) the secure covenant bonds חסדי דוד נאמנים 7 1of David.

Isaiah blended the ancient themes of exodus and conquest, from the T r i b a l League, and the theme of Yahweh's defeat of the powers of chaos to defend his abode, from the royal period, to envision Yahweh as v i c t o r i o u s king, leading his e x i l e s home along his processional way. This time his "way" extended across the desert, from Babylon to Zion.

Isaiah 52:7-8

How b e a u t i f u l are they upon the 6 מה נא וו על הרים mountains ;

The feet of him who brings good news, 4 רגלי מבשר

1. Following a t r a n s l a t i o n suggested by Cross, i n con-ference.

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The reporter of peace,

The bearer of good news.

The reporter of v i c t o r y .

Who says to Zion:

"Your God reigns."

Your watchmen l i f t up t h e i r voice;

Together they shout i n v i c t o r y .

Because eye for eye they see

Yahweh in his return to Zion.

* * * * *

Isaiah 40:3-5

A voice crying: In the wilderness, make cl e a r the

Way of Yahweh;

Make s t r a i g h t i n the steppe, a Highway.

Before our God, every v a l l e y s h a l l be l i f t e d up;

Mountain and heights s h a l l be made low.

The steep ground s h a l l become a ρ l a i n ;

And rough places, a broad v a l l e y .

The Glory of Yahweh s h a l l be revealed ;

And a l l f l e s h w i l l see i t together.

משמיע שלום 4

מבשר טוב 3

משמיע ישועה 4

אמר לציון 4

מלך אלהיך 5

קול צפיך נשאו 5

יחדו ירננו 5

כי עין בעין יראו 5

בשוב יהוה ציון 5

Rubric קול קורא

במדבר פנו דרך יהוה 7

ישרו בערבה מסלה 7

לאלהינו כל גיא ינשא 9

כל הר וגבעה ישפלו 8

והיה עקב למישור 8

ורכםימ לבקעה 7

ונגלה כבוד יהוה 7

וראו כל בשר יחדו 7

2. Victory

We have noted that the march of the warrior God into bat-t i e , the defeat of the forces of chaos, and his return along

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the processional way i n v i c t o r y are themes that have had a long hi s t o r y i n t r a d i t i o n . In predominantly mythopeic s o c i e t i e s , t h i s pattern was c y c l i c , r e g u l a r l y repeated i n r i t u a l re-enact-ment. Within Hebrew t r a d i t i o n , i t was the royal c u l t that came closest to r e f l e c t i n g t h i s mythopeic perspective. This c y c l i -c a l pattern, d e r i v i n g from myth, however, was transformed by Second Isaiah i n his unique use of the "New Song", or v i c t o r y shout of the royal period. This song took on epic dimensions in the theology of Second Isaiah. . I t celebrated not only Yah-weh's vi c t o r y i n b a t t l e , i t became the song of the New Age. The b a t t l e of New Conquest issuing forth into a New Exodus had been, or was being, won once for a l l .

Isaiah 42:9-10

The former things have now come to pass. 7 ראשנות הנה באו

New things ι now declare; 7 וחדשות אני מגיד

Before they spring forth I make 7 בטרם תצמחנה אשמיע i t known:

Sing to Yahweh a New Song! 8 שירו ליהוה שיר חדש

His praises from the end of the earth! 6 תהלתו מקצת ארץ

Within t h i s s p i r i t of the New Song, the "old-new" themes clustered together around the image of the processional way:

1) New Conquest (Is. 42:13).

Like a warrior, Yahweh goes forth; 6 יהוה הגנור יצא

Like a s o l d i e r , he awakens fury. 6 כאיש יעיר קנאה

He shouts i n triumph, yea he roars. 5 יריע אף יצריח

He shows himself mighty against 6 על איביו יתגבר his enemies.

2) New Exodus (Is. 43:16-17).

Thus says Yahweh, כה אמר יהוה

Who i s making i n the sea, a way; 6 הנותן בים דרך

in the mighty waters a path. 6 ובמים עזים נתיבה

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Who leads out chariot and horse, 6 המוציא רכב וסוס

Army and warrior together. 6 חיל ועזוז יחדו

They l i e down never to get up. 6 ישכבו בל יקומו

They are extinguished; l i k e a wick 7 דעכו כפשתה כבו they are quenched.

3) New Creation. To insure the safe a r r i v a l of the returning e x i l e s to Zion, the v i c t o r y feast on the mount of the royal period was expanded i n Isaiah's theology to include an e n t i r e renewal of a desolate c r e a t i o n . 1 Waters and springs flowed again and the desert bloomed, to quench the t h i r s t of Yahweh's chosen and to show that l i f e was returning to that which was dead. "They did not t h i r s t while he led them through the des-e r t " (48:21). Indeed, the new age of feasting with Yahweh re-verses an old age when Jerusalem drank from the cup of Yahweh's wrath.

Isaiah 51:22-23

Look! ι took from your hand 8 הנה לקחתי מידך

The cup of r e e l i n g ; the cup 8 כוס תרעלה קבעת חמתי of wrath.

You s h a l l drink of i t no more; 8 לוא תוסיפי לשתותה עוד

ι s h a l l put i t into the hand of 8 ושמתיה ביד מוגיך your tormenters.

* * * * *

Isaiah 41:18

ι s h a l l open on the bare 7 אפתח על שפיית נהרות heights, r i v e r s ;

i n the midst of v a l l e y s ובתוך בקעות מעינות 7 ,springs.

1. Re c a l l the rejuvenation of the land a f t e r 'Anat's de-feat of Mot and the release of Baal. This i s one of the many examples of the recrudescence of mythic thought i n Second Isa-iah. For Isaiah, however, the arena of such a c t i v i t y was s t i l l within p l a i n h i s t o r y .

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I w i l l make the wilderness into marshes;

7 אטים מדבר לאגמים

And dry land i n t o springs of water. 7 וארץ ציה למוצאי מים * * * * *

Isaiah 51:3

For Yahweh has compassion on Zion;

He has compassion on a l l her waste places.

He made i t s wilderness l i k e Eden;

7 כי נחם יהוה ציון

7 נחח כל חרבתיה

8 ויטמ מדברה כעדן

And her steppe l i k e the garden of Yahweh. וערבתה כנן יהוה

ששון וטמחה ימצא בה 8

תודה וקול זמרה

Joy and gladness w i l l be found i n her,

Praise and the voice of song.

Isaiah 51:9-11 may well serve as our parade example i n which a l l these themes were b e a u t i f u l l y wed:

Awake, awake, clothe yourself i n power,

0 Arm of Yahweh.

Awake as i n the days of old,

Generations of long ago.

Was i t not Thou who smote Rahab,

Who pierced Dragon?

