'" CARD 31 RED ADMIRAL BUTTERFLY '.,~ "'" GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS \...~\

CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS & SPECIES Insecta Lepidoptera Nympha/idae Vanessa atalanta

The red admiral butterfly belongs to the vanessid group of butterflies. They are among the largest and most colorful butterflies

that inhabit the northern temperate regions of the world.

KEY FACTS CHARACTERISTICS Wingspan: 2-3 in. Coloration: Red, black, and white. Legs: Front legs, stumps covered in brushes. Only uses rear two pairs

of legs for walking.

BREEDING Breeding season: Spring. Eggs: 1-100 per day. Egg to chrysalis: 4-7 days. Chrysalis to pupation: 2-3 weeks.

LIFESTYLE Diet: Mainly nectar of plants such as nettle, wild daisy, and clover. Also feeds on rotting fruit. lifespan: About 10 months.

RELATED SPECIES Vast number of different vanessid (genus Vanessa) species including painted ladies, peacock butterfly, commodore butterfly, tortoiseshell

butterfly, and pansy butterfly.

• Range of the red admiral butterfly.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout North America, Europe, North Africa, and parts of Central America and the Middle East.

CONSERVATION The vanessids (genus Vanessa) are among the least endan­gered of butterflies, especially because they feed on plants that man encourages to grow.

1. The red admiral butterfly is easily recognized by its distinctive markings. It lays its eggs, one at a time, on leaves.

2. Each caterpillar pulls its leaf around itself to form a protective enclosure. The leaf is held closed by silken threads.

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3. During the late summer and early fall, the chrysalis hangs from the stem of its food plant. When the butterfly finally emerges, winter is approaching. Some species can survive the cold in hibernation, but the red admiral butterfly cannot.

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Vanessa butterflies are found

~ DEVELOPMENT The female red admiral but­terfly lays her eggs on a wide range of food plants. She generally chooses the leaves of the nettle, or occasionally those of the hop plant, on which to lay her eggs. Each egg is laid singly and placed on the top surface of the leaf.

When the eggs hatch, the caterpillars pull the leaves around them to form a pro­tective enclosure. They then spin silken threads around themselves to serve as protec­tion from predators as they feed .

Once they are fully grown, the caterpillars move to a hidden spot on the plant, usually near the base of a leaf

I f\:"] _____ th_ro_u_g_h_o_u_t _m_u_ch_of_t_h_e_w_o_r_ld_. ____ ~ NATUREWATCH

Besides the red admiral butterfly, this group Red admiral butterflies are a common sight in yards and

includes the tortoiseshell, painted lady, vacant lots. Planting late-

peacock, Camberwell beauty, blooming, nectar-rich flowers is a sure way of attracting the

and comma butterflies. butterflies to your yard, as

by its stem, where they shed their skins and pupate (go through a non-feeding stage of development). The cocoon they spin (chrysalis) has gold-

natural supplies of food are scarce at that t ime. They are also attracted to nettles.

Inspect leaves of favorite plants from May onward for eggs.

colored markings. The chrysalises of other

vanessid butterflies often resemble the surfaces on which they rest.

Left: An egg about to hatch. The female lays up to 100 eggs per day.

DID YOU KNOW? • When red admiral butter­flies migrate, they fly at five to nine miles per hour. • The red admiral butterfly's name comes from the word admirable-it was admired for its bright coloration . • Five of the most common vanessids depend on the nettle plant as their primary source of food. • The painted lady, Cynthia

cardui, is the world's most common butterfly and one of the most w idely distributed insects on earth . • Tortoiseshell and peacock caterpillars rise up and face their predators to intimidate them.

The red admiral caterpillar a strong flyer and only the

I has spiky extensions on its most agile birds can catch it body that deter most birds, in flight. When it is resting,

I except the cuckoo, from the butterfly conceals itself attacking them. Still, they from view by closing its are very vulnerable to attack colorful wings. Still, the

J by parasitic wasps and flies. markings on its upper wings

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The red admiral butterf~is remainv~ible.

~ FOOD & FEEDING ~ MIGRATION & HIBERNATION The red admiral butterfly feeds mainly on flower nectar. It also feeds on nettles and clover in the spring and summer, as well as on common flowers such as buddleia, Michaelmas daisy, and ice plant.

It particularly likes daisies of the family Asteraceae because each flower contains a high concentration of nectar.

The red admiral butterfly also feeds on ivy flowers and the juice of rotting fruit such as apples, which it shares with

wasps and other vanessids (genus Vanessa).

All vanessid butterflies have special taste organs located in their feet, but those of the red admiral butterfly are espe­cially sensitive. The organs can distinguish between water and a sugar solution that is so weak that a person cannot tell the difference.

Top: A red admiral butterfly rests on a leaf.

Right: Painted lady butterfly.

Although the red admiral butterfly is commonly seen in temperate areas, it is actu­ally a migrant from the Medi­terranean regions of Europe and from Guatemala and the Antilles in the western hemi­sphere. It flies north each spring and lays its eggs when it arrives at its breeding grounds. The offspring re­main at the breeding grounds through summer and into the cold winter.

Like the painted lady, which

also migrates, the red admiral butterfly seems to lack the instinct to return south as cold weather approaches. In the winter it attempts to hibernate in tree hollows, rocky crevices, or among plant debris, but the cold weather soon kills it.

Some vanessids are heartier than the red admiral butter­fly. The peacock, small tortoiseshell, and comma butterflies, for example, all survive the winter.

",,---~~I A~R_M_Y_A_N_T ________ ~ ________ ~~~

_ GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS -.-~ ORDER FAMILY GENUS Hymenoptera Formicidae fciton

The lives of army ants differ from those of most other ants. These nomadic hunters roam from one temporary nest to another and

devour any small creature in their path.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: Up to 1 in . Coloration: Dark brown to black.

Mouthparts: Large, powerful, pincerlike jaws. Wings: Only on male.

BREEDING

Eggs: Up to 120,000 laid during each stationary phase.

Larval development: 23-33 days. Pupation: 10-15 days.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Lives in colonies; nomadic. Diet: Small animals that colony subdues, such as insects, baby birds, and snakes.

