will wirt - string games of the navajo

STRING GAMES OF THE NAVAJO 119

String Games of the Navajoby

WILL WIRT, Port Angeles, WashingtonMARK SHERMAN, Pasadena, California

Cultural notes contributed byMIKE MITCHELL, Rough Rock, Arizona

ABSTRACT

In this article the authors describe seventy-four string figures and tricksknown to the Navajo Indians of Arizona. Methods for making sixty of thesewere gathered during the winter of 1999-2000 on a series of visits to theNavajo reservation. Thirty-four of these are new additions to the publishedliterature on Navajo string games. Remarkably, methods for twenty of thetwenty-seven Navajo string figures gathered by Caroline Furness Jaynenearly a century ago were still remembered, suggesting that string gamesare a stable element of Navajo material culture. The significance of stringgames among the Navajo is examined in an appendix to this article.

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of string games1 among the Navajo2 Indians of the AmericanSouthwest was established nearly a century ago by Alfred. C. Haddon(1903), Caroline Furness Jayne (1906), Stewart Culin (1907), and the Fran-ciscan Fathers (1910). For many years Jayne’s collection of twenty-sevendesigns (1906:387), which incorporates Haddon’s collection of six, was thelargest ever assembled from a single tribe. The size of her collection sug-gested that the Navajo Indians were once quite fond of them. But have any ofthese traditional games survived the onslaught of technology and Anglo cul-ture? Have new designs been created or imported in the interim? Have any

Bulletin of the International String Figure Association, Vol. 7, 119-214, 2000

119

1Among the Navajo and many other Native American tribes, string figures areroutinely referred to as string games: a request for string figures is often greetedwith a blank stare. The Navajo word for string games is 1CbCV>bQb, meaning‘continuous weaving.’

2The Spanish word ‘Navajo’ is from the Tewa Pueblo Indian word ‘Navahú’meaning ‘great planted fields’ or ‘take from fields.’ In the early part of the twentiethcentury the spelling was anglicized to ‘Navaho’ at the request of the Indians, whowere tired of being called NavaJoes by white settlers. In recent years, the spellinghas reverted to ‘Navajo’. Most Navajo prefer the native term ‘Dineh’ or ‘Diné’meaning ‘The People’. For a detailed discussion see Haile (1949).

W. WIRT, M. SHERMAN, M. MITCHELL120

of the taboos once associated with their manufacture been maintained? Theseare the sorts of questions that inspired a series of three visits to the NavajoReservation in the winter of 1999-2000 (November, late January, and earlyMarch). Visits were restricted to winter since traditionally this was the seasonin which string games were played (Toelken 1979:95). The principal investi-gator on all threevisits was WillWirt, accompaniedby his wife Lillie.During the secondvisit Mark Shermanand David Tituswere also present.On several occa-sions specific indi-viduals known fortheir cultural exper-tise were soughtout, these visits be-ing scheduled far inadvance by LillieWirt. These informants, particularly Mike Mitchell at Rough Rock, providedvaluable information on the tribal lore still associated with Navajo stringgames. But most often the games were gathered informally from chance ac-quaintances, either from students at various schools or from staff members attrading posts, restaurants, gas stations, and hotels.

Methods for making fifty-six string figures and four tricks were gatheredduring our three visits. Of the twenty-seven designs described or listed byJayne in 1906, methods for twenty were still remembered: eleven3 were re-membered at one of the seven locations visited and nine4 were rememberedat more than one location. Occasionally the name associated with the gamein Jayne’s book had changed,5 or alterations in its method of manufacture orextension had been introduced.6 Sometimes the same name was applied tomore than one game,7 or several names were given to a single game.8 Nochants or songs were found associated with any of the games.

3 # 5, #13, #14/#15, #17/#18, #20, #25, #32, #44, #45, #52, #61.4 #1, #9, #23, #27, #28, #35, #63, #66, #68. If #7 is considered the same as #6, the

number increases to ten.5 #15, #25, #35, #63.6 #8(#6), #9, #17(#18), #35, #44, #49(#50), #64(#63).7 (#2, #29, #30), (#10, #33, #56, #57), (#21, #52), (#1, #53), (#47/#48, #63/#64),

(#13, #54).8 #4, #20, #35, #39, #63/#64.

Miles

Kilometers

0

0

50

50

ColoradoUtah

Arizona New Mexico

l

ll

ll

l

l

110 W°

36 N°

Hopi Land

NavajoandNon-NavajoLand

Kayenta

MonumentValley

WindowRock

Hubbel

RoughRock Many

Farms

Seba Dalkai

Navajo Land

Map of the Navajo Reservation showing sites visitedduring the winter of 1999-2000.


Variation in the method of extension was also observed. In most cases thiswas idiosyncratic, i.e., selected by the performers based on what was com-fortable or customary for them. This was particularly true of designs in the‘Many Stars’ family.9 Some informants extended these designs between theirindex and middle fingers, as described by Jayne (1906:51, step 7), whereasothers used their thumb and index (Jayne 1906:51-52, step 7A). Extensionsalso varied for designs in the ‘Open the Gate’ family.10 These were eitherextended with four fingers pointing toward the body, or with thumb and in-dex (or thumb and little finger) pointing away from the body. Three exten-sions for ‘Lightning’ were recorded (see pages 128-129). Unusual extensionsof ‘Navajo Rug’ (Apache Door) were also seen (see page 151).

At most locations the seasonal taboo once associated with string gameswas still observed: string games could only be played in winter, the season inwhich spiders hibernate. Traditionalists we encountered defined winter as theperiod between the first snowfall and the first thunder of spring, a soundwhich awakens hibernating animals. This period most often corresponds tothe months of December and January. Others were willing to extend the defi-nition of winter to include November and February. Beyond that, a specialceremony was required to appease Spider Woman. Those violating the sea-sonal taboo were warned that they would either be struck by lightning, falloff a horse and die, or be urinated upon by spiders.11 A pregnancy taboo wasalso noted at two separate locations. At one location the informant refused todemonstrate string games because she was pregnant. At another location anobserver left the room because “pregnant women are not supposed to look atothers playing string games.”

The games and tricks presented here are arranged according to the open-ing employed. Within each category, games with similar movements aregrouped together. For ease of presentation the games are listed with theirEnglish name. The Navajo name, when known, is given in the Notes thatfollow the method. A drawing of the finished pattern extended on the handsis provided for each game. Our report concludes with an essay on the culturalsignificance of Navajo string games.

Photographs have been omitted entirely since many traditionalists feel thatthey capture the “soul” of the object or person being photographed, andviewing them at inappropriate times can violate seasonal taboos. Cultural

9 #23, #24, #25, #26, #27, #28, #30, #31, #32, #33, #45, #51, #55, #56, #57.10 #34, #54, #60.11 Similar explanations appear in the literature. According to Page & Page

(1995:111) playing string games in the summer will cause bad weather or bad luck,and Spider Woman will tie your eyes shut. Gifford’s Navajo informants stated thatstring games are played only in winter when spiders are not about, lest they bite(Gifford 1940:56,149). When a rattlesnake came after Son of Old Man Hat, hismother said “That’s what you get for making string figures in the summertime.”(Dyk 1938:213).


notes gleaned from Mike Mitchell’s recent booklet (1999) are includedwhenever relevant. This excellent booklet, written mainly in Navajo, lacksmethods but includes illustrations of twenty-nine string game designs, eachclearly labeled with its Navajo name. During our visits it proved to be a greatsource of inspiration and an invaluable reference document.

LIST OF STRING GAME TITLES

Figures Beginning with the Navajo Opening1. Two Stars I (Twin Stars)2. Big Star I3. Three Stars4. Four Stars (Milky Way)5. Bow6. Lightning, Version A7. Lightning, Version B8. Lightning, Version C9. Standing Measuring Worm10. Owl I11. Male Arrowhead12. Female Arrowhead13. Butterfly I

Figures Beginning with a Modification of the Navajo Opening14. Replica of a Cloud15. Pleiades16. Storm Clouds17. Chest18. Breastbone and Ribs19. Pinching Stars20. Horned Toad (Lizard, Big Snake)21. Arrow I

Figures Beginning with Opening A22. Batten23. Many Stars24. Mexican Hat25. Milky Way (Owl)26. Ending to Milky Way27. Star with Horns28. Coyotes Running Opposite Ways29. Big Star II30. Big Star III31. North Star


32. Seven Stars33. Owl II34. Open the Gate35. Rug (Blanket, Apache Door)36. Open the Gate from Rug (Two Coyotes Running Away)37. Flip (Jump Over the Fence, Frog)38. Hair Tie39. Golden Eagle (Airplane)40. Upside-Down Golden Eagle41. Two Diamonds42. Four Diamonds43. Six Stars44. Opposite Hogans45. Carrying Wood46. Grinding47. Basket, Version A48. Basket, Version B49. Man Standing with Legs Apart50. A Man51. Bird52. Arrow II53. Two Stars II

Figures Beginning with a Modification of Opening A54. Butterfly II55. Bat56. Owl III57. Owl IV58. Frog59. Drum60. Rocket

Figures Beginning with Other Openings61. Measuring Worm62. Five-pointed Star63. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version A64. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version B65. Two Arrowheads66. Sweathouse (Sweatlodge, Hogan)67. Unnamed68. Unraveling (Train)69. Bull Snake70. Ribs


International Figures71. Bottom72. Finger Trick73. Cut the Neck74. Hand Escape

NAVAJO STRING GAMES

The numbers in parentheses after each string figure title are location codesthat indicate where each figure was observed during our three visits to thereservation. Navajo figures not seen by us but described in the literature arealso included in this article for sake of completeness.

1. Gouldings Lodge, Monument Valley, Utah2. Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site, Arizona3. Many Farms Elementary School, Many Farms, Arizona4. Monument Valley High School, Monument Valley, Utah5. Navajo Nation Museum, Window Rock, Arizona6. Rough Rock Cultural Center, Rough Rock, Arizona7. Seba Dalkai School, Navajo Reservation, Arizona

The terms and abbreviations used in this article are explained and illustratedon pages 357-366.

Navajo Opening (1-7)

1. Grasp the loop in both hands with the hands only a few inches apart. 1and 2 point toward the center and pinch the string while 345 hold lateralsections of the loop.


2. Wrap the section lying between the two hands around L2 by passing RHover L2, away from the body, then down and toward the body, and fi-nally up.

3. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2, butmaintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into the L2 loop from the far side.

4. Rotate 2 down, away from the body, and then up.5. As 2 completes its rotation 1 enters the 345 loop from the near side.

Release the loop from 345 and extend, palms facing away, catching thereleased loop on 1.

6. Return hands to normal position (palms facing each other). There are TV2n and 1f strings. An L2f-R1n string passes behind an L1n-R2f string.

Notes: The method we observed is more direct than the method described byJayne, in which a hanging loop is created (Jayne 1906:212). All of our infor-mants used this method.

Figures Beginning with the Navajo Opening

1. Two Stars I (Twin Stars) (1, 3)

1. Navajo Opening.2. 1, from below, removes 2 loop keeping it on the upper part of 1.3. 2, from above, passes through upper 1 loop, picks up lower 1f (a TV

string) from the far side, and draws it through the upper loop.4. 5, from below, passes up through both 1 loops and hooks down upper 1n

(a TV string) through the lower loop.5. Release 1 loops and extend.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Twin Stars’ (Jayne 1906:228-230). The Navajo know three variations of it (#2, #3, #4).