Was i t not Thou who dried up Sea,

The waters of the Great Deep?

Who made the depths of the Sea a Way

For the redeemed to pass over?

7 עורי עורי לבשי עוז

4 זרוע יהוה

6 עורי כימי קדם **

4 דרות עולמים

6 הלא המחצת רהב

5 מחוללת תנין

6 הלא המחרבת ים

5 מי תהום רבה

8 השמה מעמקי ים דרך

4 לעבור גאולים

-11

-11

-11

-11

-12

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The ransomed of Yahweh s h a l l return;

They w i l l come to Zion midst shouts of v i c t o r y .

פדויי יהוה ישובון

ובאו ציון ברנה

Ev e r l a s t i n g joy s h a l l be upon t h e i r heads.

They s h a l l a t t a i n joy and gladness;

Sorrow and sighing s h a l l f l e e away.

8 ושמחת עולם על ראשם

8 ששון ושמחה ישינון

8 נסו יגון ואנחה

As we noted i n the Royal Theology, i n Second Isaiah as well, we see layers of meaning clustered about the processional way. I t was the route of the warrior deity marching forth to b a t t l e the dragon of chaos (51:9). 1 I t was the route of con-quest as Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, marched on behalf of his people to destroy t h e i r enemies (42:13). Isaiah added a new dimension when i t became also the route of a new exodus. A highway was envisioned, b u i l t in the desert for the redeemed to process to Zion (51:10-11; 43:1-2, 5-7; 49:11-12; c f . 45:22-23). Yahweh, i n v i c t o r y , was saving his righteous ones (51:7-8; c f . 40:31) .

3. Feast

Vie noted above how Isaiah used the ancient motif of the land's rejuvenation to envision how the e x i l e s would be fed on t h e i r long journey home across the desert. Once a r r i v i n g at Zion, those to partake of Yahweh's feast on the mount were to be his s u f f e r i n g servants. The messianic figure had been de-mocratized to include a l l I s r a e l , now to share with Yahweh the eternal joys of the Messianic Feast on the Mount (Is. 55:1-5).

E. Summary

Our understanding of the structure of Isaiah 24-27 derives from the thematic pattern we have labeled the Divine Warrior Hymn. We suggest i t i s at least one l i n e of continuity that extends from Ugarit to Second Isaiah and into apocalyptic. This i s the thematic pattern of threat, war, v i c t o r y and feast.

1. Notice the frightened gods in 46:1.

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To be sure, thi s basic structure was contracted or embellished as the occasion warranted. Because the motif of the procès-sion a l way emerged again and again i n I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o u s t r a -d i t i o n , we suggest there was, i n f a c t , a processional way over which was re-enacted at r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s the themes encoun-tered above. During the period of the T r i b a l League, these themes were used to celebrate the Exodus-Conquest event that created the nation. During the ro y a l period, they were used to celebrate the b u i l d i n g of Yahweh's abode on Mount Zion, a v i s u -a l manifestation of his kingship and power. And during the e x i l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n the theology of Second Isaiah and his f o l -lowers, the themes were used once again to r e a f f i r m the basic f a i t h that Yahweh was king. As of o l d , he would rescue his l o s t ones and would make manifest to a l l , h i s kingship.

IV. ISAIAH 24-27 AND THE ORIGIN OF APOCALYPTIC

This brings us to a discussion of Isaiah 24-27 and i t s place i n the o r i g i n of apocalyptic. I t i s not our purpose to provide a comprehensive discussion of apocalyptic o r i g i n s . 1

Our goal i s simply to glean from Isaiah 24-27 that material which we f e e l i s important for such a discussion.

A. The L i t e r a r y Context of Isaiah 24-27

In order to resolve some of the problems raise d i n chapter one of t h i s study, we attempt now to e s t a b l i s h a context i n which the data provided by these chapters i n Isaiah make sense. Frequently, i t i s a reference to some h i s t o r i c a l event or per-sonage that establishes the context i n which to understand a passage of s c r i p t u r e . Unfortunately, those data are lacking i n our chapters.

Therefore we w i l l attempt to use prosodie s t y l e and the-matic pattern to e s t a b l i s h the context. By r e l a t i n g these data to relevant material that comes before and a f t e r , we hope to suggest a s e t t i n g that i s at l e a s t reasonable, i n that i t makes sense of material we do have. Within t h i s context c e r t a i n ty-p o l o g i c a l developments can be discerned.

1. Prosodie Style

a. Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8

The poetry of 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 can be com-pared with the best i n Second Isaiah. The most common prosodie pattern i s the a l t e r n a t i o n between b i c o l a and t r i c o l a . Within a t i g h t s y l l a b i c symmetry are couched many examples of parono-masia, a l l i t e r a t i o n , assonance, chiasm, i n o l u s i o , c l i m a c t i c and r e p e t i t i v e p a r a l l e l i s m .

We would argue, then, on the basis of prosodie s t y l e , that 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 form the e a r l i e s t material of

1. Of the recent studies on the subject those of Plöger, T h e o k r a t i e and Hanson, D a w n , provide h e l p f u l and provocative discussions.

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the Apocalypse and i s to be dated close to the time of Second Isaiah. The poetry of these sections compares with the poetry of Isaiah 60-62, i n Third Isaiah, and Zechariah 9, which Hanson concludes i s also very close i n s t y l e to that of Second Isaiah?•

b. Isaiah 26:11-27:6

Typ o l o g i c a l l y , the prosodie s t y l e of Isaiah 26:11-27:6 would come l a t e r . The meter i s mixed. There appears to be a b:b:b:: 1:1:1. This i s followed by the pattern 4(b:b), b:b:b which we have encountered i n the e a r l i e r portions of the Apoc-alypse. But then comes a 1:1 followed by 2(1:1:1). Next i s a 3(b:b), then b:b::l::b:b. Two b i c o l a follow, 2(1:1), then 1:1::1:1:1. F i n a l l y there i s a 5(b:b) and 2(b:b:b). The po-etry i s not as good as that encountered i n the former u n i t s . See, for instance, the run-on l i n e s of 26:20-21.

We would conclude, then, on prosodie grounds, that 26:11-27:6 was added l a t e r .

c. Other Passages

The prose of 27:12-13 would appear, then, to be l a t e r s t i l l . We have deleted verses 24:5, 24:20b and 26:9d-10 as e d i t o r i a l expansion. In each case they i n t e r p r e t what we pro-

2 pose i s an e a r l i e r text. In comparison with what surrounds these passages, they are very prosaic and break into what i s otherwise good poetry. We leave out of our discussion Isaiah 27:9-11, because, as yet, i t does not y i e l d to our analysis.

2. Themes

Our study of the themes of Isaiah 24-27 has revealed the frequent use of portions or a l l of the following thematic pat-tern: threat, war, v i c t o r y and feast.