RELATED SPECIES

There are about a dozen species within the genus fciton. Together with African driver ants and several other genera, they make up the subfamily Dorylinae.

Range of army ants.

DISTRIBUTION

Found from southern Mexico to tropical South America and as far north as the Mississippi valley. Related species occur in India and Malaysia.

CONSERVATION Army ants are abundant and widespread in many parts of their range. They are considered a nuisance when their colonies meet human settlements.

FEATURES OF SOLDIER ARMY ANTS

Guard duty: As a colony moves through the forest during its migratory phase, soldier ants guard the sides of the column.

Soldier ants: The size and appearance of each ant depends on the role it plays in the colony. A soldier ant is twice the size of a worker or winged male. It also has a paler head and larger jaws.

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than soldiers, work­ers make up the bulk of the colony. They pass food down the column, construct temporary nests, and attend to the needs of the queen.

Jaws: A soldier ant is armed with large, inward-growing jaws. Its deadly sting is used to overpower prey and predators.

0160200371 PACKET 37

A colony of army ants on the march

is an awe-inspiring sight. Hundreds of thousands

of individual ants form a highly organized procession.

Though sometimes feared, these ants

are of little danger to humans-

as long as people step aside and let them pass.

~ HABITS

Army ants live in the lowland forests of Central and South America. They are unusual among social insects in that they lead nomadic lives. Each colony contains hundreds of thousands of ants. Most are workers, and there are also soldier ants. The central figure in the colony is the queen, who lays all the eggs.

The colony's activities are based on a 30- to 40-day cycle that is divided into a migratory and a stationary phase. During a migratory phase the colony marches daily and rests at night, sometimes in nests formed by the workers' bodies. The ants grip each other with their legs and jaws to form long chains. These chains in-

terweave into a net that sur­rounds and protects the queen and the young.

During the stationary phase the colony builds a nest in a sheltered spot on the forest floor and the queen lays up to 120,000 eggs. The eggs soon hatch into larvae and parties of workers forage in the area to bring them food . As the num­ber of larvae increases, more and more food is needed to sustain the colony. Soon the colony must migrate again in search of food .

The migratory phase con­tinues until the new larvae start to pupate (develop). Pupating larvae do not feed, so the demand for food drops again, and the cycle begins anew.

~ FOOD &: HUNTING Army ants are carnivores, or meat eaters. While marching, they attack any animal within reach, and they work togeth­er to overcome prey much larger than themselves. Slow­moving insect larvae, mol­lusks, and worms are their easiest prey, but army ants

Left: Soldier ants have powerful jaws that they use against potential predators.

DID YOU KNOW? • Columns of army ants can march 65 feet in an hour. • The related African driver ants have large, biting jaws that can tear morsels of flesh from animals.

also attack beetles, grasshop­pers, spiders, and scorpions. They can kill snakes, lizards, and small mammals by mass stinging and suffocation.

During the migratory pe­riod, daily marches start at dawn. Special scout workers test various routes and then form an advance front.

The scouts leave behind a strong scent to guide their followers. The remaining ants march in a dense column, carrying the queen and the larvae. Food seized at the front is passed back down the column to feed the young. Soldier ants at the sides protect the marchers.

Right: Hundreds of worker ants unite to overcome and dismember a grasshopper.

Left: Instead of going around an obstacle, an advancing column of ants forms a bridge to cross a gap on the forest floor.

Below: A worker tends a queen ant that is bloated with eggs.

~ BREEDING

The queen produces sterile females for most of the year. But once a year she produces a special generation of fertile fe­males and winged males. About six young queens develop first. A group of workers help the first out of her cocoon, sur­round her, and move her a short distance from the main colony. When a second queen emerges, another section of

workers switches allegiance from the main queen to her. Queens that hatch later re­ceive less attention.

A batch of up to 3,000 winged males then emerges from the main nest. This event splits the colony in two. The main queen goes in one direction and the eldest of the young queens in another, both surrounded by workers. The younger queens usually follow the latter, but they rarely survive to establish their own colonies.

The winged males wait until evening and then mate with the young queens. A queen mates only once and stores sperm in her body to produce eggs for the rest of her life.

'" CARD 33 COMMON EARWIG

,,-----------------------~~~~~~~~~~ ORDER Dermaptera

FAMILY Forficulidae Forficula auricularia

The common earwig can be identified easily by its pointed tail pincers. It looks fierce, but it is a harmless creature, and

tales that it pierces eardrums are untrue.

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: Up to ~ in. Mouthparts: Simple biting jaws. Wings: Forewings modified into tough wing cases for large, very thin, semicircular hind wings.

BREEDING

Breeding season: Early spring. No. of eggs: 20-50. Hatching time: 3-4 weeks.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Active at night; generally solitary. Diet: Plant and animal remains and live fruit and flowers. Lifespan: 18 months or more.

RELATED SPECIES

There are 1,200 known species of earwig. Common species include the lesser earwig, Labia minor, and the large earwig, Labidura riparia,

which may grow to 1 inch long.

Range of the earwig family.

DISTRIBUTION

The common earwig and related species are found world­wide, except in the polar regions.

CONSERVATION

Earwigs are very adaptable and in no danger of becoming extinct. But the world's largest earwig, Labidura herculiana

from Saint Helena, may be extinct because of loss of habitat.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMON EARWIG

Male: Identified by its thin , curved pin­cers, which are used to hold the female steady during courtship dances.

Female: Has straighter, stout pincers. /'-

Wing cases: Tough and leathery protective casings for the wings, which are folded beneath them.

Wings: Most of the time the wings are carefully folded and concealed

beneath the outer wing cases. In some species a pair of hind wings

fits beneath the forewings.

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Female can store the male's sperm for up to one month inside her body.

Pincers (cerci): Used for captur­ing prey such as small flies and caterpillars.

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Antennae: Long and mobile. Used to grope for traces of food.

0160200451 PACKET 45

The common earwig is unusual because

it cares for its young even before they hatch,

tending the eggs and licking them clean. Later,

it feeds its young and even accompanies them

on their first foraging expeditions. Such parental

attention is very rare in the insect world.