2. Big Star 1 (1, 3)

1. Navajo Opening.2. Rotate RH a full turn with R1 and R2 pointing first away from the body,

then down, then toward the body and up. R1 and R2 do not catch up anystrings during the rotation. (This move is equivalent to >>R1 and >>R2)

3. Steps 2 to 5 of Two Stars I.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6�b 7UQJ. It represents the planetVenus. Mike Mitchell writes: “There are actually two Big Stars. One is calledMother and is visible in the early morning and the other is called Father andis visible during evening twilight.” (Mitchell 1999:32). In sandpaintings andNavajo blankets Big Star appears as a square diamond (see page 208). Thisis one of many Navajo string games associated with starlore (see page 206).

3. Three Stars (1, 3)

1. Navajo Opening.2. Rotate LH a full turn with L1 and L2 pointing first away from the body,

then down, then toward the body and up. L1 and L2 do not catch up anystrings during the rotation. (This move is equivalent to >>L1 and >>L2.)

3. Steps 2 to 5 of Two Stars I.


Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6�b 7�b�. The three stars representa family: father on the left, mother on the right, and baby in the center.(Mitchell 1999:18). At Many Farms this figure was called ]GbGUKU, meaning“belt.” The informant stated that the three diamonds represent the three starsin Orion’s belt. To others, this figure represents the Milky Way. In sandpaint-ings, Milky Way appears as a row of diamonds (see page 199). A third namefor this figure is ]GGJ [KN\JQQ\J, “lined up in the ground.” This term refersto a food item that is popular during the harvest season. It consists of sweet-ened corn meal dough placed in corn husks that are tied at both ends withyucca fibers. The bundles are then lined up in a trench and covered with hotcoals until thoroughly cooked (Young & Morgan 1980:516).

4. Four Stars (Milky Way) (1, 3)

1. Navajo Opening.2. Rotate both hands a full turn with 1 and 2 pointing first away from the

body, then down, then toward the body and up. 1 and 2 do not catch upany strings during the rotation. (This move is equivalent to >>1 and>>2.)

3. Steps 2 to 5 of Two Stars I. 1 pushes the center of the palmar stringstoward the middle, causing the four diamonds to open up.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6�b '��b (Four Stars). This figureis also called <KM��UF�J� (Milky Way). According to legend, the Milky Waywas formed when First Man and First Woman made an offering of white cornpollen to a group of stars in the northern part of the sky (Mitchell 1999:13).In sandpaintings Milky Way appears as a row of diamonds (see page 203).Milky Way is an important Navajo constellation (see pages 202-204), and isoften associated with the month of February (Klah 1942:59).


5. Bow (1)

1. Navajo Opening.2. 1, over 2n, picks up 2f.3. 345 hook down 2n.4. 3 picks up lower 1f and points upward. Release 1 loops and extend.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Bow’ (Jayne 1906:212-216).The Navajo name for this figure is $>V��b. “When paired with the Arrow, theBow has power” (Mitchell 1999:28). The creation of wholeness throughpairing is a key concept in Navajo philosophy (see page 191).

6. Lightning, Version A

1. Navajo Opening.2. 1, over 2n, picks up 2f.3. 3, over 2n, picks up lower 1f.4. 4, over 3f, picks up 2n.5. 5, over 4f, picks up 3f.6. Release 1 loops but do not extend. 1, under the loose 2f and 3n strings,

enters the 5 loop, from below, but doesn’t return or extend. Flip 2f and3n over to far side of the figure and point fingers away while 1 raises thenear string of the 5 loop (the 4f string).


Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:216-219)

7. Lightning, Version B (3, 4)

1. Steps 1 to 5 of Lightning, Version A.2. Release 1 loops but do not extend. 1, under the loose 2f and 3n strings,

enters the 5 loop from above and rapidly pushes down on the near string(the 4f string).

Notes: Versions A and B of ‘Lightning’ differ only in the way the design isextended. In version A the thumbs lift 4f, whereas in version B they pressdown on it. The method described by Jayne (1906:216-219) corresponds toversion A. The method recorded by A.C. Haddon (1903:222-223) is versionB. Kathleen Haddon describes version A in her book Artists in String(1930:54-55), but version B in String Games for Beginners (1942:28). InPospisil’s paper, the informant is seen pressing down 4f (version B), but inKluckhorn’s paper the informant is seen lifting 4f (version A). When doneproperly the extension is quite dramatic: a quick toss and the design suddenlyappears out of nowhere.

8. Lightning, Version C (4)

1. Steps 1 to 5 of Lightning (Version A).2. Release 1 loops. 5 hooks down its near string (part of 4f) to the palm.


1, under the loose 2f and 3n strings, passes under 4n. Flip 2f and 3n overto far side of the figure and point fingers away while 1 lifts the 4n string.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is $VUKPNV>bKUJ. The Navajo recognizemany types of lightning, including sheet lightning, flash lightning, and zigzaglightning (Franciscan Fathers 1910:60). Symbols for each of these often ap-pear in sandpaintings (see page 208). Male lightning has barbed ends,whereas female lightning is simply crossed at each end (Reichard 1977:40-41). Because it is so dangerous, only the symbol for lightning is depicted instring games (Mitchell 1999:17).

9. Standing Measuring Worm (1, 2, 4)

1. Navajo Opening. Note that 1n passes over 1f.2. Point thumb and fingers of both hands away from the body. Keeping the

strings taut, the L hand immobilized, and the L palm facing right, swingthe RH upward and then to the left of the LH, tracing out a 120° arc asit “orbits” the LH. At this point the LH strings touch the palmar surfaceof L1 and L2 rather than the dorsal surface; the R palm faces down. Nowmove the RH diagonally downward (i.e., toward the right foot), passingit close to the LH while drawing all the strings between L1 and L2 (thestrings go slack as RH approaches L1 and L2, but recover their tensionas the RH extends fully to the right). Repeat the same maneuver on theopposite side. Return both hands to the upright position. Now 1n passesunder 1f. (Note: Among the Navajo, step 2 is a common method forrotating the 1 loop a full turn away).

3. 345 enter the 2 loop from below. 45 hook down 2n and then 3 hooksdown 1f.

4. Bring the hands together, passing R2 behind the L2f string and R1 infront of the L1n string, then pinch their tips together so that R1 and R2encircle the L1n and L2f strings. Allow R1n and R2f to fall toward thecenter of the figure so that four strings pass over the pinched tips of R1and R2.


5. Withdraw L1 and L2 from their loops, pass L2 behind the hangingstrings and L1 in front of them, then pinch their tips together so that theylikewise encircle the four strings encircled by R1 and R2. Separate thehands to absorb the slack, but maintain the pinching position of 1 and 2on each hand.

6. Slide the four strings onto 1, thus freeing 2. Pass 2 though the 1 loopsfrom the far side, then pass 2 behind the string pinched between 3 and 4.Catch this string on the tip of 2 and draw it back though the 1 loops,rotating 2 toward the body and up. Release 1 and 3 loops, withdraw 4from 45 loop, and extend with 2 pointed upward.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘A Worm’ (Jayne 1906:222-228).The method she describes is much more difficult to follow. The Navajo namefor this figure is :�UK\�P�. Measuring worms cannot crawl backwards: whena measuring worm runs into an object it stands up in order to turn around(Mitchell 1999:23). Measuring Worm is also a Navajo constellation associ-ated with the month of July (1942:59).

10. Owl I (4)

1. Steps 1 to 5 of Standing Measuring Worm.2. Slide the four strings onto 2, thus freeing 1. 1 passes through the 2 loops

from the near side, picks up the string pinched between 3 and 4, anddraws it through the 2 loops. Release 2 and 3 loops, withdraw 4 from 45loop, and extend with 1 pointed upward.

Notes: Among the Wailaki Indians of Northern California, ‘Standing Mea-suring Worm’ (#9) and ‘Owl’ (#10) represent a boy and a girl, respectively,and are used to predict the sex of an unborn child (Foster 1941). The Navajoname for this figure is 1�bGUJKCCb. Owl is a messenger and fortune teller(Newcomb et al. 1956:64). He is a great medicine man who can perform


great magic, both good and evil. He carries a bundle of herbs, powders, andmedicines which he brought from the lower world. Now they are used bymedicine men in rites where peace is desired. Among his items are incense,tobacco, sedatives, and dream inducers (Newcomb 1967:97-99).

11. Male Arrowhead (1, 4)

1. Navajo Opening.2. 1, from above, removes 2 loop.3. 2, from above, passes through upper 1 loop, picks up lower 1f from the

far side, and draws it through the upper loop.4. 5, from below, passes up through both 1 loops and hooks down upper 1n

through the lower loop.5. Release 1 loop. Release the R5 loop, then pass R345, from below, into

the R2 loop and close R2n to the palm.6. Extend. As the figure is extended, use L1 to temporarily lift the cluster

of strings that are sliding along the lower TV string. This helps create asymmetrical arrowhead.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is%��UJbCUVbQIKK %KM�bKK. A male arrowhead has a tailand looks like a spear point (Mitchell 1999:22). Insandpaintings male arrowheads often cap lightningbolts, sunbeams, and rainbows. These offer strong oraggressive protection (Reichard 1977: 64).

12. Female Arrowhead (6)

1. Form Male Arrowhead.2. Two loops pass over the upper TV string. Release RH loop, and with the

RH grasp the upper TV string between the two loops. Extend.


Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is %��UJbCUVbQIKK %Kb�CFKK (Mitchell1999:22). Female arrowheads lack tails. In sandpaintings female arrowheadsalso cap lightning bolts, sunbeams, and rainbows (a simple bar appears nearthe end). However, unlike male arrowheads, theseonly offer weak or “submissive” protection (Reichard1977: 64). Nearly all entities in the Navajo universehave male and female counterparts. Their union cre-ates wholeness (see page 191).

13. Butterfly 1 (2)

1. Navajo Opening.2. Rotate 2, first toward the body and down, then away from the body and

up. Repeat four more times.3. 1 picks up 2n. Navajo 1 loops.4. Touch the tips of R1 to L1 and of R2 to L2. Slide R1 loop onto L1 and

R2 loop onto L2 and point L1 and L2 upward.5. R2 removes upper L1 loop from below. R1 removes remaining L1 loop

from above.


6. R1 and R2 grasp L2 loops close to L2. Remove L2 from its loops. L2enters the original upper L2 loop from below. L1 enters the originallower L2 loop from above. Separate R1 and R2 and extend slowly.

7. From below, 345 hook down 2f and 1n. Point 1 and 2 upward.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Butterfly’ (Jayne 1906:219-221). The Navajo name for this figure is .bCCN�IKK. A Navajo myth states thatButterfly was the first character to use body paint as a form of attraction. Hisbrilliant colors are viewed as paint because they rub off easily. The resultingpowder, called “butterfly pollen,” is very powerful and somewhat evil. It isnever used by medicine men in healing ceremonies, only sorcerers(Newcomb et al. 1956:44). Butterfly is also a Navajo constellation (see page207).