In 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8, t h i s pattern conforms to the poem's own content, that i s , the poems themselves seem to have been created with these themes i n mind. This, again,

1. Hanson, D a w n , pp. 46ff and pp. 292ff.

2. See above, n. 3, p. 27, n. 2, p. 35, and p. 49.

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would place them t y p o l o g i c a l l y p r i o r to what we find i n 26:11-27:6.

As noted e a r l i e r , i n this l a t t e r sequence of material, there appear to be traces of a lament of the people, a salva-t i o n oracle, an ancient Divine Warrior Hymn and a modified Song of the Vineyard. They have been arranged, however, according to the basic thematic pattern we have discerned i n the e a r l i e r material. We suggest, then, that the author or edi t o r was re-adapting other relevant materials he had, according to the pat-tern suggested above. These materials probably c i r c u l a t e d i n -dependently p r i o r to t h e i r current use i n the Apocalypse. This independent c i r c u l a t i o n would c e r t a i n l y be true of the Divine Warrior Hymn (Is. 27:1, see UT 5.1.1-5). I t was probably true of the Song of the Vineyard (Is. 27:2-6, see Is. 5:1-7). And i t could be true for the communal lament that begins at 26:11. The oracle against Moab (25:10-12) may also have been inserted at t h i s time.

The various elements of t h i s thematic pattern each have had a hist o r y i n t r a d i t i o n and can be used to help e s t a b l i s h a context for Isaiah 24-27.

a. War

A model example of the ancient war theme, deriving i n I s -r a e l from the theology of the League, i s Numbers 10:35-36 (see also Pss. 68:2; 18:15):

And whenever the Ark set out, Moses said: A r i s e , Yahweh, l e t Thy enemies be

scattered; Let Thy adversaries f l e e before Thee.

Return, Yahweh, with the myriads; Έ 1 with the thousands of Israel.''"

1. For a discussion of t h i s text and i t s l i t u r g i c a l use in the League c u l t , see Frank M. Cross, "The Divine Warrior," pp. 24-25. Cross has suggested subsequently, i n private con-ference, that the second bicolon be read as:

שכה יהרה >ב<רבת >אל ב<אלפי ישראל

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Yahweh, symbolized with the Ark, led the armies of I s r a e l to scatter (פוץ) the enemy i n b a t t l e . As we have suggested, t h i s procession of the Ark could well have had a c u l t i c l i f e during the periods of the T r i b a l League, the Monarchy and now again i t i s r e f l e c t e d in the theology of Isaiah 24-27.

An analysis of p a r a l l e l s to the war vocabulary of Isaiah 24-27 reveals that i t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of that language used in the prophetic oracle against the nation. I t can, therefore, be argued that the oracle against the nation was an important c a r r i e r of the war theme i n t r a d i t i o n . A comparison of the p a r a l l e l passages i l l u s t r a t e s , however, that the context i n which the author of Isaiah 24-27 used t h i s language was d i f f e r -ent from that context established i n the p r e - e x i l i c period.

The sense of formulae and vocabulary used to describe Yah-weh 1s wrath against a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l enemy was transformed in Isaiah 24-27 by the return to chaos theme of myth. In I s -aiah 2 4-2 7, the e n t i r e created*order was being threatened by Yahweh, not s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l enemies.

This s h i f t was f a c i l i t a t e d by the fa c t that the Divine Warrior Hymn had a separate l i f e i n the creation myth, a pat-tern which we suggest was enjoying a resurgence i n t h i s period. Note again Isaiah 27:1 with the important p a r a l l e l s i n Second Isaiah (34:4 and 51:9-11; cf. UT 5.1.1-5).

Second Isaiah was s h i f t i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l use of the war theme from that established i n p r e - e x i l i c I s r a e l . To do so he drew f r e e l y upon mythic themes. S p e c i f i c a l l y , he applied the return to chaos theme to events which were occurring i n his own day. Using a Canaanite image, he envisioned the heavens r o l l -ing up l i k e a s c r o l l , with a l l the host of heaven f a l l i n g out of the sky (Is. 34:4; c f . UT 5.1.4-5). 1

1. See the following l i t e r a t u r e that argues that Isaiah 34-35 be considered part of Second Isaiah. C.C. Torrey, T h e S e c o n d I s a i a h (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928), pp. 93ff and 279ff; Marvin Pope, "Isaiah 34 i n Relation to Isaiah 35, 40-66," J B L , LXXI (1952), pp. 235-43; R.B.Y. Scott, "The Relation of Isaiah, Chapter 35, to Deutero-Isaiah," A J S L , LII (Oct., 1935-July, 1936), pp. 178-91; Olmstead, "II Isaiah and Isaiah, Chapter 35," A J S L , LIII (July, 1937), pp. 251-53;

, "The E a r l i e s t Book of Kings," A J S L , XXXI (1915), p. 196.

See Otto E i s s f e l d t , T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n , trans, by Peter Ackroyd (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), (cont)

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Isaiah incorporated t h i s return to chaos theme, of myth, into the T r i b a l League theme of conquest. The r e s u l t was to o f f e r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that the current devastation Judah was having to face was a prelude to deliverance, a New Exodus, a New Creation. For instance, i n Isaiah 41:16, פוץ, a verb used frequently in war passages, was used not to describe Yah-weh's wrath against Judah or some other nation, but to portray Judah's s c a t t e r i n g to the wind the chaff of mountains and h i l l s about to be winnowed. The oracle opens with אל תירא (Is. 41: 14), standard holy war language. In the eyes of Second Isaiah, Yahweh was moving against elements of the created order. And yet, f a i t h f u l to the prophetic stance, he was not f a l l i n g back into the perspective of nature mythology. History was being periodized (Is. 42:9). Yahweh's destruction of creation was not a return to the beginning. He was ushering i n a new age. In one sense i t was the l o g i c a l extension of the theology of the prophetic lawsuit. The curses of the covenant o r i g i n a l l y intended for Judah were being p u l l e d over the e n t i r e creation which brought a period of h i s t o r y very near i t s end. War lan-guage was s h i f t e d from i t s then t r a d i t i o n a l use i n lawsuit pas-sages and prophetic oracles against the nations to i t s ancient use in the Divine Warrior Hymn. There was to be salvation for the Righteous ones on the other side of great war. The f a i t h was that Yahweh was d i r e c t i n g the changes toward a new créa-t i o n , that i s , salvation for the Righteous. I t was t h i s r a d i -c a l openness toward the future which preserved both Second Isa-iah and apocalyptic from the c y c l i c character of nature myth.