~ HABITS With flattened body and short

legs, the common earwig is ideally shaped for lurking in

crevices. It wedges itself into tight corners and squeezes its

body against the walls . It lies

dormant all day and creeps out at night to feed, using its

antennae to grope for food. If the previous night's food

source has been exhausted,

the common earwig may fly off in search of food . Its wings are

concealed under a pair of very short wing cases. Each wing is quite large but extremely thin ,

so it can be folded up under

its wing case like a parachute. The earwig must carefully ma­

nipulate its tail pincers to un­fold the wings, which may be why it does not fly very much .

~ BREEDING Earwigs pair and mate in late summer or fall, before the female finds a refuge for the

winter. Often the pair spends the winter together, along

with other earwigs. In early spring the female

lays 20 to 50 creamy-white oval eggs in a crevice. She

guards the eggs, turning and licking them to keep them free of mold spores and bacteria that could destroy them. The

eggs hatch after three or four

Left: Earwigs benefit gardens by destroying aphids.

DID YOU KNOW? • The earwig's wings are folded into 40 layers to fit

under the wing cases.

• Some tropical earwigs live as parasites on rats and bats.

They infest the fur like lice or feast on the debris found in

bat roosts.

weeks. A young earwig does

not undergo a larval stage. It is much paler than an adult

and has no wings. The mother earwig feeds

and protects the young for

about 10 days, until they shed their skins. This is the first of four or five instars (growth

stages). At the second instar the young venture outside the

nest and begin to forage for themselves. But a family group

frequently stays together until the young are fully grown in

late summer.

Left: A newly hatched earwig is known as a nymph.

Right: A female earwig tends her eggs.

• The name earwig origi­nates from the belief that earwigs crawl into people's

ears and bite holes in their eardrums. It is possible the

insect might regard an ear as a cozy crevice, but the rest of

the story is unfounded.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The common earwig is pri­marily a scavenger that feeds

on decaying fruit and carrion (dead flesh). It uses its biting

mouthparts to eat damaged fruit, the delicate parts of flow­

ers, and fungi spores. On flow­er and fruit farms, where food

is abundant, earwigs may mul­

tiply to plague proportions. The common earwig may

capture insects in its powerful

tail pincers. More often it is on the defensive. It will arch its

pincers over its back in order to discourage attackers.

Left: Male and female earwigs can be identi­fied by the shape of their cerci (pincers). On the male (left) the cerci are slim and curved. On the female (right) they are short, thick, and straight.

BIRDWING BUTTERFLY

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Lepidoptera

GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPI DERS FAMILY Papilionidae

GENUS Ornithoptera

With their huge, iridescent wings, birdwing butterflies are among the jewels of the tropical rainforest. They are the biggest

butterflies in the · world and are highly prized by collectors.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS Wingspan: The largest female specimens of Ornithoptera

alexandrae measure 11 in. Weight: Up to X oz. Wings: Two pairs, with forewings longer than hind wings. Mouthparts: Sucking (adult), chewing (larva).

BREEDING Eggs: Laid singly on leaves. Larva to pupa: 4 weeks. Pupa to adult: 3 weeks.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary, active by day. Diet: Adult feeds on nectar from the flowers of forest trees and vines. Larva feeds on vine foliage.

RELATED SPECIES The swallowtail and parnassian butterflies found in North Amer­ica belong to the same family as the birdwings.

Range of birdwing butterflies.

DISTRIBUTION Most birdwings are natives of New Gui"nea and the nearby islands. They are also found from southern India and Ceylon through Southeast Asia to northern Austral ia.

CONSERVATION All birdwing butterflies are threatened by the destruction of their rainforest habitat. But butterfly farming has helped prevent the intentional killing of wild specimens.

FEATURES OF BIRDWING BUTTERFLIES

Male: Often found on river­banks, where it feeds on sodium salt minerals-particularly before mating. It also alights on rotting fruit and flowers. Male birdwings are usually more brightly colored and iridescent than females. Female: Rarely

seen because it flies at treetop level above the forest canopy. Most females are brown.

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Rajah Brooke's birdwing, Trogonoptera brookianus, shown here, is found in Malaysia. Both male and female have a wingspan of 5~ inches.

Color: Male has dark wings streaked with amber, gold, or emerald. These colors are produced by pigments and by the refraction of sunlight off the scales.

0160200431 PACKET 43

Birdwing butterfly specimens can be found in

collections in all parts of the world. Ironically,

this trade may help to preserve living butterflies

and their rainforest habitat in Southeast Asia

and Australia. The local people are being

encouraged to set up butterfly farms instead

of cutting down trees to grow crops.

~ CHARACTERISTICS With wingspans of up to 11 inches, birdwings are the big­gest, most spectacular butter­flies in the world. They are found in the rainforests of

Southeast Asia and Australasia,

where they live in treetops high above the forest floor.

The name "birdwing" refers to the shape of the butterfly's forewings, which are long and

slender compared to the rel­atively small hind wings. This gives them a somewhat bird­like appearance as they slowly

fly between trees. As with many insects, the

females are larger than the males, but the males are more

colorful. Their dark, velvety wings are streaked with irides­cent amber, gold, or emerald.

The colors are produced partly by pigments but primarily by the scattering of light from the wing scales. The scales are only loosely attached to the wings, like tiles on a roof. As the but­

terfly ages, they tend to fall off, revealing the clear glassy struc­ture of the wings.

Right: After a butterfly emerges from the chrysalis, it must wait for its wings to dry.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING Birdwing larvae (caterpillars)

need to eat all day so they can grow. Their bodies are basical­ly muscular bags designed to

take in and process as much food as possible. The larvae feed mainly on the leaves of Aristolochia vines, which con­tain toxic substances. It seems probable that the birdwing lar­va absorbs the toxins into its system, making itself poison­ous to its enemies.

A birdwing adult needs high-

left: The Cairns birdwing is found in tropical areas of north­eastern Australia.

DID YOU KNOW? • Some birdwings are so big that collectors used to kill them with bows and arrows.

• If attacked, a larva will defend itself by exuding a foul odor from a retractable organ behind its head.