Figures Beginning with a Modification of the Navajo Opening

14. Replica of a Cloud (1)



3. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2, butmaintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into the L2 loop from the far side.

4. Rotate 2 toward the body and up, and extend, releasing 345. There areupper and lower 2n TV strings and an upper L2f to lower R2f stringpassing behind a lower L2f to upper R2f string.

5. L1, over the lower L2 loop and under upper L2n, picks up upper L2f andreturns.

6. R1, under the upper R2 loop and over lower R2n, picks up lower R2fand returns.


7. L345, up through the lower L2 loop, hook down just the upper L2nstring while R345, behind lower R2n, enter the upper R2 loop from be-low and hook down just the upper R2n string.

8. 3, from the far side, under a 2f string, passes over lower 2n and pressesit against 4. 345, carrying the lower 2n string with them, withdraw fromthe loop surrounding them, thus drawing this string through the releasedloop. Press 3 against the palm behind and under all the other strings.

9. 45 enter the 3 loop from the far side and press against the palm. Releasethe 1 loop and extend.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘One Storm Cloud’ (Jayne1906:236-243), and is part of a longer series (see #16). The opening for thisfigure begins like the Navajo Opening but 2 is rotated toward instead of awayfrom the body. The Navajo name for this figure is .bQU <KUJEJ��P� The titlemeans “cloud symbol” (Mitchell 1999:5). In sandpaintings clouds appear astriangles (see page 208). Sometimes they are stacked to form cloud columns,and sometimes vertical lines are attached to their bases to symbolize rain(Newcomb et al. 1956:7, 28-31). In Navajo blankets cloud symbols resembleterraced pyramids (Franciscan Fathers 1910:253).

15. Pleiades (1)

1. Form Replica of a Cloud.2. Three strings pass across the figure above 345. 1 picks up the lowest

string and then hooks down the middle string. Release 345 loop. 345remove the 1 loop from the far side and hook it down.

3. Three diagonal strings pass toward the center of the figure above 345. 3pushes back the two lower strings and then hooks down the upper string,drawing it through the 45 loop.

4. Release the 45 loop. 45 enter the 3 loop from the far side.5. 2 picks up the upper TV string from the far side (it is the lower 2n

string). Extend with 2 pointing upward.


Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two Storm Clouds’ (Jayne1906:236-243), and is part of a longer series (see #16). The informant whoshowed us this figure called it 'KN[�J� (The Pleiades). However, this nameis most often applied to #32, otherwise known as ‘Seven Stars.’ 'KN[�J� is animportant constellation among the Navajo (see pages 201-202).

16. Storm Clouds

1. Form Pleiades.2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of Pleiades.3. 2 picks up the upper TV string from the far side (it is the lower L2f to

middle R2f string). Extend with 2 pointing upward.

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:236-243). If along loop is used, a new cloud will be added each time steps 2 and 3 arerepeated. If the string tension becomes unmanageable, release the upper 2loop just prior to step 3. See #14 for a discussion of cloud symbols in sand-paintings.

17. Chest (1)



3. Make a second wrap around R2 by passing the RH again over L2 andaway from the body and then down and toward the body and finallyupward.

4. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2 butmaintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into the L2 loops from the far side.


Rotate 2 toward the body and up. Release 345 loop and extend formingthree loops around 2. Keep the loops separate so that none of the 2n TVstrings overlap and the upper L2f string passes diagonally down to low-est R2f position.

5. R345 hook down the right side of the L2f-R2f diagonal string whileL345 pass under the lowest L2f string, reach upward between lowest L2fand the string above it (middle L2f), and hook down the left side of theL2f-R2f diagonal string.

6. 3 hooks down the lowest 2n string through the 345 loop. This movementis easier if 1 temporarily enlarges the 45 loop. 45 withdraw from theirloop and enter the 3 loop, from the far side, along side 3.

7. Repeat step 6 with the middle 2n string, then with the upper 2n string andfinally with the upper 2f string.

8. 2 picks up one of the two upper 2f strings from the far side (these stringscross near the center of the design). Extend with 2 pointed upward.

Notes: This figure is a simplified version of ‘Breastbone and Ribs’ (K. Had-don 1942:35-36). The Navajo name for this figure is $[KF, meaning‘Sternum with Ribs’ (Franciscan Fathers 1910:84). Chest represents“protection of that which is vital to the body, something that all things have”(Mitchell 1999:19). These comments probably refer to P�>EJb�, the HolyWind, the breath of life within all living things. The Navajo believe thatbreathing is a sacred act (see pages 190-191).

18. Breastbone and Ribs


2. Wrap the section lying between the two hands around L2 by passing RH


over L2, away from the body, then down and toward the body, and fi-nally up.

3. Make two additional wraps around R2 by repeating step 2 two moretimes.

4. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2 butmaintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into all the L2 loops from the farside. Rotate 2 toward the body and up. Release 345 loop and extend tocreate four loops on 2. Keep the loops separate so that none of the 2n TVstrings overlap and the upper L2f string passes diagonally down to low-est R2f position.

5. R34 hook down the right side of the diagonal string. L34 pass under thelowest L2f string, reach upward between the lowest L2f string and thestring above it, and hook down the left side of the diagonal string.

6. 34 pinch the lowest 2n string between them and draw it to the far side ofthe figure, through the 34 loop, which slips off. Press 3 against the palmto trap the retrieved string.

7. Raise 4 and pass it forward along side 3. 3 and 4 pinch the next lowest2n TV string between them and draw it to the far side of the figure,through the 34 loop, which slips off. Press 3 against the palm to trap theretrieved string.

8. Repeat step 7 two more times working up the remaining 2n strings thenrepeat it again with the next to uppermost 2f string and repeat it a finaltime with the upper 2f string.

9. Transfer the 3 loop to 5, inserting 5 from the same direction as 3.10. 2 wraps one of the upper 2f TV strings an extra turn around 2 and ex-

tends the figure, 2 pointing upward, 5 pressed to the palm.

Notes: This figure is simply a more elaborate version of ‘Chest’ (#17). Themethod described here is from Kathleen Haddon’s String Games for Begin-ners (K. Haddon 1942:35-36), which differs somewhat from the methodgiven in her previous book (K. Haddon 1930:63-64). It was collected by Mrs.Jayne but was only mentioned in her book (Jayne 1906:387).


19. Pinching Stars (3)

1. Do steps 1-4 of the Navajo Opening.2. Remove the loop from 2 and rotate it 180 degrees, the right side of the

loop passing away from the body and to the left while the left side passestoward the body and to the right. Replace it on 2 so that 2n is a TVstring. The 2f strings now interlock rather than cross.

3. Position the twist so it is in the exact center of the figure, then finish theNavajo Opening (steps 5-6).

4. 1, from below, removes 2 loop keeping it on the upper part of 1.5. 2, from above, passes through upper 1 loop, picks up lower 1f from the


through the lower loop.7. Release 1 loops and extend.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6�bCJ�VUbKb�, literally “stars, theones that pinch together” (i.e., they are barely joined together, as by a slenderthread, Young & Morgan 1980:69). The figure represents two stars of theHyades cluster in the constellation Taurus. It is among the most symbolic ofall Navajo string games. According to Mike Mitchell, the Pinching Stars rep-resent the relationship between heaven and earth (Mitchell 1999:27). For afull discussion see pages 205-206.

20. Horned Toad (Lizard, Big Snake) (1)

1. Steps 1 and 2 of Pinching Stars.2. Position the twist so it is close to the RH, then finish the Navajo Opening

(steps 5-6).3. Steps 4 to 7 of Pinching Stars.


Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Lizard’ (Jayne 1906:230-233).The Navajo name for this figure is 1CbCUJ�bKK FKEJbK\JKK (Horned Toad) or7>bKKUJ VUQJ (Big Snake) (Mitchell 1999:8). A horned toad is a desert-dwelling reptile covered with horny plates. His body and small head are flatand diamond-shaped. He symbolizes the dark, underneath world and is asso-ciated with divination. In sandpaintings he wears armor of arrow points andcarries arrow-capped lightning bolts in his hands and feet (Newcomb et al.,1956:22). In sandpaintings and pictographs Big Snake likewise appears astwo linked diamonds, the head being smaller and more square than the body(see page 208). According to legend, Big Snake stays inside his hole andsucks people to him. Animals may be a long way off, but Big Snake will drawthem closer and closer until they go faster and finally run to the Big Snake(Newcomb et al. 1956:62). There is also a Navajo constellation called BigSnake of the North, associated with the month of June (Klah 1942:59).

21. Arrow I

1. Navajo Opening but do not extend completely.2. L2 rotates away from the body, downward, and then toward the body

without catching any strings. L3 enters the L2 loop from the far side.Pinch the L1n string between L2 and L3 and draw it away from the bodythrough the L23 loop, which slips off as L2 returns to an upright position


(the captured string becomes a new L2 loop).3. Release R2 loop. R2 enters L2 loop from below and from the near side

of the figure. Extend fully on 1 and 2 and adjust the figure so that itforms a fat hourglass shape.

4. 1, from below, removes 2 loop keeping it on the upper part of 1.5. 2, from above, passes through upper 1 loop, picks up lower 1f from the


through the lower loop.7. Release 1 loops and extend.

Notes: The figure appears in Mike Mitchell’s booklet. The method describedhere is a reconstruction based on Two Stars I (#1). The Navajo name for thisfigure is .CbCb. Arrows are used for hunting and protection. Arrow acquirespower when paired with Bow (Mitchell 1999:26). Completeness throughpairing is an important concept in Navajo philosophy (see page 191).

Figures Beginning with Opening A

22. Batten (4)

1. Opening A.2. 1, over 2n, picks up 2f.3. Navajo 1 loops. Release 5 loop.4. Extend with 1 pointed away from the body and 2 pointed downward.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is %GGbCbMbKP�NV>KUJ� A batten, used inweaving, is a flat wooden stick that resembles a boomerang with no bend.With a batten stick the weaver separates the warp strands by inserting it alter-nately between them. The stick is then twisted to turn it flat-wise. This cre-ates a space large enough to pass a ball of yarn through. Once the yarn is inplace, the stick is turned edge-wise and rammed down vigorously to force thenew weft strand into place. The amount of force used to batten the weftstrands determines the firmness and durability of the blanket (Franciscan Fa-


thers 1910:241). The resemblance between this string figure and the object itrepresents is greatest when a long loop is used. Battens have other uses aswell: mistakes in sandpaintings are rubbed out with a weaving batten(Griffin-Pierce 1992a:193). The Navajos of Black Mesa call this figure‘Bird’s Nest’ (Page and Page 1995:111). Presumably they use a short loop.

23. Many Stars (1, 3, 4)

1. Opening A.2. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks up

lower 1f. Release 1 loops.3. 1, over 2n, and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.4. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n

between 1 and 2. 3 withdraws from the loop. 2 removes the upper 1 loopfrom above by rotating toward the body and up.

5. 1 enters upper 2 loop from below.6. Navajo the 1 and 2 loops. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f near

the palmar surface of 1. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through the1 loop, which slips off. Extend with palms facing away.

Notes: There are a number of ways of carrying out steps 4 and 5. One alterna-tive is:

4. 1, over 2 loop and under 3n picks up 3f, keeping it near the finger tip.Release 3 loop.