Myth was turned to the service of h i s t o r y . To be sure, the s p e c i f i c p a r t i c u l a r i t y of prophetic forms, l i k e the divine lawsuit { r i b ) and the oracle against the nation, was broken down. The war themes of these forms were released from t h e i r settings when combined with the return to chaos theme of myth to give expression to a theme of universal desolation. The mythic theme of return to chaos—new creation combined with the

pp. 327-28 for one who denies the unity between Isaiah 34-35 and Second Isaiah.

The writer i s g r a t e f u l to Marvin Chaney who gathered these references i n a seminar paper e n t i t l e d M y t h o l o g y a n d H o l y W a r (Harvard, NELL, 1965).

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epic theme of conquest. The overriding thrust of the war theme from Second Isaiah into apocalyptic was to describe Yahweh's march i n New Conquest, a message of hope to those who stood i n the rubble of a destroyed community.

We suggest i t was i n t h i s context that at leas t Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 were created. The destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. was to be understood as part of the in e v i t a b l e f a l l - o u t from Yahweh's march i n new conquest. As part of the return to chaos, no one or no thing would be ex-empt. Gods, kings, c i t i e s , indeed, the e n t i r e earth was being emptied. There was hope i n the devastation, however, i n that a f t e r the war Yahweh's kingship and power at his mount would once more be obvious to a l l (Is. 24:23).

Isaiah 41:16 would suggest that Second Isaiah, himself, already began t h i s s h i f t away from s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l enemies and events for the arena of God's a c t i v i t y . I f Isaiah 34-35 does i n fac t come from the hand of Second Isaiah, th i s would be added textual support. I t does appear, however, that the hold on p l a i n h i s t o r y i s weakening i n Isaiah 24-27 beyond that noted in Second Isaiah.

In any event, we can conclude that the e a r l i e r portions of Isaiah 24-27 come from a close d i s c i p l e of Second Isaiah as evidenced both by the prosodie s t y l e and now i n his use of the war theme.

b. V i c t o r y

The language of Isaiah 24:14-16a i s d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t i n tone from what precedes and what follows. As noted above, the l i f t i n g up of the voice was a common device, known from U g a r i t i c sources, to indicate a break or s h i f t i n the text. The language of war and anguish was suddenly reversed to words of joy. We suggest that the reason for the s h i f t can be under-stood best i f the reader perceives the over-arching pattern of the Divine Warrior Hymn. These verses contain a v i c t o r y shout sung as Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, marched out and was v i e -torious i n the f i e l d of b a t t l e .

The language used, in contrast to what precedes and f o l -lows, stands out sharply as being influenced by that of Second Isaiah.

Isaiah 48:20 (cf. Is. 24:14) רנן קול (1

Go forth from Babylon! צאו מבבל

Flee from chaidea! ברחו מבשרים

(in a shout of victory) בקול רינה

Declare! ן ד י ג ה

Proclaim t h i s ת ! א השמיעו ז

Cause i t to go forth, הוציאוה

To the end of the earth. עד קצו! אף<ן

(Say) אמרו Yahweh has redeemed גאל יהוה

His servant Jacob. עבדו יעקב

Isaiah 52:8

Your watchmen l i f t up t h e i r voice; קול צפיך נשאו

Together they raise the v i c t o r y shout. יחדו ירננו

Because eye for eye they see כעין בעין יראו

The return of Yahweh to Zion. בשוב יהוה ציון

Isaiah 54:1 (cf. Is. 24:14) צהלו (2

Shout i n v i c t o r y , barren one; רני עקרה

The one who i s c h i l d l e s s לא ילדה .

Break f o r t h i n shouts of success! פצחי רנה

Cry aloud, you who have not given b i r t h צהלי לא חלה !

Isaiah 42:12 (cf. Is. 24:15) כבוד איים (3

Let them give to Yahweh honor! ישימו ליהוה כבוד

Let them declare h is praise תהלתו באיים ינידו among the i s l e s !

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i שם יהרה אלהי ישראל (4 s a i a h 48:1 (cf. i s . 24:15)

Those who swear by the name of 8 הנשבעים בשם יהרה Yahweh;

Who remember the God of I s r a e l באלהי ישראל יזכירו 9 .

5) Isaiah 42:10-13

sing: שירו

το Yahweh, a New Song! 8 ליהוה שיר חדש

His praise from the end of the 6 תהלתו מקצת ארץ earth !

Let the sea roar and a l l that 6 ירעם יח ומלאו f i l l s i t ;

The i s l e s and t h e i r inhabitants. 6 איים וישביהם

Let the desert and i t s c i t i e s l i f t ישאו מדבר ועריו (their voices);

The v i l l a g e s that Kedar inhabits. חצר ים תשב קדר

Let the inhabitants of Sela shout 7 ירנו ישבי םלע i n v i c t o r y ;

From the top of the mountains l e t 7 מראש הרים יצרחו them shout.

Yahweh, l i k e a warrior, goes f o r t h יהרה כגבר יצא 7 ;

Like a s o l d i e r , he s t i r s up his fury. 6 כאיש2 יעיר קנאה

He c r i e s out, he shouts aloud; 5/6 יריע אף יצריח

He shows himself mighty against the enemy. 6 על איביר יתגבר

1. Deleted because the meter (8/9) breaks the pattern.

2. Expansionistic. מלחמות glosses איש.

I l l

Given these strong p a r a l l e l s in the use of language with Second Isaiah, i t would seem that the author had i n mind Second Is-aiah's "New Song" when he wrote t h i s passage. Isaiah 42:10-13 suggests that t h i s was an e n t i r e l y appropriate choice since the New Song was the v i c t o r y shout sung i n celebration of Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, v i c t o r i o u s i n b a t t l e .

Mowinckel i s c e r t a i n l y correct i n i n s i s t i n g that much of what i s found i n Second Isaiah was dependent upon royal forms and not vice versa.

.He (Isaiah) has consciously imitated and used them as a pregnant expression of the message he i s bringing.

The idea of creation as the great achievement of Yahweh and the idea of his kingship are both i n d i g -enous i n the c u l t i c l y r i c s ; that i s where the two ideas have been k n i t together, and that i s where Deutero-Isaiah has found thought content as well as thought forms.•'-

An alternate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the New Song i s that these psalms were dependent upon Second Isaiah and hence of l a t e

2 date. But, as Mowinckel has noted, the sword can cut both ways. When we take i n t o account Isaiah's archaizing use of language and prosody, i t i s l o g i c a l to assume that rather than create new, unheard of, forms, he would draw on established forms to express his message.

Textual support for regarding the New Song as indigenous to the royal period i s Psalm 144:5-11. Yahweh the Divine War-r i o r comes from the heavens to rescue the worshipper from the a l i e n waters of chaos. Verse nine begins the New Song. I t functions i n the pattern as a v i c t o r y shout sung i n response to Yahweh's deliverance of "David, his servant" (v. 10). Myth was being used here i n i t s regenerative sense. Psalm 98 connects r i t u a l conquest and New Song i n a s i m i l a r manner.