• Butterflies are attracted to each other by smell rather

energy food as fuel for flying and mating, and nectar is an ideal source. Like other but­terflies, the birdwing obtains

nectar by uncoiling its long proboscis, or mouthpart, and inserting it into the center of a flower. The proboscis is actu­ally two structures that form a tube when they are held to­gether. The butterfly uses the tube to suck up the nectar-a process comparable to drink­

ing through a straw.

Right: The birdwing adult feeds on the nectar it collects from forest flowers.

than color. When scientists bred a male butterfly of the "wrong" color, it did not

bother the female.

• After fertilization, the male plugs the female's genital tract with a frothy secretion to prevent other males from mating with her.

Like all butterflies, birdwings have a four-stage lifecycle. The

egg hat~hes into a larva, which then becomes a chrysalis, or pupa. The winged adult finally emerges from the pupa.

The female birdwing lays her

eggs on the upper sides of the leaves and leaves them to de­velop unguarded. After they hatch, the larvae feed vora­ciously and reach their max­imum size within a month. Each larva outgrows its skin

several times as it gets bigger. Finally it stops feeding and develops a tough pupal skin.

left: This larva is fully grown and ready to pupate, or turn into a butterfly. At this stage it produces a silken girdle around its "waist" and attaches itself to a leaf.

During this chrysalis phase, the insect is sealed inside a cocoon

and does not eat. The cocoon is attached to a plant by a pad of silk at its lower end and a girdle around its "waist."

Inside the cocoon the body of the insect is completely re­built. Most of the larval cells

are broken down, and a few dormant cells are brought to life to create the body of the winged adult. Within three weeks the process is complete. The butterfly emerges from

the cocoon, expands its wings, and flies off to find a mate.

CARD 35

~,--O_U_S_E_F_L_Y _______ G_R_O_U_P _5:_IN_S_EC_T_S_&_S_PI_D_ER_S_\..~. ORDER Diptera

FAMILY Muscidae

GENUS & SPECIES Musca domestica

The housefly is a pest that spreads dirt and disease wherever it goes. It is also among the most sophisticated insects, with a

method of flying that has much in common with an airplane.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Length:About ~ inch.

Mouthparts: Sucking.

Wings: One pair of wings, plus a

pair of halteres, or "balancers."

BREEDING

Breeding season: Varies depend­

ing on climate.

Eggs: Up to 900 per female, laid in

batches of 120-150.

Development time: A minimum

of one week from egg to adult.

Longer in cool conditions.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Solitary, but known to con­

gregate at feeding sites.

Diet: Any easily digested organic

material. Mainly rotting flesh, fruit,

and excrement.

RELATED SPECIES

Common relatives include the

flesh-eating blowflies, dung flies,

and bloodsucking stable flies.

Range of the housefly.

DISTRIBUTION

One of the most widespread of all animals, the housefly is

found all over the world except in the polar reg ions.

CONSERVATION

The housefly is considered one of the world's worst pests. De­

spite numerous attempts to exterminate it, the housefly re­

mains common, especially in areas with primitive sanitation

and garbage disposal facilities.

lIFECYClE OF THE HOUSEFLY

1. Eggs: Laid by the female in batches of 120 to 150 in decay­ing material , where the larvae will find food . The tiny eggs are about 1/25 inch long.

5. At three days old the adult fe­male is ready to lay eggs.

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2. Larvae: Eggs hatch within 8 to 36 hours. Maggots feed voraciously on surrounding food supplies.

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J J t

3. Pupa: The lar­va pupates 3 to

4 days after hatching and forms a hard, barrel-shaped

capsule.

capsule, but its wings are not unfurled .

us P 6001 12052 PACKET 52

The housefly flourishes in garbage dumps and sewers

throughout the world. It frequently lays its eggs in

manure, sewage, or rotting food. While other animals

are threatened by the continuing expansion of the

human population, the housefly thrives among

hordes of people, feeding on their waste.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING Since it cannot chew or swallow

solid food, the housefly must

suck it up in liquid form. Its

mouthparts are well adapted

for sucking liquids, since they

broaden into a fleshy, absor­

bent "mop."

Many of the housefly's favor­

ite foods are semiliquids such

as excrement, decaying flesh,

and rotting vegetation. In or­

der to sample a solid food, the

fly must first liquify the item by

spreading saliva on it. The sali-

va dissolves the food, and the

fly then sucks up the liquid.

The housefly often regurgi­

tates some of its previous meal

on the food it is eating and

spreads infection in the pro­

cess. The bacteria that cause

dysentery and similar diseases

are carried by the housefly

from the feces of an infected

person to the food of another.

This is one reason why it is im­

portant to improve sanitation

throughout the world.

~ Ll FECYCLE The lifecycle of the housefly is

divided into four phases. It be­

gins life as an egg and then

hatches into a larva (maggot),

which feeds intensively before

pupating. The pupa is the transi­

tion state between the maggot

and the final breeding stage­

the winged adult.

The female lays batches of

120 to 150 eggs in decaying or­

ganic material such as rotting

meat or manure. These eggs

hatch in as little as eight hours

in warm weather, and they

rarely take longer than three

days. The white maggots that

emerge are legless and carrot­

shaped, with mouths at the

left: The housefly contaminates food with germs that it picks up from refuse.

DID YOU KNOW? • The housefly can quickly be­come immune to pesticides,

which kill the vulnerable adults,

leaving a few that are resistant

to the chemicals. These sur­

vivors pass on their immunity

to future generations.

• One housefly can carry over

narrow ends. Each maggot

gorges itself on the food that

surrounds it and grows rapidly.

Within a few days, the mag­

got is ready to pupate. It com­

pletes its metamorphosis (change)

into an adult housefly inside a

hard, barrel-shaped capsule.

When it is fully developed, the

fly forces the end off the cap­

su le by inflating a balloonlike

sac on its head. The fly hauls it­

self out of the capsule, deflates

the sac, and flies away to find a

mate. In the tropics, the cycle

may be complete in a week. As long as the air temperature

stays above 60° F, houseflies

breed continuously.

Right: The housefly cleans itself constantly, but thousands of bac­teria still cling to its legs.

a million bacteria, anyone of

which may spread disease.

• Many houseflies die in win­ter, but others hibernate in

sheltered places and emerge

to breed in spring. Flies in

warm buildings will breed

throughout the winter.