5. 2 picks up upper 1f.

The method of extension (step 6) also varies. A common alternative is:

6. Navajo the 1 and 2 loops. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f nearthe palmar surface of 1. 3, from below, enters the design and hooksdown this string, drawing it through the 1 loop. Release 1 loop and ex-


tend, palms facing each other, 2 pointing upward, 3 pressed against thepalm.

This alternative extension can be applied to any figure in the ‘Many Stars’family (#25, #27, #30, #31, #32, #33, #45, #55, #56, #57). In Jayne’s bookthis figure is also called ‘Many Stars’ (Jayne 1906:48-53). Jayne describesboth endings, but applies the alternative ending to most of the figures in hercollection. The Navajo name for this figure is 6�b>�P�. It represents the uni-verse. This figure is used to teach children about constellations: “There aremany stars in the heavens, and some are in groups” (Mitchell 1999:29). Seepages 197-207 for a discussion of string games and starlore among theNavajo.

24. Mexican Hat (1)

1. Form Many Stars.2. 5 removes 1 loop from the far side. Press 5 against the palm.3. The 2n string passes through a loop in the upper part of the figure close

to 2. 1, from the near side, enters the design and catches 2n just belowthat loop.

4. Release 2 loop and extend with 1 pointed upward, 5 pressed to the palm.


25. Milky Way (Owl) (1)

1. Opening A.2. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop picks up

lower 1f. Release 1 loops.3. 1, under 2n, over 2f, and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Re-

lease 5 loop.4. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n




Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Third Owl’ (1906:55-56). Exceptfor step 3, the steps in this figure are identical to those for ‘Many Stars’(#23). At Monument Valley it was called ‘Milky Way’, probably because ithas four diamonds like design #4.

26. Ending to Milky Way (1)

1. Form Milky Way.2. 5 removes 1 loop from the far side. Press 5 against the palm.3. The 2n string passes through a loop in the upper part of the figure close

to 2. 1, from the near side, enters the design and catches 2n just belowthat loop.

4. Release 2 loops and extend with 1 pointed upward, 5 pressed against thepalm.


Notes: This is the same ending used for making ‘Mexican Hat’ (#24) from‘Many Stars’ (#23).

27. Star with Horns (1, 3)


lower 1f. Release 1 loops.3. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.4. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n


5. Navajo 2 loops.6. 1 picks up 2n. Navajo 1 loops.7. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f near the palmar surface of 1. 1

hooks down this string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which slips off.Extend with palms facing away.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two-Horned Star’ (1906:58-60).The first four steps in this figure are identical to those of ‘Many Stars’ (#23).


It was placed in the sky by First Man (Klah 1942:66). The Navajo name forthis figure is 6�b%KFGGb�. According to Mike Mitchell, the Star with Hornswas made at the beginning of time. The constellation is a protector of theNavajo and is used in a ceremony (Mitchell 1999:4). Others claim it repre-sents a comet (see page 207). In sandpaintings, horns are a symbol of power(Newcomb et al. 1956:25).

28. Coyotes Running Opposite Ways (1, 3)


lower 1f. Release 1 loops.3. 1, under 2n, over 2f, and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Re-

lease 5 loop.4. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n

between 1 and 2. 3 withdraws from the loop. 2 removes upper 1 loopfrom above by rotating toward the body and up.

5. Navajo 2 loops.6. 1 picks up 2n. Navajo 1 loops.7. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f near the palmar surface of 1. 1


Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two Coyotes’ (1906:60-63).Steps 1 to 4 are identical to those for ‘Milky Way’ (#25). Steps 5 to 7 areidentical to those for ‘Star with Horns’ (#27). The Navajo name for this fig-ure is 0�bKKbC>VUb��b [KNYQ>� (Coyotes Running Opposite Ways). The stringfigure represents what happens when you suddenly come upon two coyotes.(Mitchell 1999:10).


29. Big Star II (4)


lower 1f. Release 1 loops.3. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.4. 5 removes 3 loop from above. Release 2 loop and extend with fingers

pointing away from the body.

Notes: See #2 for the Navajo name and a description of what Big Star repre-sents.

30. Big Star III

1. Opening A.2. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f.3. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks up lower 1f. Release 1 loops.4. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.5. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n


6. 1 enters upper 2 loop from below.


7. Navajo the 1 and 2 loops. A single TV string passes across the uppersurface of the design. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through the 1loop, which slips off. Extend with palms facing away.

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:64). Exceptfor step 2, the steps in this figure are identical to those for ‘Many Stars’(#23). See #2 for the Navajo name and a description of what Big Star repre-sents.

31. North Star

1. Opening A.2. 3, over 2 loop, removes 1 loop from below.3. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.4. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n




Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:65). NorthStar is an important symbol in Navajo starlore. It represents a campfire. Ac-cording to legend it also serves as a light source for stars in the Big Dipperand Cassiopeia. The Navajo have several names for North Star. See page 204for a full discussion.


32. Seven Stars (2)




5. 1 enters both 2 loops from below.6. Navajo the lowest 1 loop over the two upper 1 loops.7. On each hand a string runs from upper 1n to upper 1f near the palmar

surface of 1. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through both 1 loops,which slip off. Extend with palms facing away. Wrap the upper TVstring (a 2f string) once around the tip of 2 to open up the design.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Seven Stars’ (Jayne1906:56-58). Except for steps 5 and 6, the steps in this figure are identical tothose for ‘Many Stars’ (#23). According to Jayne the Navajo name for thisfigure is 'KN[�J�, the Pleiades or ‘Seven Sisters’. 'KN[�J� is the most sacredof all the Navajo constellations, appearing on the mask of Black God, thecreator of all constellations (Haile 1947:1-3). It is also used as a seasonalindicator and a time keeper. For a full discussion, see pages 201-202.

33. Owl II

1. Opening A.2. Rotate the 2 loop one complete turn by pointing 2 away from body, then

down, then toward the body, then up.3. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks up

lower 1f. Release 1 loops.


4. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.5. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n




Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book, where the figure iscalled ‘A Second Owl’ (Jayne 1906:54-55). Except for step 2, the move-ments in this figure are identical to those for ‘Many Stars’ (#23). See #10 forthe Navajo name and a description of owls in Navajo folk lore. This figurewas not observed during our visits. However, a closely related figure called‘Bat’ (#55) was shown to us at Many Farms.

34. Open the Gate (Two Coyotes Running Away) (1, 3)


1. Opening A.2. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5n. 5, over intervening strings picks

up lower 1f.3. 2 hooks down palmar strings through 2 loop. Release 1 and 5 loops but

do not extend.4. 345 enter the 2 loop from the same direction as 2. Extend with palms

facing the body, 2 pointed upward, 345 pressed against the palm. Twotriangles will move in opposite directions.

Notes: An alternative method of extension in step 4 is to pass 1 and 5 into the2 loops from below, release the 2 loops, and extend with the fingers pointingaway from the body.

The Navajo name for this figure is 0�bKKbC>VUb��b [KNYQ>� (Two Coyotes Run-ning in Opposite Directions). At Many Farms, where it was known to nearlyevery child, it was most often called ‘Open the Gate.’

35. Rug (Blanket, Apache Door) (1, 3, 4, 7)

1. Opening A.2. 1 and 345 pass though the 2 loop from below. Allow the former 2 loop

to fall onto the back of the wrist.3. 1 picks up 5n. 5 picks up lower 1f.4. Pass L1, from above, to the near side of the near wrist string, then under

all the strings and raise it on the far side of the figure.


5. Grasp the two original L1 loops on the far side of L1 with R1 and R2 andremove them from L1 but continue to hold them in the same position. L1passes under the figure and to the near side, then over the figure andreenters the former 1 loops from above.

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 on the opposite side of the figure.7. Release the wrist loop and extend while moving the hands alternately up

and down, allowing the loops on the TV strings to even themselves. Dis-play with fingers pointing away.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Apache Door’ (Jayne 1906:12-16), a reference to the blanket that many Apaches hang over the front en-trance to their homes as a privacy screen, especially in summer. In step 5, themethod of resetting the double thumb loops differs from that described byJayne (1906:15). Our informants reinserted their thumbs from above ratherthan below. This method was observed numerous times, especially at ManyFarms. As a result the thumb loops lack a full twist in the final design and nolonger match the little finger loops (i.e., the pattern becomes asymmetric).Inadequate loop length may be the cause of this alteration. This figure isdifficult to weave with a loop that is appropriate for most other Navajo fig-ures. If the loop is too short, the maker is forced to remove the double thumbloop with the index tip below it and thumb tip above it (i.e., palm facing up).The only way to reset a loop removed in this manner is to insert the thumbfrom above. Some informants actually untwisted the thumb and little fingerloops after the pattern was formed to given a cleaner looking design. Exam-ples of these can be found in the literature (Pospisil 1932, plates 349,350;and Culin 1907:765, fig. 1045).

Nearly all of our informants called this figure ‘Navajo Rug’ (FK[QI�) or‘Navajo Blanket’ (DGGNFN��), even though the traditional Navajo name for thisfigure is ]GbGUKU, UKU meaning ‘sash’ or ‘woven belt’ (Wall & Morgan 1997).Traditional women’s belts measured four inches wide and were woven on aloom just like blankets (Franciscan Fathers 1910:248-249). At Many Farmswe were told that this string figure represents the Milky Way (]GGb = ‘dirt,ashes’; UKU = ‘belt’ (Young & Morgan 1980); ]GbGUKU = ‘belt of ashes’, areference to a legend in which Coyote steals ash bread and leaves a trail inthe sky, see page 203). Other translations recorded in the literature include‘Small Stomach of a Sheep’ (Franciscan Fathers 1910:489) and ‘Poncho’(Culin 1907:765). Since a poncho (sarape) is nothing more than an ornamen-tal blanket with a slit in it, this translation is consistent with the current inter-pretation of this string figure. The quality and beauty of Navajo blankets isacknowledged worldwide. Today they are equally well known for their finerugs, which they started weaving in the 1890s.


36. Open the Gate Ending to Rug (1, 4)

1. On each side of the figure there are double palmar strings. 2, from the farside, hooks down only the palmar strings at their center. Release the 1loops and the 5 loops but do not extend.

2. 345 enter the 2 loop from the same direction as 2. Extend with palmsfacing the body, 2 pointed upward and 345 pressed against the palm.Two triangles will move in opposite directions.

Notes: A number of other extensions are possible in step 2 (see #34).

37. Flip (Jump Over the Fence, Frog) (1, 3, 4)

1. Opening A.2. 2 removes 1 loop from below.3. 1 enters lower 2 loop from below, passes to the near side of upper 2n,

and hooks it down through lower 2 loop.4. 1, under intervening strings, picks up 5n. Release 5 loop.5. Release 1 loop but do not extend. Allow the ends of the former 1 loop to

hang down. Be careful not to disturb them in step 6.


6. 1 removes upper 2 loop from below. 2345, over 2 loop, enter 1 loopfrom above, hooking down 2f, 2n, and 1f.