Yahweh, the Divine Warrior, was protector of the f a i t h f u l against the ravages of chaos. The New Song i n i t s royal con-text was a v i c t o r y shout celebrating Yahweh's rescue of the righteous from the h o s t i l i t i e s of h i s t o r y . Zion was the

1. Sigmund Mowinckel, T h e P s a l m s , p. 118.

2. See, f o r instance, Westermann, P s a l m s , p. 147.

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impregnable f o r t r e s s against the threat of chaos, a s h i e l d from harm. The New Song would have had a s o l i d function i n a procès-sion of the Ark to the temple. We argue, then, that we have here the shout of v i c t o r y in praise of Yahweh, the v i c t o r i o u s king.

In the context of the l i t e r a t u r e of Second Isaiah, the New Song took on a new dimension. Isaiah 42:9, the verse immedi-ately preceding a New Song, demonstrates the force of epic themes i n Second Isaiah.

The former things are now past;

New things I now declare.

Before they spring f o r t h , I proclaim (them).

ד הראשנות הנה באו

ד וחדשות אני מניד

7 בטרם תצמתנה אשמיע

The recrudescence of myth exerted a pressure to periodize history's events, a tendency strong i n Second Isaiah. The New Song would n a t u r a l l y express that p e r i o d i z a t i o n . But Second Isaiah stopped short of f a l l i n g into the c y c l i c pattern of na-ture myth. History s t i l l had a d i r e c t i o n that was moving pur-p o s e f u l l y into the future. The function of the New Song i n Second Isaiah was to be the song of the New Age. I t was the shout of v i c t o r y r a i s e d to announce that Jerusalem's warfare was ended. The dawn of New Creation (Is. 40:2) was at hand. The p e r i o d i z a t i o n would eventually develop into the conception of two ages y i e l d i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dualism of the apoc-a l y p t i c movement.

The function of the New Song i n Isaiah 24 was s i m i l a r to i t s function i n Second Isaiah. In the face of a l l the t e r r o r to accompany Yahweh's march i n New Conquest, there were s t i l l grounds for r e j o i c i n g . E v i l was having i t s l a s t stand. Yah-weh, the Divine Warrior, would be v i c t o r i o u s and stand again as King (Is. 24: 23) .

The author's use of the v i c t o r y theme, therefore, can be added to that evidence that places the l i t e r a r y context of Isaiah 24-27 close to Second Isaiah.

c. Feast

Jeremias has an excellent discussion of how much of the inter-testamental and New Testament l i t e r a t u r e grew out of the

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picture of the "meal on the cosmic mountain." From t h i s back-ground a l l the references to meals in the New Testament are to be interpreted: the b r i d a l feast, the feast of the good and f a i t h f u l servant, the Passover of the Vollendung, a l l stemming, he suggests, from Isaiah 25 and passages l i k e i t . 1

Cross has gathered important p a r a l l e l s to t h i s theme.

The f a m i l i a r passage Is. 55:1-5 also received i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r i g h t l y or wrongly, as the banquet of David r e d i v i v u s (so i n Rev. 22:17; c f . Ezek. 44:3. Another c l a s s i c a l passage i s Jer. 31:10-14.) And a whole kaleidoscope of ideas, the streaming of the nations to the exalted mountain of Zion (Is. 2:2-4, Micah 4:1-4, Ps. 74:12-17, esp. v. 14, and Is. 60. See also IQM 12:10-18), the feeding of the flocks (the children of Israel) on the "heights of I s r a e l , " (Ezek. 34:14-16), the healing and nourishing r i v e r s issuing from the New Temple on i t s "very high mountain," (Ezek. 40:2; 47:1-12) were woven into apocalyptic f a b r i c . . . I t comes as no surprise.... to discover these motives were at home among the Essenes. (Note the discussion of 4QPs 37 II, 10-11.) 2

The true antiquity of t h i s theme becomes apparent when we r e c a l l the feast of the gods, enjoined when Baal of Canaanite myth, the v i c t o r i n his b a t t l e with Yamm, completed the b u i l d -ing of his abode. Isaiah 55:1-5 and Jeremiah 31:10-14 ind i c a t e that the theme of feasting i n v i c t o r y celebration was s t i l l ac-t i v e i n sixth-century prophetic thought. I Kings 8:65 and the many poetic a l l u s i o n s to David would indicate that such a feast commemorating Yahweh's promises to the Davidic house had a fes-t i v a l s e t t i n g in the royal c u l t .

There were a number of subthemes that flowed into t h i s image. One was the elevation of Zion for a l l to see as people from the world over came to Zion (Is. 26:1 must c e r t a i n l y r e f e r to t h i s Jerusalem of f a i t h ) . Coupled with t h i s vast procession to Z i o n — a New Exodus for those i n the bondage of e x i l e — w a s the mythic theme of a s t e r i l e creation come back to l i f e . Sec-ond Isaiah made use of that combination: "And he made i t s

1. J . Jeremias, "Heilsmahl auf dem Weltenberge," J e s u M i s s i o n für die Völker (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1956), pp. 51-62.

2. Frank M . Cross, T h e A n c i e n t L i b r a r y o f Q u m r a n (New York: Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 91-92.

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wilderness l i k e Eden, and her steppe l i k e the garden of Yahweh" (Is. 51:3) .

The themes of feast and renewal of s t e r i l e creation as em-ployed i n Isaiah 24-27 flow n a t u r a l l y from the theology of Sec-ond Isaiah. As we have suggested above, the force of these images was so strong that i t transformed the Song of the Vine-yard, from a song describing judgment (Is. 5) to one expressing new creation (Is. 27). Isaiah 5 envisions Yahweh's tender care of his vineyard, waiting and hoping for i t to y i e l d good grapes but instead i t produced s t i n k i n g grapes. I t deserved nothing more than to be plowed into the ground. Then the p a r a l l e l i s drawn with I s r a e l , Yahweh's vineyard. "He looked for j u s t i c e (miïpât) but behold, bloodshed ( m i s p a h ) ; for righteousness { s a d a q a h ) , but behold, a cry ( 8 5 ' a q a h ) .

In Isaiah 27, however, Yahweh's watchful care of his vine-yard, I s r a e l , i s producing as i t ought to produce. Within the l i t u r g i c a l pattern, t h i s theme performed the same function as the Feast on the Mount and may be considered a subtheme along with the other themes flowing together around t h i s image. New Creation i s bursting with new l i f e . We are c a l l e d to Zion to share i n the new found f e r t i l i t y of creation (Is. 27:12-13).