~ SPECIAL ADAPTATION The housefly has only two real off course. Sensory cells detect

wings. The hind pair are not these vibrations and feed the

true wings-they are modified information to the brain, so

into pinlike structures called the fly can make a correction.

halteres. The halteres act like Thus the halteres work as sta-

pendulums, vibrating in the bilizers, like the gyroscopes in

I same plane even if the f_ly_go_e_s __ an_ ai_rp_l_an_e_au_t_o,_p_ilo_t_. __ ----'

~ HOUSEFLY &: MAN The housefly feeds on, and

breeds in, the debris produced

by people all over the world.

Like many flies, it is a scaven­

ger and plays an important

role in disposing of waste. But

this valuable service is not

without its price.

To a housefly, everything

organic is potential food. It

makes no distinction between

left: The housefly deposits saliva on food to break it down into an edible liquid.

garbage, excrement, and food

for human consumption. The

housefly prefers raw sewage,

which in many parts of the

world is infected with bacteria

that cause gastrointestinal dis­

eases such as dysentery. In

these areas houseflies are ma­

jor carriers of infection because

they transmit bacteria to food.

Contaminated food causes

millions of deaths each year

through dehydration resulting

from diarrhea.

AMERICAN COPPER BUTTERFLY .~ ""= GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERf'<~~,

CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS &: SPECIES Insecta Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Lycaena phlaeas

The American copper butterfly, with its brightly colored forewings, is a familiar sight hovering over fields and gardens. But it flies

so swiftly that it is difficult to follow with the eye.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Wingspan: Male, 11.; in . Female

slightly larger.

Coloration: Copper-orange fore­

wing with black spots and border.

Black hind wing with copper­

orange band. Sexes similar.

Larva: Green or green and pink.

BREEDING

Breeding season: From April to

October.

Eggs: About 10, laid singly.

Hatching time: 1 week.

Larval stage: 1 month; 7 months

in those that overwinter as larvae.

LIFESTYLE

Diet: Adult feeds on flower nectar.

Larva eats sorrel and dock plants.

Lifecycle: 2 generations a year.

RELATED SPECIES

The American copper is a member

of the family Lycaenidae, which in­

cludes the large copper and the

hairstreaks as well as the blues.

Range of the American copper butterfly.

DISTRIBUTION

Found in North America, all of Europe and temperate Asia, and

in western North Africa.

CONSERVATION

The American copper is abundant and widely distributed. Pop­

ulations drop in damp, cold summers but quickly recover in a

good summer. Dry, hot summer weather can also harm popu­

lations by killing the food plants of the larvae.

jLlFECYCLE OF THE AMERICAN COPPER BUTTERflY

Adult: Copper-orange forewings have dark spots and border. Hind wings are dark with copper-orange border, sometimes spotted blue. Sexes are Similar, but female is larger.

Pupa (chrysalis): Stays motionless, anchored to a leaf stem by tail hooks and a silk thread encircling its middle. Adult emerges after 3 to 4 weeks.

© MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Eggs: About 10 round white eggs are laid on the upper surface of the leaves of sorrel and dock plants. It takes a week for the eggs to hatch .

Larva (caterp'illar): Colored green or green and pink after the

first molt. Feeds on leaves. Goes through 4 molts

before becoming a pupa.

0160200501 PACKET 50

As a member of the family Lycaenidae,

the American copper is related to many bright blue

butterflies, including the spring genre, common blue,

and northern blue. Both male and female share the

same rich, copper-orange coloring. As a result, this

common butterfly is quite easy to identify in gardens

and meadows as it feeds on the nectar of flowers.

~ HABITAT The American copper butterfly

is common in many parts of

North America.

Because the larva has a high­

ly specialized diet, the species

does not travel far and occurs

only in areas containing suitable

food plants. It can be found in

I ~ . ~ NATU REWATCH

The American copper is seen

from spring to fall . The female

is slightly larger than the male,

but both sexes have copper­

orange forewings with black

spots and a dark border. The

rear of the dark hind wings has

a copper-orange border.

meadows, pastures, and heath­

land. In fact, the American cop­

per frequents almost any fertile

ground where insecticides are

not in use, including urban gar­

dens. The male has a territory

that he maintains by chasing

away other insects.

l Although the American cop­

per butterfly is fairly small and

moves quickly, it is usually easy

to see because it flies close to

the ground and is not shy.

Viewed up close, it is one of

the most beautiful butterflies

in the United States.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING Like most butterfly species, the

American copper is unable to

chew. It feeds by sucking up

liquids through its proboscis­a slender, hollow tube. When

not in use, the proboscis is

coiled under the butterfly's

head . The American copper

feeds mainly on flower nectar.

It especially likes the flowers of

Left: While resting on a leaf, this American copper stays alert, ready to chase off intruders.

DID YOU KNOW? • The depth and color of the American copper's markings

vary. One variety has blue

spots inside the orange border

on its hind wings.

• An arctic subspecies of the American copper, L. p. polaris, produces one brood each year.

• During an especially mild

buttercups and clover. But if

these are not available, it will

seek nectar from many com­

mon plants.

The larva is not as adaptable

as the adult butterfly. It feeds

only on the leaves of specific

wild plants, including broad­

leaved and curled dock and

common and sheep's sorrel.

Right: The American copper is the most abundant copper species in the eastern United States.

year, three generations of

American copper butterflies

may be produced. The fall

brood can overwinter as lar­

vae, remaining at this stage for

up to seven months. Butter­

flies from this brood, born in

the spring, are often smaller

than the others.

~ LlFECYCLE The female American copper

usually lays her eggs on the leaf

of a food plant near the leaf

stalk. About a week later, a

larva (caterpillar) eats its way

out of the egg and moves to

the underside of the leaf. Here

it eats out a groove and rests,

well hidden from predators.

The yellow-white larva is cov­

ered with long, white hairs.

The larva feeds on leaves and

soon grows too big for its skin,

which it sheds. Its new coloring

is solid green or striped green

and pink, blending in with the

plant to camouflage the larva.

Left: The lower surfaces of the American copper's wings lack the rich orange color.