7. Apply gentle sideways tension to the strings. Gradually lift TV 1n with2 until the central hanging loops come free and spring back and forth.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is b$VU�bPKKV>QJ� (belly-turn-over). AtMany Farms it was also called ‘Frog.’ When two Navajo men showed thisfigure to Greg Keith they called it ‘Somersault’ (Keith 1994:4-5,9-10).Among the Klamath Indians it represents the setting sun (Jayne 1906:82-84).

38. Hair Tie (1, 3, 4)

1. Opening A.2. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5f.3. R1 and R2 remove the L5 loop and place it without twisting over L1 and

L2. Repeat on the opposite side.4. Pass 1 and 2 down over their palmar strings and into their respective

loops. Extend with palms facing away.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 7UKKV>b��>.It represents the strings used to hold together aman’s or woman’s hair bun (Mitchell 1999:11).Long ago, hair ties were woven on a small loom.They measured roughly two inches wide and resem-bled the garter strings used for fastening leggings(Franciscan Fathers 1910:249). Later, cords ob-tained from traders were also used. The modern hairtie consists of several cords knotted together at eachend. Traditionally, women dressed the hair of bothsexes. If a man was married his wife would form thebun and tie it; if not, his mother or sister performedthe duty (Kluckhohn, Hill, and Kluckhohn1971:267-270).

Hair Tie: Illustrationfrom Newcomb (1967)


39. Golden Eagle (Airplane) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

1. Opening A.2. 2 passes away from the body, over 2f and 5 loop, then down behind the

5 loop, then toward the body under all intervening strings and enters the1 loop from below. 2 catches up 1n and returns to position.

3. Release 1 loop.4. 1 hooks down the lower 2n string, passes under the intervening strings,

picks up 5f, and returns.5. 1 hooks down the upper 2n string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which

slips off. Then 1 moves under the intervening strings and passes upwardon the near side of 5n. Moving toward the center of the figure, 1 catches5n on its back then points downward on the near side of upper 2n(central segment).

6. 1 moves upward and catches on its back the center section of upper 2nand draws it through the 1 loop, which slips off. Release the 2 loops andextend with the fingers pointed away from the body.

Notes: This figure is also known to the Inuit of Alaska (Jayne 1906:362).The Navajo name for this figure is $VU� 1KVUCC� (Golden Eagle). Eagle feath-ers and bones are used in ceremonies. Today this figure has a different name&JKF� 1CCVbCb� (Airplane) (Mitchell 1999:20). In the early 1970s two Navajomen taught it to Greg Keith (1994:4,8-9). They called it ‘Eagle Diving uponits Prey’ or ‘Road Going into the Distance Between Two Mountains.’

40. Upside-Down Golden Eagle (2, 3)

1. Opening A.2. Turn the palms toward the body. 345 hook down the 2 and 1 loops. 5f

becomes a loose string emerging from between 4 and 5.3. 2 passes toward the body in front of all the strings, then away from the

body under the held strings, catches the loose string (5f) on its tip anddraws it to the front of the figure. Release the grip of 345, then releasethe 5 loop. Extend, rotating 2 toward the body and up.


4. 5 hooks down lower 2f, passes under the intervening strings, picks up 1nand returns to the back of the figure.

5. 5 hooks down upper 2f string, passes under the intervening strings andover 1f. 5 pulls 1f back over upper 2f string (central segment) and hooksit down.

6. 5 picks up the upper 2f string where it crosses the 5 loop and draws itthrough the 5 loop, which slips off. Release the 2 loops and extend withthe fingers pointed away from the body.

Notes: The method described here is a reconstruction.

41. Two Diamonds (1, 4)

1. Opening A.2. Release 1 loop. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5f.3. Osage Ending. (1, from below, enters 2 loop near the base of 2. Navajo

1 loops. 2, from above, enters triangle near base of 1. Release 5 loop.Rotate 2 a half turn away from you and extend, palms facing away.)

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Osage Two Diamonds’ (Jayne1906:28-30).


42. Four Diamonds (1)

1. Opening A.2. Release 1 loop. 1, under intervening strings, picks up 5f.3. 1, over 2n, picks up 2f. Release 5 loop.4. 5, over 2n, picks up lower 1f. Release 1 loop.5. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n.6. Osage Ending. (1, from below, enters 2 loop near the base of 2. Navajo

1 loops. 2, from above, enters triangle near base of 1. Release 5 loop.Rotate 2 a half turn away from you and extend, palms facing away.)

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Osage Diamonds’ (Jayne1906:24-27). ‘Two Diamonds’ (#41) and ‘Four Diamonds’ (#42), althoughknown worldwide, were not commonly encountered during our visits to thereservation. This made us question whether they are traditional Navajo fig-ures. However, one informant insisted that she learned them from her mother,and both were photographed by ethnographer Pospisil sometime prior to1932 while working in the American Southwest (Pospisil 1932, plates 351and 352).

43. Six Stars (1, 3)


1. Opening A.2. Release 1 loop.3. 1, under 2 loop, picks up 2f, returns, and hooks down 2n.4. 1, under intervening strings, picks up 5f and pulls it through the loop

originally held by hooked 1. Release 5 loop.5. 5, over 2 loop, picks up 1f.6. Osage Ending. (1, from below, enters 2 loop near the base of 2. Navajo

1 loops. 2, from above, enters triangle near base of 1. Release 5 loop.Rotate 2 a half turn away from you and extend, palms facing outward.)

44. Opposite Hogans (3)

1. Opening A.2. The teeth, from above, pick up the four strings that cross in the center of

the figure and draw them toward the body.3. Release loops from 1 and 2 but do not extend. Pass both hands upward

through the 5 loop while releasing it from 5, thus forming a wrist loop.4. Below the wrist loop three hanging loops are held in the teeth: two

shorter loops and a longer loop. 5 passes over the far wrist string, down,toward the body, and under the long loop. 5 hooks up the free end of thelong loop and returns over the far wrist string, pressing its tip against thepalm to secure the retrieved string.

5. On each hand a string runs from the mouth to the far wrist string. 5 picksup this string, drawing it through the loop hooked down by 5, which slipsoff as 5 is straightened.

6. Release the mouth strings and extend.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two Hogans’ (Jayne 1906:121-123). Our informants at Many Farms did not extend the design by biting thecenter strings and displaying the hogans side-by-side, as described by Jayne.This may have something to do with the mother-in-law avoidance taboo illus-trated by this figure. Mike Mitchell writes: “During early times Navajos werenot allowed to look upon their in-laws. So an in-law would make his or herhouse (hogan) facing the opposite way to prevent any eye contact.” (Mitchell


1999:16). Even today a taboo prohibits two couples from sharing the samehogan (Newcomb 1966:156). The Navajo name for this figure is $>VUb��b+QQIJCP�.

45. Carrying Wood (4)

1. Opening A.2. 1 and 2, pinched together, remove 5 loop from below. Separate 1 and 2.3. Navajo 1 loops and 2 loops.4. A single TV string passes across the upper surface of the design. 1 hooks

down this string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which slips off. Extendwith palms facing away.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Carrying Wood’ (Jayne1906:66-69). The Navajo name for this figure is &JK\J LQQ[�>�. It shows howfirewood was bundled together with ropes in the early days (Mitchell1999:7). In her book Artists in String, K. Haddon explains that the fuel mostcommonly available in the desert is brushwood and small branches, itemswhich are light enough for a human to carry. Navajo women would carry alarge bundle of these on her back, supporting the load with a strap passingover the forehead. The straight strings in the center of this string figure repre-sent the strap. (K. Haddon 1930:48-49).

46. Grinding (2, 3, 4)

1. Opening A.2. Point the fingers away from the body. Grasp 5f with the teeth and draw

it toward the body.3. A second person reaches under the figure from the far side, grasps the

center of 1n and draws it under the figure, away from the body of thefirst person.


4. The first personreleases 1 and 5loops and moves2 alternately tothe side and thecenter, while thesecond personmoves theirhand toward andaway from thefigure producinga sawing action.

Notes: The Navajoname for this two-player game is$LKMb�. It illustratesthe motion involvedin grinding corn.

47. Basket, Version A (7)

1. Opening A.2. 2345 remove 1 loop from above. Allow the 2345f to fall down to a far

wrist position.3. 1 picks up 2345n, thus forming a near wrist string.4. R1, under the near and far wrist strings, enters the 5 loop from below,

catches 5f on its back, and returns by rotating down, toward the body,and up.


5. L1 enters the R1 loop from below and returns to position.6. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5n. 3, over intervening strings, picks

up lower 1f (not the palmar string).7. Release 1 and 5 loops and extend in three dimensions, fingers pointing

upward.

Notes: The native name for this figure is 7UbCCb meaning ‘wicker basket’.

48. Basket, Version B (7)

1. Opening A.2. 2345 remove 1 loop from above. Allow the 2345f to fall down to a far

wrist position.3. 1 picks up 2345n, thus forming a near wrist string.4. 1 passes under the near and far wrist strings and enters the 5 loop from

below. 1 rotates down, toward the body, and up, bringing the former 5fto a 1f position.

5. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5n. 3, over intervening strings, picksup lower 1f (not the palmar string).

6. Release 1 and 5 loops and extend in three dimensions, 1 pointing up,fingers pointing away.

Notes: This figure is also an intermediate stage in the manufacture of #49.

49. Man Standing with Legs Apart (3)

1. Make Basket, Version B.2. 2, from below, removes 3 loop.3. Navajo 2 loops and extend, fingers pointing upward.


A more direct method was occasionally seen:

1. Steps 1 to 4 of Basket, Version B.2. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5n. 2, over intervening strings, picks

up lower 1f. Release 1 and 5 loops.3. Navajo 2 loops and extend, fingers pointing upward.

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is +CUVKKP 6KMbCKb�. It represents aconstellation of great significance to the Navajo (Mitchell 1999:25). +CUVKKP6KMbCKb� stands in the heavens, legs firmly planted, knees slightly bent, righthand raised to his brow, watching over us. When +CUVKKP 6KMbCKb� appears inthe early morning sky it is time to prepare for winter. For a full discussion seepage 204.

50. A Man


1. Opening A.2. R1 and R2 wrap L2n once around L2. L1 and L2 wrap R2n once around

R2.3. R2 picks up the L2 palmar string. L2, through the upper R2 loop, picks

up R2 palmar string. Keep the new loops on the tip of L2 and R2. Thereare now three loops on 2. The 1f string should lead to the middle loop onthe opposite 2 and the highest 2n strings should lead the lowest opposite2n strings. Press 2 and 3 together to keep the 2 loops in their properorder during steps 4, 5, and 6.

4. 2345 remove 1 loop from above. Allow the 2345f to fall down to a farwrist position.

5. 1 picks up 2345n, thus forming a near wrist string.6. 1 passes under both wrist strings, picks up 5f from the far side, and re-

turns to position so that 5f becomes a 1n string. 1 picks up the middleand upper 2n strings close to 2.

7. 3, over the intervening strings, picks up the lowest 1f string close to 1.Release 1, 2, and 5 loops and extend with palms facing each other.

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:184-188). Along loop is required. +CUVKKP 6KMbCKb� ‘Man Standing with Legs Apart’ (#49)appears to be a simplified version of this difficult figure. The name recordedby Jayne is remarkably similar (+CUVKP� F�PP�, meaning ‘Elderly Man’).During our visits we never encountered anyone who could still make Jayne’sversion.