3. Genre and Date

Our study has not taken into account enough of the l i t e r a -ture between Second Isaiah and Daniel to j u s t i f y a discussion of d i v i s i o n s between proto-, ear l y - and middle-apocalyptic. Nor do we propose to o f f e r such a discussion here. We f e e l , however, the prosodie s t y l e of Isaiah 24-27 and i t s themes, both separately and i n pattern, do e s t a b l i s h a l i t e r a r y context for us to understand these chapters. The author emerges as one very much influenced by the work of Second Isaiah. For that reason, we would l a b e l the genre of Isaiah 24-27 proto-apoc-a l y p t i c , recognizing that as our knowledge of the l i t e r a t u r e of the early p o s t - e x i l i c period becomes more complete, adjustments may have to be made.

We would argue that Isaiah 26:11-27:6 i s t y p o l o g i c a l l y l a t e r than Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 and moving in the d i r e c t i o n of what Hanson has described as early apoc-a l y p t i c . But we do not see evidence of the salvation-judgment

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oracle or an advanced d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of prosodie s t y l e which would place our chapters late i n Hanson's typology.

A sixth-century date i s not unreasonable. We would place the e a r l i e r portions of the chapters c l o s e r to 587 B.C., the f a l l of Jerusalem, than to 520 B.C., the temple controversy. The author would be a d i s c i p l e of Isaiah, one who shared i n his v i s i o n s for the reconstruction of I s r a e l .

B. The H i s t o r i c a l Setting of Isaiah 24-27

To move from the l i t e r a r y context to a reconstruction of the h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g i s d i f f i c u l t under the best of circum-stances. The number of suggestions for h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g that have been made for Isaiah 24-27 t e s t i f i e s to the ambiguity of the data. But having established, on r e l a t i v e l y objective grounds, what we believe to be the l i t e r a r y context of Isaiah 24-27, we are i n a p o s i t i o n , now, to make some suggestions as to h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g .

Otto Plöger and Paul Hanson have offered some h e l p f u l i n -sights to understand l i t e r a t u r e from the period i n which we place the Apocalypse.

In Plöger's reconstruction of the h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g of Isaiah 24-27, he raise d the problem in 24:14-18b of the i d e n t i -f i c a t i o n of the "they" i n verse 14,

They shout in v i c t o r y . They r a i s e t h e i r voice.

In the presence of Yahweh They shout from afar.

the "we" of verse 16a,

From the ends of the earth We heard a song: Honor to the Just One !

and the "I say" or possibly "one says" of verse 16a (we trans-late ואמר as "some say").

Some say, "I am wasted!" "I am wasted! Oh, woe i s me!"

He argued there were two groups within the p o s t - e x i l i c Jewish community both of whom shared a general eschatological

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perspective. But one of the groups was taking the eschatologi-ca l prophecy of the end of the age much more seriously than the other. The "they" of verse 14 would r e f e r to the other group who, i n the eyes of the author, were r e j o i c i n g prematurely over Yahweh's reestablishment of his people. The " I " of 16b would be the author himself who wanted to drive home the point that the eschatological end of the age was s t i l l to be a future and traumatic event. The "we" of 16a connected with the "they" in that the " I " d i d see himself as sharing the basic eschatologi-ca l perspective of the "they." But he was challenging them in what he saw to be premature r e j o i c i n g over "preliminary, pre-eschatological events" thereby detracting from the r e a l escha-t o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y of Yahweh.1 Plöger argued that "the escha-t o l o g i c a l l y d i s i n t e r e s t e d view...probably r e f l e c t s the p o s i t i o n

2 of the r u l i n g classes and e s p e c i a l l y the p r i e s t s . " The h i s -t o r i c a l work of the Chronicler, for instance, would come from such a group. One can, on the other hand, recognize a l a t e r stage of the eschatological group i n the full-blown apocalyptic l i t e r a t u r e of Daniel.

Hanson has further r e f i n e d the t h e s i s of two groups with the a p p l i c a t i o n of the contextual-typological method to the oracles of so-called Third Isaiah and Second Zechariah. In ad-d i t i o n to tracing the breakdown of poetic canons of Hebrew poetry, such as the use of b i c o l a and poetic p a r a l l e l i s m , to-ward the use of prose as the v e h i c l e of apocalyptic expression, he has i d e n t i f i e d the judgment-salvation oracle as a form

3 unique to the p o s t - e x i l i c period. Salvation for I s r a e l was not to apply to a l l I s r a e l . P o s t - e x i l i c oppressive leaders within I s r a e l were to succumb under Yahweh's renewed wrath. The salvation-judgment oracle r e f l e c t s , suggests Hanson, an emerging c o n f l i c t between two p o s t - e x i l i c groups within I s r a e l . One, using E z e k i e l as i t s s p i r i t u a l leader, enjoyed favor from the Persian establishment, experienced the Babylonian e x i l e and is probably to be i d e n t i f i e d with the priesthood tracing i t s

1. Otto Plöger, T h e o k r a t i e , p. 58.

2. I b i d . , p. 76.

3. Hanson, D a w n , p a s s i m .

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lineage back to Zadok. The other, using Second Isaiah as i t s s p i r i t u a l leader, remained i n Palestine during the e x i l e , prob-ably included p r i e s t s who traced t h e i r lineage back to L e v i and who suffered at the hands of the Zadokites i n the i n t e r n a l power struggle over the reconstruction of I s r a e l .

In dealing with Isaiah 24-27, Hanson recognized the r i t u a l pattern transmitted v i a the r o y a l theology and Second Isaiah which we have noted, independently. He places the Apocalypse late i n his typology, however. He argues that the t i e s to the p o l i t i c a l realm have moved beyond that encountered i n Second Isaiah. Yahweh i s attacking the e n t i r e world, not an h i s t o r i -cal enemy. No human instrument i s involved. Noting the formu-la of 24:2, wherein p r i e s t and people are contrasted and sug-gesting Jerusalem as the destroyed c i t y , whose destruction was being celebrated, he concludes, "the composition could stem from a point f a i r l y l a t e i n the s i x t h century, perhaps from the period of the temple controversy of 52 0.'1י Jerusalem, from the perspective of the v i s i o n a r i e s , was d e f i l e d , being c o n t r o l l e d by the h i e r o c r a t i c party which took control after returning from Babylon.

1. Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8

The strongest argument against placing Isaiah 24-27 so late in the typology i s the prosodie s t y l e of p a r t i c u l a r l y Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8. The poetry of these chapters i s excellent, to be compared with the best i n Second Isaiah. The l i t e r a r y style of Zechariah 12-14 to which Hanson

2 suggests we compare the Apocalypse i s prose. We, too, would i d e n t i f y the destroyed c i t y as Jerusalem, but the evidence that there i s an open c o n f l i c t between two parties within I s r a e l i s not that c l e a r . The reference to p r i e s t and people i s a formu-la p a r a l l e l e d i n Hosea 4:9, an eighth-century document. In Isaiah 24, the formula i s part of a catalogue—good poetic s t y l e that can be traced back to Ugarit—whose point i s that none are being spared in the current destruction. The break

1. I b i d . , pp. 313-14.

2. I b i d . , pp. 314, 354-401.

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with hi s t o r y was already begun i n Second Isaiah (see 41:16). The use of the return to chaos theme i s not necessarily a sign that we are late i n the typology.

We suggest the following i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the chapters, placing t h e i r o r i g i n closer to the destruction of Jerusalem i n 587 B.C. That event touched o f f a profound search for meaning and explanation. Why would Yahweh allow his own c i t y to be de-stroyed? The language appropriate to such a search for meaning was myth. The theologians of the day reached f a r back into the t r a d i t i o n a l past to discover answers to t h e i r questions. One witnesses i n the l i t e r a t u r e of the period a ground swell i n the use of mythic patterns and images to i n t e r p r e t the t r a g i c events of the day. Second Isaiah was p a r t i c u l a r l y instrumental in re-using mythic materials to i n t r e p r e t God's action i n the events.

The pattern of the Divine Warrior Hymn re-emerged with i t s f u l l power. I t provided an explanation f o r the destruction. Chaos was reasserting i t s destructive power. The f a l l of Jeru-salem was part of the collapse of creation, a return to chaos. The Divine Warrior Hymn also provided hope i n that the f a i t h f u l could envision that day when Yahweh, the Warrior deity, would rea f f i r m his p o s i t i o n as king on his mount, hence the shouts of v i c t o r y . Hope for v i c t o r y was held even within descriptions of the devastated c i t y , Jerusalem, and a shuddering earth. From t h i s mountain Yahweh would prepare a feast for a l l peoples, a feast at which the power of Death and chaos would be consumed forever.

The oracle against Moab followed by a processional hymn of v i c t o r y would be an expression of t h i s Second Conquest-Exodus motif. Just as Moab of o l d had to be conquered p r i o r to the entrance into the land, so now Moab would be l a i d waste by Yah-weh. Note the s i m i l a r symbolic use of Edom i n Isaiah 34 and 63.

We would argue, then, that Isaiah 24:l-16a, 24:16b-25:9 and 26:1-8 were composed by a d i s c i p l e of Isaiah. He shared the v i s i o n s of a restored I s r a e l with Second Isaiah. He did move beyond the v i s i o n of the events taking place within p l a i n h i s t o r y . The power of myth to see beyond the l i m i t s imposed by h i s t o r i c a l event was taking hold, but we do not see, as yet.

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the emerging c o n f l i c t that Hanson documents through the early p o s t - e x i l i c period. Yahweh was preparing his feast f o r a l l people. A l l the kings of the earth were being caught up i n t h i s return to chaos that was to be a prelude to a new creation.

2. Isaiah 26:11-27:6

Isaiah 26:11-27:6, however, i s another story. We noted e a r l i e r that the prosody i s t y p o l o g i c a l l y l a t e r than 24ff. There i s also a mixing of older forms to produce a new synthe-s i s . In terms of content, though hard to prove, i t seems that the tension and impatience of those waiting for the v i c t o r y of Yahweh's Day has increased: "Victory we have not made for the earth; the inhabitants of the world have not f a l l e n " (26:18).

Who were these "inhabitants of the world" that the poet wishes were f a l l e n ? Were they the Zadokite priesthood who were assuming control of the p o s t - e x i l i c c ult? Whereas the material of Isaiah 26 has not yet reached the stage where the leaders of I s r a e l were openly attacked, there were people who were s u f f e r -ing and they were appealing to Yahweh for deliverance: "Let Thy dead l i v e ! Let Thy corpses r i s e ! " (26:19).

The themes of judgment and salvation j o i n i n the Song of the Vineyard. This juggling of older forms around the themes of judgment and salvation may evidence early s h i f t s i n the l i t -erature toward what was to become the judgment-salvation or-acle of the early p o s t - e x i l i c period.

Based on the evidence above, we conclude that Isaiah 26: 11-27:6 was added to the e a r l i e r oracles as the delay of Yah-weh's v i c t o r y , as perceived among Isaiah's d i s c i p l e s , became apparent. The reference to the destroyed c i t y of a l i e n s , never to be r e b u i l t , the c i t y trampled by the f a i t h f u l , could be e l e -ments introduced into the e a r l i e r poems as the tensions be-tween the contending p a r t i e s i n p o s t - e x i l i c I s r a e l increased. The Jerusalem of r e a l i t y and the Zion of f a i t h , for the v i s i o n -a r i e s , remained far apart. As i t became d e f i l e d by oppressive leaders, i t deserved Yahweh's continued wrath. The hope was held out, however, for that day when I s r a e l would t r u l y be re-stored.

1. See above, pp. 68-70.

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We can with reasonable confidence date the e n t i r e Apoc-alypse to the l a s t h a l f of the s i x t h century B.C. I t was i n the years of e x i l e and shortly thereafter that the apocalyptic movement was born. That movement was to assure that the epic f a i t h of ancient I s r a e l would not be l o s t to h i s t o r y . The hope ca r r i e d in t h i s l i t e r a t u r e was to help bring about the resur-r e c t i o n of a nation and eventually the b i r t h of a new r e l i g i o n .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

A. Texts, D i c t i o n a r i e s , and Grammars

Brown, Francis; Driver, S. R.; and Briggs, Charles, ed. A H e -b r e w a n d E n g l i s h L e x i c o n of the O l d T e s t a m e n t . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.

Burrows, M i l l a r , ed. The D e a d S e a S c r o l l s o f S t . M a r k ' s M o n a s t e r y . I: The Isaiah Manuscript and the Habakkuk Com mentary. New Haven: The American Schools of O r i e n t a l Re-search, 1950.

Colunga, R. P. Alberto and Turrado, Dr. Laurentio, ed. B i b l i a S a c r a j u x t a V u l g a t a m C l e m e n t i n a m . 3rd ed. M a t r i t i : Bib-l i o t e c a de Autores C r i s t i a n o s , 1959.

Gordon, Cyrus. U g a r i t i c T e x t b o o k . 3 vols. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1965.

Hatch, Edwin and Redpath, Henry A. A C o n c o r d a n c e to the S e p -t u a g i n t . 2 vols. A u s t r i a : Akademische Druck-Ü. Verlags-anstalt, 1897.

Jastrow, Marcus, comp. A D i c t i o n a r y o f the T a r g u m i m . 2 v o l s . New York: Pardes Publishing House, Inc., 1950.