Left: The green or green-and­pink coloring of the American copper larva camouflages it on its food plant. The plant provides the larva with the shelter and nourishment it needs in order to pupate.

It remains this color for anoth­

er three molts. After about a

month, it stops feeding and

begins to change into a pupa.

The pupa is pale brown,

speckled with darker brown

and black. It often attaches

itself to the space between a

dead leaf and the stem of the

food plant. It is held in place

with tail hooks attached to a

pad of silk spun under the leaf.

A length of silk around the

middle of its body acts like a

safety belt, helping to anchor

the larva to the stem.

After three to four weeks,

the adu lt butterfly emerges

from the pupa, ready to mate

immediately.

WATER STRIDER

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Hemiptera

" CARD 37

GROUP 5: INSECTS 61 SPIDERS FAMILY Gerridae

GENUS Gerris

Water striders are among our most unusual bugs. With their long, thin legs, they are able to walk on water. They can be found

darting across the still surfaces of ponds and lakes.

CHARACTERISTICS

Body length: Under 1 in.

Coloration: Dark blue and brown,

usually paler on the underside of

the body.

Mouthparts: Long, daggerlike,

and hollow.

Wings: Winged form has 2 pairs.

BREEDING

Mating season: Spring and sum­

mer. At least 2 generations in a year.

No. of eggs: 20 or more.

Incubation: 1 month. Range of water striders.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Lives in clusters. DISTRIBUTION

Diet: Insects and larvae.

Lifespan: Up to 4 months for first

generation; 8 months for second.

Water striders are common on slow-moving rivers and still or

stagnant ponds and lakes throughout the world .

CONSERVATION

Water striders are widespread and numerous, and they are in RELATED SPECIES

An unusual relative of the genus

Gerris is Ha/obates, a water strider

that lives on the ocean.

no immediate danger. But detergents, oil, pesticides, and other

sources of pollution are making many ponds and lakes uninhab­

itable for water striders.

FEATURES OF WATER STRIDERS

Forelimbs: Two short limbs at the front of the body are used to grasp prey. They are often held up and forward, ready to strike.

Middle and hind limbs: These very long, thin legs splay out in an X shape to spread the body weight. They are used to walk on the water's

surface. To help the insect walk on the water, there is a pad

of water-repellent hairs and a claw at the tip of

each leg.

Mouthparts: Long, hollow, and dagger­

like, for piercing the victim's body and suck­

ing up the tissues.

© MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Body: Long and narrow. Col­ored dark blue and brown, with paler water- repellent

hairs on the underparts.

Wings: Usually found only on insects of the second genera­tion. There are two pairs of wings. The forewings are horny to protect the del icate flying wings beneath.

0160200551 PACKET 55

On summer days water striders are a common sight

on ponds and lakes. They can be spotted by the

characteristic dimples on the water made by their legs.

These insects are specially adapted to make the most of

their life on the water's surface. They move across the

surface with ease, preying on insects that have fallen into

the water and insect larvae that live on the surface.

~ HABITAT Water striders are found on the surfaces of lakes, ponds, and slow-moving rivers. They move across the water by exploiting surface tension, which forms a "skin" on top of the water. Be­cause water molecules are more attracted to each other than to the air above, they cling togeth­er, creating an elastic film that can support very light objects. Although water striders are heav­ier than other water-walking in­sects, their long, splayed legs

spread their weight. The tips of their legs are covered in water­repellent hairs to keep the legs dry and prevent the water strid­erfrom sinking.

On the water surface there is plenty of food, but there are relatively few predators. For insects that are unable to walk on water, surface tension is a trap. As soon as they hit the surface, the tension holds them under, and they must be very strong to escape.

~ lIFECYClE In April water striders emerge from hibernation ready to mate. To attract a female, the male drums his legs on the water sur­face. He fights off any rivals but dies soon after mating. Over the next few weeks the female lays about 20 eggs on vegetation at the water's edge. They hatch about a month later.

A young water strider looks like a miniature adult. Although it molts (sheds) its skin while it grows, its shape does not change much . It lives in protected areas at the water's edge or under

left: Only the tips of a water strider's legs come into contact with the water.

DID YOU KNOW? • If startled, a water strider may jump 20 inches into the air. • Water striders travel across the water by sliding their mid­dle and hind legs over the sur­face. They can reach speeds of four feet per second. • Pollution creates problems for water striders. Detergents

vegetation, while the adult pre­fers the open water.

At least two generations of wa­ter striders are born each year. The first generation hatches be­tween May and July and lives for about four months. These in­sects are usually wingless, but their offspring-which hatch in August or September-have wings. The first generation stays in one place, but the second generation flies off to colonize other ponds. In winter these insects hibernate in clumps of grass near water.

Right: A young water strider is sim­ilar in shape to an adult, but it has a fatter body.

reduce the water's surface ten­sion and can cause the insect to sink. In oil-polluted water, water striders cannot slide their legs over the surface and must walk instead. • In storms, water striders seek shelter on land, where they move slowly and clumsily.

r ' I'i~ NATUREWATCH

Look for water striders on still water in summer. Their legs dimple the water surface and cast shadows on the bottom. Stand with the sun in front of you, as the insect may dart away if you cast a shadow on it. If handled, it may bite.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING Water striders prey on aquatic creatures that rise to the surface to breathe or live on the water surface, such as mosquito lar­vae. Insects that fall into the water are also easy prey.

Water striders use the water surface to locate prey in much the same way as spiders use their webs. With its sensitive feet, a water strider feels the

left: A water strider sucks out the tissues of its victim with its piercing, hollow mouthparts.

-, .. - ~ . '.' \

- . ,.:- I

I ~~~ '-~ .-.,,' . . - <~~ I /

" I I

I / _. _,_ i _ -__

ripples caused by a struggling insect and judges where its vic­tim is. After piercing its prey's body with its hollow, dagger­like mouthparts, it sucks out the juices, leaving behind only an empty skin.

In spring, water striders may eat their own young if food is scarce. They may also eat their young by accident-if they confuse the ripples sent out by their young with those of struggling insects.