51. Bird (3)

1. Opening A.2. 1, under 2 loop, picks up 5n.3. 2 picks up upper 1f (a palmar string)4. Release 5 loop. Extend.5. Navajo 1 loops and 2 loops.


6. A single TV string passes across the upper surface of the design. 1 hooksdown this string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which slips off. Extendwith palms facing away.

Notes: Bird is a variation of ‘Carrying Wood’ (#45). The Navajo name forthis figure is 7U�FKK. Only one informant knew this figure.

52. Arrow II (2)

1. Opening A.2. Exchange the 2 loops by passing the R2 loop, from above, through the

L2 loop.3. R1, under R2 loop and R5n, picks up R5f and returns.4. Grasp the upper R1 loop with the teeth, remove it, and draw it toward the

body. Release the 5 loop and move the hands away from the body toabsorb the slack.

5. Locate the triangle formed by 1n and the two mouth-2f strings. 1 and 2enter the triangle from above and catch up the mouth- 2f strings as 1 and2 pass toward the body and up on either side of the triangle. Release thestrings from the teeth and extend.

6. Navajo 1 loops and 2 loops. A single TV string passes across the uppersurface of the design. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through the 1loop, which slips off. Extend with palms facing away.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Arrow’ (Jayne 1906:133-137). The Navajo name for this figure is .bCCb. For a description of its cul-tural significance refer to ‘Arrow I’ (#21).


53. Two Stars II

1. Opening A.2. 1 removes 2 loop from below.3. 1 removes 5 loop from below. Keep the loops well separated on 1.4. 4 picks up lower and middle 1f strings.5. 4 hooks down remaining 1f string, drawing it down through the double

4 loop, which slips off. Press 4 against the palm. 5 enters the 4 loop fromthe same direction as 4 and presses against the palm.

6. 1 and 2 pass down through the two upper 1 loops. 1 and 2 then pinch thelower 1n string between them and, rotating away from the body and up,catch that string on the back of 2. Release 1 loops and extend.

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:129-131).This figure was not encountered during our visits. It is widely known amongthe Inuit of Alaska (Jenness 1924:49B-50B) and Indians of the Pacific North-west Coast (Averkieva and Sherman 1992:64-65). The movements requiredin steps 4 and 5 are similar to those found in figures #1, #2, #3, #4, #11, #12,#19, #20, and #65, but opposite in direction (in #53, 1f is hooked down and1n is picked up). The Navajo name for this figure does not appear in Jayne’sbook.

Figures Beginning with a Modification of Opening A

54. Butterfly II (1, 3)

1. Position 1.2. R2, from above, hooks up the L palmar string and draws it to the right

while rotating toward the body and up.3. L2, from above through the R2 loop, hooks up the R palmar string and

draws it to the left while rotating toward the body and up.4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 5, over 2 loop, picks up lower 1f. 2 hooks

down the double palmar sting through the 2 loop close to the palm.


5. Release 1 loops and 5 loops but do not extend.6. 345 enter the 2 loop from the same direction as 2. Extend with palms

facing the body, 2 pointed upward, 345 pressed against the palm.

Notes: An alternative method of extension in step 6 is to pass 1 and 5 into the2 loops from below, release the 2 loops, and extend with the fingers pointingaway from the body. In a third method, 2 rotates away and up, then 1 hooksdown double 2f to widen the loops on 2 (Page and Page 1995:112). Thisinverts the design. The Navajo name for this figure is .bCCN�IKK� It representsan insect “that is only here for the summer” (Mitchell 1999:15). It may repre-sent a constellation as well (see page 207).

55 . Bat (3)

1. Position 1.2. R2, from above, hooks up L palmar string and draws it to the right while

rotating toward the body and up.


3. L2, from above through the R2 loop, hooks up the R palmar string anddraws it to the left while rotating toward the body and up.

4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks uplower 1f. Release 1 loops.

5. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.6. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n




Notes: Both the steps and the appearance of this figure are very similar tothose of ‘Owl II’ (#33). The differences occur in the method and degree ofrotation of the 2 loop during the early steps. The Navajo name for this figureis -CCbCDCP�. Bat is a creature of darkness (Mitchell 1999:31). In sandpaint-ings he guards the eastern opening of the design and is added last (Griffin-Pierce 1992a:182). Bat’s power, though moderately disguised, is incalcula-ble. He has the ability to be everywhere all the time: there is no place hecannot go. For this reason he is a good monitor, able to give warnings andsuggest methods of escape (Reichard 1977:16). In Navajo folk tales Bat iscranky and carries a grudge. He is teased by birds and by mice: he acts like abird but has no feathers; he looks like a mouse but can fly. His name means‘buckskin ears’ (Newcomb 1967:96-97).

56. Owl III (3)


1. Position 1.2. R2, from above, hooks up L palmar string and draws it to the right while

rotating toward the body and up.3. L2, from above through the R2 loop, hooks up the R palmar string and

draws it to the left while rotating toward the body and up.4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks up



7. Navajo 2 loops.8. 1 picks up 2n. Navajo 1 loops9. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f near the palmar surface of 1. 1


Notes: This figure combines the early steps of ‘Bat’ (#56) with the endingsteps of ‘Star with Horns’ (#27). The outermost loops encircling the uppertransverse string represent the owl’s ears. See #10 for a description of Owl inNavajo folk tales.

57. Owl IV

1. Position 1.2. R2, from above, hooks up L palmar string, draws it to the right, and

rotates toward the body and up and then rotates a complete turn in thesame direction.

3. L2, from below, picks up R palmar string to the near side of R2 loop.


4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks uplower 1f. Release 1 loops.

5. 1, over 2n and under intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop.6. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n




Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:53-54), whereit is the first of three owls. The final steps of this figure are identical to thoseof ‘Many Stars’ (#23). See #10 for a description of Owl in Navajo folk tales.

58. Frog (3)

1. Position 1.2. Rotate RH one full turn by pointing

the RH fingers away from the body,down, toward the body and up, thusputting a twist in the center of thefigure (allow R1 and R5 to slidefreely within the loop during the ro-tation).

3. R2 picks up L palmar string. L2,through R2 loop, picks up R palmarstring.

4. 1 and 345 pass though the 2 loopfrom below. Allow the former 2loop to fall onto the back of thewrist.

5. 1 picks up 5n. 5 picks up lower 1f.6. Pass L1, from above, to the near

side of the near wrist string, thenunder all the strings and raise it onthe far side of the figure.

7. Grasp the two original L1 loops onthe far side of L1 with R1 and R2and remove them from L1 but con-tinue to hold them in the same posi-tion. L1 passes under the figure andto the near side, then over the figure


and reenters the former 1 loops from above.8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 on the opposite side of the figure.9. Release the wrist loop and extend while moving the hands alternately up

and down so that the loops distribute themselves evenly. Display verti-cally, one hand above the other.

Notes: This is a simple variation of ‘Rug’(#35). Because of the twist intro-duced in step 2 the pattern is hour-glass shaped rather than rectangular. TheMaricopa figure called ‘Turtle’ in Culin’s book appears to be the same (Culin1907:776, fig. 1066). The Navajo name for frog is EJb�>. In sandpaintingsfrog, like bat, represents a guardian (Newcomb et al., 1956:22). In Navajofolk tales, Frog is credited with the creation of rain: after soaking up all thewater in his swamp, he used it to put out forest fires while Crane carried himin a harness made of lily roots (Newcomb 1967:151-161).

59. Drum (1, 3, 7)

1. Suspend a loop on the L wrist.Give the free end a half twistand place it on the R wrist.Each wrist now has a loop on it.The strings in the center cross.

2. Grasp the near L wrist stringwith the RH and wrap the stringonce around the L wrist. Repeaton the R wrist.

3. 1 and 5 pick up the oppositewrist string (the one thatcrosses the palmar surface) sothat the string on each hand re-sembles position 1.

4. 2 picks up the opposite palmarstring as in opening A. Extend.Display vertically, one handabove the other.

Notes: This realistic three-dimensional figure is quite popular among Navajochildren. In step 1, some omit the half twist while others complete a full twist.The Navajo name for this figure is �UCCb. Drums are important ceremonialinstruments among all Native Americans.

60. Rocket (3)

1. Grasp one end of a loop in the teeth.


2. Insert 1 and 5, away from you, into the hanging portion of loop to givePosition 1.

3. Opening A (pick up opposite palmar strings with 2).4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n.5. 5, over 2 loop picks up lower 1f.6. 2 hooks down double palmar strings through 2 loop.7. Release double 1 loop and double 5 loop, then pull in opposite direc-

tions the double palmar string hooked under 2. As you separate thehands the original loop on 2 will slip off. Widen 2 loop by inserting 345into it from the same direction as 2. Display with 2345 hooked down,design centered over your chest.

Notes: This figure is a variation of ‘Open the Gate’ (#34). If, in step 1, theloop is placed over the neck instead of held in the teeth, then the resultingfigure is called ‘Bra’.

Figures Beginning with Other Openings

61. Measuring Worm (2)

1. Place an untwisted loop around L1 and R1.2. 2, over 1f, picks up 1n. R1 picks up the L1n-L2n string. Extend.3. The teeth grasp the lower R1 loop, Navajo it, and extend it toward the

body.4. 345, under 2 loop, enter the 1 loop from below. 345 pass over 1f and 2n


then under 2f and hook 2f down through the 1 loop.5. Release the loop from the teeth and extend.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘A Second Worm’ (Jayne1906:299-301).The Navajo name for this figure is :�UJK[KUJ�, meaning‘Inch Worm’ or ‘Measuring Worm’. The measuring worm walks by bendingthen straightening out again. (Mitchell 1999:24). The angled figure in thecenter of the design represents a bent worm. Measuring Worm is also a con-stellation (Newcomb et al. 1956:26).

62. Five-Pointed Star (2, 3)

1. Place an untwisted loop around 1 and 2.2. R1 and R2, from above and from the left, catch the L dorsal string and

draw it to the right between L1 and L2 while rotating a half turn towardthe body and up.

3. Repeat step 2 on the right side with L1 and L2 catching the lower dorsal


string. At this stage you have formed a figure resembling the Soldier’sBed stage of Cat’s Cradle.

4. 5, over intervening strings, picks up lower 1f. Release 1 loops.5. 1 picks up both 2n strings to widen the double 2 loop. Extend with fin-

gers spread and pointing away from the body.

Notes: Steps 2-3 are similar to steps 3-4 of ‘Two Arrowheads’ (#65). In sand-paintings five-pointed stars are rare — most have four points. Newcomb sug-gests that they were introduced recently, possibly adopted from stars in theAmerican flag (Newcomb et al. 1956:25). Among the Navajo the numberfive is rather ambivalent: it is associated with witchcraft but can also be usedto cure the effects of witchcraft (Reichard 1950:244-247).

63. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version A (2, 3)

1. Place an untwisted loop around L1, L5, and R5.2. R1 and R2 pass behind the L palmar string from above and hook it to the

right about 3 inches to create L1f and L5n strings; Separate R1 from R2and return them to an upright position, picking up L1f on the back of R1and L5n on the back of R2 in the process. Extend forming L1f-R1f andL5n-R2n strings over an R1n-R2f palmar string.