Kautzsch, Ε. G e s e n i u s ' H e b r e w G r a m m a r . 2nd English ed. Ox-ford: Clarendon Press, 1910.

K i t t e l , Rud. ed. B i b l i a H e b r a i c a . 7th ed. Stuttgart: P r i v i l e g i e r t e Württembergische B i b e l a n s t a l t , [n.d.]

Lewis, Charlton T. and Short, Charles, ed. A L a t i n D i c t i o n a r y Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879.

L i d d e l l , Henry George and Scott, Robert, ed. A G r e e k - E n g l i s h L e x i c o n . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940.

Lisowsky, Gerhard. K o n k o r d a n s z u m Hebräischen A l t e n T e s t a m e n t Stuttgart: P r i v i l e g i e r t e Württembergische B i b e l a n s t a l t , 1958 .

Mandelkern, Solomon. C o n c o r d a n c e to the H e b r e w B i b l e (Hebrew) Tel-Aviv: Schocken Publishing House, LTD., 1962.

P e s h i t t a (Syriac). London: Whitefriars Press, LTD., 1954.

Smith, J. Payne, ed. A C o m p e n d i o u s S y r i a c D i c t i o n a r y . Oxford Clarendon Press, 1903.

Sperber, Alexander, ed. The B i b l e in A r a m a i c . I l l : Targum Jonathan. Leiden: Ε. J . B r i l l , 1962.

Ziegler, Joseph, ed. S e p t u a g i n t a . XIV: Isaias. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1939.

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Β. Selected Studies of Isaiah 24-27

Anderson, G. W. "Isaiah 24-27 Reconsidered." VT, Supplement IX (1963), pp. 118-26.

Duhm, Bernhard. D a s B u c h J e s a j a übersetzt u n d erklärt. HKAT, III , 1. 4th ed. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1922, pp. 172-94.

E i s s f e l d t , Otto. T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , A n I n t r o d u c t i o n . Trans-lated from the 3rd German ed. by Peter R. Ackroyd. New York: Harper and Row, 1965.

Fohrer, Georg. "Der Aufbau der Apokalypse des Jesajabuchs, Jes. 24-27." CBQ, XXV (1963), pp. 34-45.

Henry, Marie Louise. G l a u b e n s k r i s e u n d G l a u b e n s b e w a h r u n g i n d e n D i c h t u n g e n d e r J e s a j a a p o k a l y p s e . ΒWANT, 86. S t u t t -gart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1967.

Kessler, Werner. G o t t g e h t es um d a s G a n z e , J e s . 5 6 - 6 6 u n d J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 . Die Botschaft des A. T., 19. Stuttgart: Calver Verlag, 1960.

Kissane, Edward. The B o o k o f I s a i a h . Dublin: Browne and Nolan, LTD., 1941.

Liebmann, Ernst. "Der Text zu Jesaja 24-27." ZAW, XXII (1902), pp. 1-56, 285-304. XXIII (1903), pp. 209-86. XXIV (1904), pp. 51-104. XXV (1905), pp. 145-71.

Lindblom, Joh. D i e J es a j a - A p o k a l y p s e , J e s . 2 4 - 2 7 . LUA Ν. F. 1, 34, 3. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1938.

Lohmann, Paul. "Die selbständigen ly r i s c h e n Abschnitte i n Jes. 24-27." ZAW, XXXVII (1917/18), pp. 1-58.

March, Wallace. A S t u d y o f T w o P r o p h e t i c C o m p o s i t i o n s in I s a i a h 2 4 : 1 - 2 7 : 1 . Unpublished Th.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Union Theological Seminary i n the C i t y of New York, 1966.

Mulder, Egge Simon. D i e T e o l o g i e v a n d i e Je s a j a - A p o k a l i p a e , J e s a j a 2 4 - 2 7 . Djarkarta: J . B. Wolters, 1954.

Otzen, Benedikt. "Traditions and Structures of Isaiah XXIV-XXVII," VT (1974).

Plöger, Otto. T h e o k r a t i e u n d E s c h a t o l o g i e . Wageningen : Neu-kirchener Verlag, 1959.

Procksch, Otto. J e s a j a I übersetzt u n d erklärt. ΚΑΤ, IX, 1. Le i p z i g : A. Deichertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1930.

Rudolph, Wilhelm. J e s a j a 2 4 - 2 7 . BWANT, IV, 10. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1933.

Sievers, Eduard. "Alttestamentliche Miscellen I: Jesajas 24-27." ΒGL, LVI (1904), pp. 151-88.

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Smend, Rudolph. "Anmerkungen zu Jes. 24-27." ZAW, IV (1884), pp. 161-224.

C. Selected Studies i n I s r a e l i t e R e l i g i o n

A l b r i g h t , W. F. "Are the Ephod and the Teraphim Mentioned i n U g a r i t i c L i t e r a t u r e ? " BASOR 83, 1941, pp. 39f.

. F r o m the S t o n e A g e to C h r i s t i a n i t y . New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1957.

. Y a h w e h a n d the G o d s o f C a n a a n . New York: Doubleday, 1968.

A l t , Albrecht. "The Origins of I s r a e l i t e Law." E s s a y s o n O l d T e s t a m e n t H i s t o r y a n d R e l i g i o n . Translated by R. A. Wilson. New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1966.

Bal t z e r , Klaus. The C o v e n a n t F o r m u l a r y . Trans, by David E. Green. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971.

Chaney, Marvin. M y t h o l o g y a n d H o l y W a r i n I s a i a h 3 4 : 1 - 1 7 a n d 5 1 : 9 - 1 1 . Unpublished seminar paper. Department of Near Eastern Languages and L i t e r a t u r e s , Harvard University, F a l l , 1965.

Clements, R. E. A b r a h a m a n d D a v i d . Studies in B i b l i c a l Theol-ogy, 5. N a p e r v i l l e , 111.: Alec R. Allenson, Inc.

Cross, Frank Moore. T h e A n c i e n t L i b r a r y o f Q u m r a n . New York: Anchor Books, 1961.

. C a n a a n i t e M y t h a n d H e b r e w E p i c . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.

. "The Council of Yahweh i n Second Isaiah." JliES, XII .pp. 274-77 , (T753) ־־

. "The Divine Warrior i n I s r a e l ' s E a r l y C u l t . " B i b -V T c a l M o t i f s . Edited by A. Altmann. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1966.

. "New Directions i n the Study of Apocalyptic." J T h C , \7T1969)־) , pp. 157-65 .

. "The P r i e s t l y Tabernacle." T h e B i b l i c a l A r a h a e o l o -g T s t R e a d e r . Edited by G. Ernest Wright and David Noel Freedman. New York: Anchor Books, 1961.

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