" CARD 38

COLORADO POTATO BEETLE "~ ________________________ ~G~R~O~U~P~5~: ~IN~S~E~CT~S~&~S~P~ID~E~R~S _~~

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Coleoptera

FAMILY Chrysomelidae

GENUS &: SPECIES Leptinotarsa decemlineata

The Colorado potato beetle has been attacked with every variety of insecticide. Yet this hardy insect still flourishes and remains a

major pest in potato fields throughout the world.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS Length: Adult, Y,o-~ in. Larva, ~ in.

Coloration: Adult, bright yellow with black stripes on wing covers. Larva, deep pink with black spots when hatched, then yellow with

black markings.

BREEDING Breeding season: Late spring to

late summer. No. of eggs: Up to 2,500, laid in

batches of 20-80. Hatching time: 10-14 days.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Larvae feed in broods, but adult is basically solitary. Diet: Foliage of potato and other plants of the nightshade family.

Lifespan: 1-2 years.

RELATED SPECIES The Colorado potato beetle is one

of the leaf beetles, which also include the elm leaf beetle, striped cucumber beetle, and flea beetles.

Original range of the Colorado potato beetle.

DISTRIBUTION Originally restricted to the Rocky Mountain states of the United States, the Colorado potato beetle is now found worldwide, wherever there are potato crops to feed on.

CONSERVATION Despite exhaustive attempts to control the Colorado potato

beetle, it remains common in many areas throughout the world and shows no sign of declining.

FEATURES OF THE COLORADO BEETLE

Adult: Sexually mature at 6 weeks old. Active throughout the summer. May sleep underground through the winter.

Elytra (wing covers): Horny, protective casings over a pair of functional

wings. Each elytron is bright yellow with 5 black stripes.

© MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Larva: Deep pink with black spots when hatched. Fully grown at 2 to 3

weeks, when it burrows underground to pupate. Starts eating foliage as soon as it emerges from the egg. There may be up to 3 generations

in a single summer.

0160200461 PACKET 46

Since its discovery in the nineteenth century,

the infamous Colorado potato beetle has spread

to almost every country where potatoes are cultivated.

Feeding on the leaves of the crop, the beetle multiplies

to plague proportions-and it may ultimately

destroy its own food supply because of the

sheer magnitude of its numbers.

~HABITAT The Colorado potato beetle originally fed on the buffalo­bur, Solanum rostratum, a wild plant that is a close relative of the cultivated potato, Solanum tuberosum. The beetle was origi­nally limited to Central and North America, particularly the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. But when pioneer farmers intro­duced the potato during the 1 850s, they presented the bee­tle with a new and apparently unlimited food source.

The first infestations were recorded in Nebraska in 1859. Duringthenext13yea~the

beetle moved east across the United States at a rate of 85 miles a year until it reached the Atlantic coast.

By 1870 the Colorado potato beetle had appeared in several places in Germany, and within seven years it was a serious pest in German potato fields. By the late 1920s this beetle was dev­astating crops throughout con­tinental Europe and moving eastward into Asia. Today it is found virtually everywhere in the world, except on some is­lands such as Great Britain, where it has been suppressed.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The Colorado potato beetle and its larvae feed on the leaves of the potato plant, using their powerful jaws to slice through the leaves at an amazing rate. A few insects can rapidly strip a plant of its leaves, and a thriving popula­tion can easily ravage a whole field. The potato tubers are not touched because they are underground. But once the plants have lost their foliage, the tubers stop growing, and

Left: The hardy Colorado potato beetle has survived the many attempts to destroy it.

DID YOU KNOW? • The Colorado potato beetle can survive both scorching summers and arctic winters.

• If alarmed, a Colorado potato beetle will lie on its back with its legs and anten­nae retracted to fake death.

• When it was discovered in 1824 the Colorado potato

the crop is ruined as a result. Although the Colorado po­

tato beetle prefers to eat po­tatoes, it will feed on related plants such as nightshades, tomatoes, and buffalo-burs. These plants are all members of the family Solanaceae, and they have highly toxic alka­loids (compounds containing nitrogen) in their foliage. But these poisons seem to have no effect on the Colorado potato beetle.

Right: The beetle eats just the leaves of the potato plant, but that is enough to destroy the crop.

beetle was considered a very attractive rarity.

• In Great Britain, people are required to report any potato beetle they find to the police. They are asked to bring a spe­cimen and note its location, because prompt action could prevent an outbreak.

Humans are the main enemies of the Colorado potato beetle. Although insecticides kill thou­sands of potato beetles, little damage has been done to the overall population of this resil­ient insect. The beetle breeds too rapidly and profusely to be eradicated by any known chem­ical method.

~ LlFECYClE The prolific breeding rate of the Colorado potato beetle is the key to its success. Each female may lay up to 2,500 eggs in batches of 20 to 80, attaching them to the undersides of pota­to leaves to protect them from the rain and sun. These eggs hatch within 1 0 to 14 days. The larvae start eating at once, soon stripping a plant of leaves.

Within two to three weeks each larva is fully grown and retires underground to pupate.

Left: The Colorado potato beetle larva consumes buffalo-bur leaves as greedily as its parent.

Another major threat to the Colorado potato beetle comes from the predatory Carabus beetles, which devour both adults and young. These large ground beetles are one of the best defenses against infestation by Colorado potato beetles. But they may be killed by the insec­ticides intended for their prey.

After 1 0 to 1 5 days it emerges as a mature beetle, ready to start breeding.

In a warm summer there may be three generations of larvae, and the potential for population growth is immense. One beetle hatching in spring may have many thousands of descendants by fall, each capable of breed­ing at the same rapid rate.

In winter the mature beetle tunnels deep in the soil to hiber­nate. It can survive freezing con­ditions this way, emerging late the following spring to assault the new potato crops.

FLEA

" CLASS Insecta

ORDER Siphonaptera

'" CARD 39 I

CROUP S: INSECTS &: SPIDERS ~~ FAMILY ... ~ Pulicidae, etc.

Fleas are highly successful Insects. The numerous flea species have settled in every part of the world, often spreading disease

and causing discomfort to thei, victims.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS Size: Egg, .02 in. Larva, .15-.39 in.

Adult, .06-.36 in.