3. L2 passes to the far side of R2n, enters the tight R2 loop from below, andmoves to the left forming an L2f-R2f string.

4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks uplower 1f.

5. Release 1 and 5 loops but do not extend. 4 and 5 hook down 2f while 1picks up 2n. Spread the 2 loop and extend gently to create a three-dimensional figure.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Bird’s Nest’ (Jayne


1906:314-317). An alternative extension was observed at Many Farms. Afterreleasing the 1 and 5 loops in step 5, 1 hooks down 2f to create a three-dimensional figure (5 does not participate in the extension). The figure wasextended loosely with 2 pointing upward, 1 and 3 pointing away, 4 and 5against the palm. The Navajo name for this figure is 7U�FKKVbQJ�. Otherscalled it 7UbCCb meaning ‘basket’ or ‘bowl’.

64. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version B (3)

1. Steps 1 to 3 of Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version A.2. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 5, over 2 loop, picks up lower 1f.3. 2 enters double 5 loop from above and hooks up 2f (a TV string).4. Release 1 loops. Extend sharply.5. 1 hooks down lower 2n, thus extending the figure in three dimensions

(thumbs hooked to the palm, fingers pointing away from you).

Notes: Unlike version A (#63), this nest does not require a loose extension:the figure retains its three-dimensionality under tension. If, in step 5, 1 picksup (rather than hooks down) 2n, a deeper nest is formed.

65. Two Arrowheads (2)


1. Place an untwisted loop around 1 and 2 and maintain lateral tension onthe loop during the following moves.

2. 1 passes over 2f. 1 and 2 point first away from the body, then down, thentoward the opposite hand and up, each catching a TV string on its back.You now have 1f and 2n TV strings which pass over short palmarstrings.

3. R1 and R2 move left over the L palmar string then downward, catchingthe L palmar string on their tips. R1 and R2 draw the L palmar string tothe right, and rotate with it toward the body and upward.

4. Repeat on the opposite side using L1 and L2, passing these fingers downthrough the upper loop shared by R1 and R2 before retrieving the Rpalmar string.

5. Touch the tips of 1 and 2 together. Plunge them down through the centerof the figure on either side of the central X, then point them away fromthe body and up. Separate their tips, but do not extend. 1 removes 2 loopfrom below. Keep the strings loose.

6. Pass 2 through the upper 1 loop from above. 2 picks up the lower 1fstring next to 1 and draws it up through the upper loop.

7. There are two 1n strings, one is a TV string. 4 enters the 1 loops frombelow and hooks down the non-TV string. 3 then enters the 4 loop fromthe same direction and hooks down the 1n TV string, drawing it throughthe 4 loop, which is released.

8. Release 1 loop and extend.

Notes: Step 2 is a bit hard to follow unless you have seen it done. Readersshould refer to figs. 690 and 691 in Jayne’s book for assistance. Steps 1-5resemble steps used in making ‘Brush House’, a Pueblo Indian figurerecorded by Jayne (1906:301-306). Steps 6-8 are borrowed from ‘Two StarsI’ (#1). The Navajo name for this figure is %��UJ aCUVbQIKK aC>VUb��b UKPKN�,literally ‘Flint Arrowheads in Opposite Directions Lying’. According toMike Mitchell, opposite arrowheads represent protection (Mitchell 1999:6).The name given at Many Farms was .bCCb C>VUb�� [KNYQ>�, literally ‘Arrowsin Opposite Directions Running Away.’

66. Sweathouse (Sweatlodge, Hogan) (3, 4)

1. Place the loop over L23 and allow the other end to hang down. L palmfaces the body.

2. From the left side pass R2 under L2n and slide it up along the L palmuntil its tip is between L2 and L3. R2 hooks down the L dorsal string,drawing it down as far as possible until the hanging loop is fully ab-sorbed. Release the R2 loop, allowing it to hang freely. L2f and L3n arecrossed by a short palmar string (L2n-L3f) before becoming segments ofthe hanging loop.


3. With L palm facing you, RH enters thehanging loop from the far side; R2 entersthe small L3 loop from above, then thesmall L2 loop from below, catching theshort L3n and L2f strings on its tip. Drawthese strings down through the hangingloop as far as possible until the hangingloop is fully absorbed. Return hands tonormal position (L palm facing left).Hooked R2 points toward the body.

4. R345 enter the R2 loops from the farside. Press R2345 against the palm.

5. There are now two upper and two lowerstrings grasped in the RH. Near the LHthe strings pass through a tight loop thatresembles a knot. To the right of thatloop, L1 picks up the lower near stringwhile L5 picks up the lower far string.

6. The RH releases its loops. R1 and R2grasp the string which forms the tightloop and draw it upward. Display the fig-ure vertically, RH above LH.

Notes: This figure is known to most Navajochildren. In Jayne’s book this figure is called‘One Hogan’ but she is mistaken in claimingthat a hogan is a tent. The ancient hogan (JQQIJCP), called a “male” hoganby the Navajos, was a conical hut constructed from three forked poles cov-ered with logs, brush, and mud. More common today is the “female” hogan,a circular or six-sided dwelling constructed of logs or stone. Both have asmoke hole and the doorway always faces east. A fire is built on the hard-packed dirt beneath the smoke hole. A flap or hinged door protects the occu-pants from the weather. Navajo ceremonies can only be conducted in a hogan(Locke 1992:13).

The preferred Navajo name for this figureis 7�EJ��J, meaning ‘Sweatlodge’. Thesweatlodge is a small-scale hogan madespecifically for males. (Mitchell 1999:12). Itresembles the old-style male hogan but lacksa smoke hole and is practically airtight. It isheated with hot rocks. Several blankets sealthe door. In a land of scarce water, the sweat-lodge provides excellent bathing and purify-ing facilities (Locke 1992:14).

Sweatlodge illustrationfrom Franciscan Fathers

(1910)


67. Unnamed (3)

1. Suspend the loop between the wrists.2. 5 picks up the near wrist string. 1, from below, picks up far wrist string.3. R2 picks up the two L palmar strings where they cross. L2, through the

R2 loops, picks up the two R palmar strings where they cross.4. Using the opposite hand, release the wrist loops and extend to give a

rounded figure (see illustration).5. Release 2 loops and extend. Two triangles will move in opposite direc-

tions.

Notes: This figure is also known among the Quinault Indians of the OlympicPeninsula in Washington (Olson 1936). Its method closely resembles theKlamath Indian figure ‘Two Boys Fighting for an Arrow’ (Jayne 1906:317-320).

68. Unraveling (Train) (1, 7)

1. Hold LH with palm facing the body, fingers pointing to the right. Pass aloop over the five fingers of the LH so that it rests on the left thumbnail.The front hanging string is a palmar string; the back hanging string is adorsal string.

2. R2 passes in front of the palmar string, then behind it from left to right;R2 then passes between L1 and L2 and to the right of the dorsal string,where it catches the dorsal string and draws it toward the body a shortdistance until R2 is once again in front of the palmar string.

3. R2 points upward and then to the right. Touch the tip of R2 to the tip ofL2 and slide the R2 loop onto L2.

4. R2 passes in front of the palmar string, then behind the palmar stringfrom left to right; R2 then passes between L2 and L3 and to the right ofthe dorsal string, where it catches the dorsal string and draws it towardthe body a short distance until R2 is once again in front of the palmarstring.


5. R2 points upward and then to the right. Touch the tip of R2 to the tip ofL3 and slide the R3 loop onto L3.

6. In a similar manner continueworking down the LH placingloops on L4 and L5. Release theloop from L1 and draw the pal-mar string downward freeing thestring from the LH.

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure iscalled ‘The Mouse’ (Jayne 1906:340-343). The Navajo name for this figureis :QQNV��F, meaning ‘Unraveling’.Unraveling is the name of a healingceremony in which knots in a stringare quickly undone to relieve the pa-tient of sickness (Mitchell 1999:9).Unraveling cords are found in the sa-cred bundles (LKUJ) of nearly everymedicine man (Page and Page1995:125). The common name forthis figure is1�bL�>MCF or ‘Train’.

69. Bull Snake (5)

1. With LH fingers pointing upward, L palm facing to the right, hang a loopon L5.

2. Pass R2, from below, into the L5 loop. Pinch the RH fingers together totrap L5n and rotate the R hand a three-quarter turn, R2345 moving downover L5f and then toward the body. L1 picks up L5n just before L5npasses between R2 and R3 (i.e., the segment to the right of the twist).Release RH strings. From the near side and from below, pick up L1nwith R1 and R5, and extend. You now have Position 1 on both hands,but the L5 loop has a full twist at its base (as if you did <<L5).


3. R2 picks up L palmar string.4. L1, under L5n, picks up L5f.5. L4, over L palmar string, picks up lower L1f.6. Release double L1 loop.7. L1, from below, enters the L4 loop, passes over L4f and L5n, and picks

up L5f, returning through the L4 loop.8. L1 hooks down L4n; catch this string on its back by rotating L1 toward

the body and up (the original L1 loop will slip off in the process).9. With fingers pointing away from you, release the R2 loop and extend

slowly, allowing string to slip through fingers of the L hand. The snakewill slither to the left.

Notes: If the initial L5 loop twist is done in the wrong direction, the head ofthe snake will encircle the lower transverse string and the snake will fail toslither. In the photos of this figure in Barre Toelken’s book (The Dynamicsof Folklore, 2nd edition), the informant releases the L4 loop before extend-ing. The Navajo name for this figure is 7>bKKUJ. Bull (Garter) Snakes oftenappear in sandpaintings, mainly those of the Apacheway ceremony (Mitchell1999:14). They are also called FK[��UJ “noiseless snakes” because they lacka rattle (Franciscan Fathers 1910:155).

70. Ribs (3)

1. Hold one end of a loop in the teeth. Pass one hand through the loop andclasp the hands together so that the fingers cross each other at a 90 de-gree angle. One segment of the hanging loop is now trapped between thearms. Move the the untrapped segment so that it hangs down between theinterlocking fingers, with 5 fingers on each side of the segment. Pointfingers upward and release the loop from the teeth. A segment of the


loop now rests in the crevice formed by the interlocking fingers. The restof the loop hangs freely, passing between the arms.

2. Carefully separate the hands so that each finger catches a segment of thecrevice string and loops begin to form on each finger. When the handsare fully separated and all the string is absorbed, you should have a se-ries of 9 TV strings passing between the fingers, like rungs of a ladder.Assuming that the hands were clasped with L1 uppermost (see notes),the TV strings will be L1f to R1n, L2n to R1f, and so on down to L5n toR4f, L5f to R5n. When viewed with fingers pointing upward, the R5fstring passes diagonally under all the other strings up to L1n.

3. To facilitate the description, number the nine TV strings 1 through 9,with 1 being the nearest string. The nine TV strings can now be woventoward the body or away from the body. To weave toward the body: R1and R2, over all strings, grasp string 9 near the L hand and draw it to-wards the body over string 8; release string 9 and grasp string 8, drawingit toward the body over the released string and string 7; release string 8and grasp string 7, drawing it toward the body over the released stringand string 6. Continue in this fashion until R1 and R2 hold string 1.Place that string over R1 and extend the figure. To weave away from thebody: R1 and R2 grasp string 1 near the L hand and carry it away fromthe body over string 2; release string 1 and grasp string 2, carrying itaway from the body over the released string and string 3; release string2 and grasp string 3, carrying it away from body over the released stringand string 4. Continue in this fashion until R1 and R2 hold string 9.Place that string over L5 and extend.

Notes: There are a number of variations of this figure. Some informants donot pass one hand through the loop before clasping their hands together instep 1. As a result, the oblique string that runs beneath the finished designcrosses the back of one hand instead.


Also, a smaller loom is sometimes formed by catching the loops on fingers 2through 5 only. The weaving process is sometimes done by a second person.Furthermore, the direction of weaving varies, as indicated in step 3. Theabove descriptions assume that L1 folds over R1 when the hands are claspedtogether in step 1. Not everyone folds their hands this way: some fold theirhands so that R1 folds over L1. This is, in fact, a genetically determined trait(try doing it opposite of the way you normally do it — it will feel very un-comfortable). If you are one of those people who fold their hands with R1over L1, then adjust the above instructions to account for that. The Navajoname for this figure is �VU��b. Ribs represent bodily strength. They protect allthat is vital to the body (Mitchell 1999:30).

International Figures

These figures are known in many parts of the world. It is not clear how longthe Navajo have known them.

71. Bottom (2) (Wirt 1996:77)72. Finger Trick (7) (Averkieva and Sherman 1992:131-132)73. Hand Escape (7) (Jayne 1906:337-339)74. Cut the Neck (7) (Wirt 1998:139-140)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the following individuals who assisted us during ourvisits to Navajoland: Imogene Singer, Ella Chee, Roberta Cly, Alfred Johns,Bessie Holiday, Linda Litsui, Frances Shepherd, Greg Holiday, Pat Denny,Don Mose, Matthew Nelson, Alberta Freddy, Roderick Natani, Ryan Chee,Shannon Denetsosie, Christopher Wright, Lonnie Deswood, Laverne Jones,Ella Wagner, Dr. Robert Roessel, Ruth Roessel, Delray Redhair, Inez Nez,Mike Mitchell, Char Tullie, Marshall Natonabah, Marcie Slim, Pauline Hal-wood, Ben Davis, John Roanhorse, and the Billy Family (Cornelius, Wyona,Hershel, and Anna). We also wish to thank David Titus for supplying themulti-colored string loops we offered to informants as small gifts for theirhospitality.

LITERATURE CITED

Averkieva J. and Sherman, M. (1992) Kwakiutl String Figures. Seattle: University ofWashington Press.

Culin, S. (1907) “Games of the North American Indians.” 24th Annual Report of theBureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D.C. (Reprinted 1992, Lincoln: Uni-versity of Nebraska Press.)

Dyk, W. (1938) Son of Old Man Hat. New York: Harcourt Brace.


Foster, G.M. (1941) “String Figure Divination.” American Anthropologist (n.s.)43:126-127.

Franciscan Fathers. (1910) An Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language. St.Michael’s, Arizona: St. Michael’s Press.

Gifford, E.W. (1940) “Culture Element Distributions. XII: Apache-Pueblo.” Anthro-pological Records 4(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Haddon, A.C. (1903) “A Few American String Figures and Tricks.” American An-thropologist (n.s.) 5(2):213-223.

Haddon, K. (1930) Artists in String. London: Methuen & Co.Haddon, K. (1942) String Games for Beginners. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Heffer.Haile, B. (1947) Starlore among the Navaho. Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremo-

nial Art.Haile, B. (1949) “Navaho or Navajo?” Reprinted in: Tales of an Endishodi: Father

Berard Haile and the Navajos. (Ed. M. Bodo). 1998. Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press.

Jayne, C.F. (1906) String Figures. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. (Reprinted1962 as String Figures and How to Make Them. New York: Dover Publications).

Jenness, D. (1924) “Eskimo String Figures.” Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedi-tion 1913-1918. vol. 13, part B. Ottawa: F.A. Acland.

Keith, G. (1994) “The Presence of String in the Post-Modern World.” Bulletin of theInternational String Figure Association 1:1-11

Klah, H. (1942) Navajo Creation Myth: The Story of Emergence. Recorded by MaryC. Wheelwright. Navajo Religion Series, vol. 1. Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Cer-emonial Arts.

Kluckhohn, C., Hill, W.W., and Kluckhohn, L.W. (1971) Navaho Material Culture.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Locke, R.F. (1992) The Book of the Navajo. 5th Ed. Los Angeles: Mankind Publish-ing Co.

Mitchell, Mike. (1999) Navajo String Games. Chinle, Arizona: Rough Rock NavajoStudies Press.

Newcomb, F.J. (1967) Navaho Folk Tales. Santa Fe: Museum of Navaho CeremonialArt.

Newcomb, F.J. (1966) Navaho Neighbors. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Newcomb, F.J., Fishler, S. and Wheelwright, M.C. (1956) “A Study of Navajo Sym-

bolism.” Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, HarvardUniversity, vol. 32, no. 3. Cambridge: Peabody Museum Press.

Olson, R. (1936) “The Quinault Indians.” University of Washington Publications inAnthropology 6(1):137-139.

Pospisil, F. (1932) Ethnologické Materialie z Jihozápadu USA. Brno: AkciováMoravská Knihtiskárna.

Reichard, G. (1950) Navaho Religion: A Study of Symbolism. Bollingen Series 18.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Reichard, G.A. (1977) Navajo Medicine Man Sandpaintings. New York: Dover Pub-lications (reprint of 1939 edition entitled Navajo Medicine Man)

Toelken, B. (1979) The Dynamics of Folklore. 1st Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.Toelken, B. (1996) The Dynamics of Folklore. 2nd Ed (revised and expanded), Lo-

gan, Utah: Utah State University Press.Wirt, W. (1996) “String Figures from Guyana.” Bulletin of the International String

Figure Association 5:126-149.


Wirt, W. (1998) “String Figures from China and Tibet.” Bulletin of the InternationalString Figure Association 5:126-149.

Young, R.W., and Morgan, W. (1980) The Navajo Language: A Grammar and Col-loquial Dictionary. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

CROSS INDEX

There are several interesting reports of Navajo string games in the literaturethat do not include construction methods. Some of these only mention thetitles of various Navajo string games, whereas other include illustrations ofthem. Most of the illustrated string figures correspond to figures in our col-lection. These are identified below (see numbers in parentheses). In addition,nearly all of the string game titles recorded by others correspond to figures inour collection, but since no illustration is provided their true identity remainsunconfirmed. Probable candidates are likewise listed below. Please note thatfor Navajo names, the authors’ original orthography has been simplified.

Tozzer, in Haddon (1903) - List only

Man, dénné (#50)Sternum with ribs, ai-yít (#17, #18)Woman’s Belt, sís (#35)Carrying Wood, chiz-jó-yét-lí (#45)Bow, atl-ti (#5)Arrow, ka (#21, #52)Hogan, hogan (#66)Two Hogans, naki-hogan, atl-sa-hogan (#44)Sand-painting Figure, kos-shis-chi (#14)Coyote (prarie wolf), ma-í (?)Owl, nas-ja (#10, #33, #56, #57)Bird’s nest, a-to (#63, #64)Horned Toad, na-a-sho-í-di-chízi (#20)Butterfly, ga-hí-kí (#13, #54)Star, so-a-hinatlsan-ntí-í (?)Large Star, son-so (#2, #29, #30)Two Stars, son-bí-teré (#1, #53)Many Stars, son-tlani (#23)Lightning, atsiníl-klish (#6, #7, #8)

Culin (1907) - Drawings

Fig. 1035: Lightning, atsinlt’lish (#6, #7, #8)Fig. 1036: Big Star, sûtso (#31, upside down)Fig. 1037: Many Stars, sô’ lani (#23)


Fig. 1038: Twin Stars, sô ahóts’ii (#19)Fig. 1039: Horned Stars, sô bide’ huloni (#27, upside down)Fig. 1040: Pleiades, dilyehe (#32, upside down)Fig. 1041: Coyotes Running Apart, mâ’i alts’ âyilaghuli (#28)Fig. 1042: Owl, nashja (#33, #55, #56, turned sideways)Fig. 1043; Snake, t’lish (#69)Fig. 1044: Horned Toad, nashúi dich’izhi (#20)Fig. 1045: Poncho, lesis (#35, loops untwisted)Fig. 1046: Hogan, hoghan (#66, #44)Fig. 1047: Carrying Wood, chizh joyeli (#45)Fig. 1048: Carrying Wood, chizh joyeli (#45)

Franciscan Fathers (1910) - List only

Morning or Evening Star, sôtso (#2, #29, #30)Feet Ajar, hastqín sak’aí (#49)Pleiades, dilyéhe (#15, #32)Many Stars, sô láni (#23)Pinching Stars, sôhóts’i (#19)The Horned Star, sô bidé huloni (#27)Snake, tl’ish (#20, #69)Coyote, má’i (?)Coyotes running in opposite directions, má’i alts’áyilaghúli (#28)Horned Toad, nashúi dich’ízhi (#20)The Owl, naéeshja (#10, #33, #56, #57)Zigzag Lightning, atsínltl’ish (#6, #7, #8)Bow, altqí (#5)Arrow, k’a’ (#21, #52)Cloud Effect, k’os’ishchín (#14)Nest, at’ó’ (#63, #64)A Single Hogan, hoghán dalaí sa’á (#66)Double Hogan, alts’áhoghán (#44)A Man, diné (#50)Wood Carrier, chízh joyéli (#45)A Woman’s Belt, sis (#35)Small Stomach of a Sheep, lésis (#35?)Sternum with Ribs, ayíd (#17, #18)A Standing Tooth, who sezíni (#9)A Bent Tooth, whoshiyíshi (#61)

Pospisil (1932) - Photographs (no captions)

Fig. 345 (#20)Fig. 346 (?)


Fig. 347 (?)Fig. 348 (#32)Fig. 349 (#35, loops untwisted)Fig. 350 (#35, loops partially untwisted)Fig. 351 (#42)Fig. 352 (#41)Fig. 353 (#7)Fig. 354 (#46)Fig. 355 (Jayne’s ‘Brush House’?)Fig. 356 (?)

Kluckhohn, Hill, Kluckhohn (1971) - Photographs and List

PhotographsFig. 259a, Two Cloud Peaks (#15)Fig. 259b, Many Stars (#23)Fig. 259c, Arrow (#52)Fig. 259d, Bird’s Nest (#63)Fig. 259e, Two Coyotes Running Apart (#28)Fig. 259f, Owl (?)Fig. 259g, First Hogan (#66)Fig. 259h, Lightning (#6)

Games mentioned in text onlyBreastbone (#17, #18)Attached Stars (#19)Star with Horns (#27)Butterfly (#13, #54)Three Cloud Peaks (#16)

Toelken (1979) - Photographs (some mislabeled)

Fig. 29 (#35)Fig. 30 (#23)Fig. 31 (#27)Figs. 32-36 (#34)Figs. 77-82 (Cat’s cradle)

Toelken (1996) - Photographs

Pages 119-123 (#23, Cat’s Cradle, #69).

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