Mouthparts: Needlelike projec­

tions for piercing and sucking.

L1FECYCLE No. of eggs: 2-18.

Incubation: 2-3 weeks.

Larval stage: 1 y'!-28Y.! weeks.

Pupal stage: 1-50 weeks.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Parasitic, living on the skin

of warm-blooded animals.

Diet: Larva eats organic debris.

Adult feeds only on blood of mam­

mals and birds.

Lifespan: Adult, 1 8 days to 2 years.

RELATED SPECIES There are about 1,800 flea species

worldwide, including the human

flea, Pulex irritans, and the rat flea,

Xenopsylla cheopsis.

LlFECYCLE OF FLEAS

4. Adult: Has a small head with 2 antennae and piercing mouthparts, a flattened body that is covered with hairs and spines, and enlarged hind legs ~,c~_ for jumping.

© MCMXCII IMP BVIIMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM

Range of fleas.

DISTRIBUTION Fleas are found almost everywhere. Their eggs and pupae can

survive dry or cold weather and adults can live for long periods

without food, so fleas can live in most environments, particular­

ly if they are in the warmth of a nest or burrow.

CONSERVATION The number of common domestic fleas has grown with

increased pet ownership and greater use of central heating.

1. Egg: Shiny white and relatively large with

rounded ends. From 2 to 18 are laid in the host's

burrow or nest, or on its skin, falling from there

onto the ground.

3. Pupa: When fully grown, the larva spins a cocoon,often camouflaged with debris or dust. It pupates for at least 7 days. The adult emerges only when disturbed.

2. larva: Breaks out of the egg after 2 to 3 weeks. It lacks eyes and legs but has biting mouthparts. It molts two times before reaching full size.

o

PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200591 PACKET 59

Fleas are parasites, living on the blood of birds

and mammals. Powered by its strong hind legs,

a flea can leap a great distance onto the body

of its chosen victim. Once it reaches the fur, hair,

or feathers of the host animal, it clings tightly

with its tiny claws, and its bristle-covered body

can become almost impossible to remove.

~ CHARACTERISTICS Fleas are extremely adaptable

insects that flourish wherever

suitable host animals are found .

Their bodies have been modi­

fied to suit their parasitic lifestyle

and differ from most other in­

sects' bodies. Adults vary con­

siderably in size, depending on

the species, with the males usu­

ally smaller than the females.

An adult flea is wingless with

a small head, simple eyes, and

two antennae that are partially

hidden in grooves. Its mouth­

parts consist of three needlelike

projections called stylets, which

it uses to pierce its victim's skin

and suck up the blood.

With its flattened body, a flea

can move easily through the

feathers or fur of its host. It can

cling tightly to almost any sur­

face with its tiny but strong

claws. Its covering of angled

hairs and spines helps to keep

the flea in place, making it diffi­

cult for the host to dislodge it.

Fleas can jump long distances

with their powerful, enlarged

hind legs. To gain extra power,

they compress and release an

arch of rubbery protein in the

middle of the thorax (the cen­

ter body section). But fleas use

jumping only to get onto a

host's body. Once there, they

use their sharp claws to walk

across the skin.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING Adult fleas suck the blood of

mammals or birds. Each flea

species usually prefers a partic­

ular host species, but most will

feed on any available victim.

The human flea also bites pigs,

dogs, goats, and rats, while the

dog flea also feeds on humans.

A flea usually remains on its

host only while feeding. It then

hops off and rests in its victim's

Left: With its abdomen raised, a flea penetrates deep into its victim's skin with its mouthparts.

DID YOU KNOW? • A flea embryo has a sharp spine on its head to help it

crack open its egg.

• Fleas can survive long peri­

ods of starvation. The human

flea can live for four months

without eating.

• A flea infected with plague

develops a blockage in its

gut. When it tries to feed, in-

burrow or nest. A flea may have

to withstand long periods of

starvation before gorging itself

on a new host.

Instead of feeding on blood,

flea larvae eat dead plant and

animal debris found in a host's

burrow or nest. They may con­

sume blood in the form of the

partly digested waste excreted

by an adult flea.

Right: Fleas search for an area of thin skin with blood vessels that are close to the surface.

fected blood flows back into

the host. Because no food

can pass the blockage, the

flea becomes hungry and

feeds more often, spreading

the plague more rapidly.

• The human flea can jump more than a foot. This is the

same as a person jumping

over a building 360 feet high.

~ FLEA &: MAN Fleas are known for the diseases

they can transmit. The rat flea,

for example, can carry typhus

and the bubonic plague, which

killed about 25 million people

in the Middle Ages. A person

can get one of these diseases

by being bitten by a flea that

has been infected by feeding

on a diseased rat's blood.

~ lIFECYCLE The flea breeds year-round in

the tropics. In cooler areas the

adults emerge only in the spring

and breed in summer.

After mating, the female has a

large meal of blood, then lays 2

to 18 eggs in the host's nest or

Left: The bird flea may wait at a nest entrance, ready to jump on to a host as it returns home.

Fleas may infect rabbits with

myxomatosis or transmit tape­

worms to cats and dogs. Tape­

worms live in the intestine of an

animal and produce eggs that

are excreted in the feces. If a

larval flea eats the tapeworm

eggs, they hatch in its body and

remain there until the flea is ac­

cidentally eaten by a cat or dog.

on its skin. In her lifetime, she

may lay hundreds of eggs.

The larva hatches after two to

three weeks. It molts (sheds its

covering) twice while it grows

and then spins a cocoon and

pupates. It may remain in its

cocoon for months, emerging

only when disturbed-usually

by vibrations made by the host.

In this way it ensures a host is

present when it becomes an

adult. A flea usually takes one to

two and a half months to com­

plete its lifecycle, depending on

the temperature and availability

of food. Left: The legless larva of the flea hatches from the egg after two or three weeks.

"" CARD 40 CRANE FLY V GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS ~ ,~----------------------------------------~--

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Diptera

FAMILY Tipu/idae

Crane flies have very long legs-some species are even called 1/ daddy longlegs. 1/ In their adult state these creatures are harmless,

but the larvae may be pests, feeding hungrily on plant roots.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Body length: Female, up to 1 in.

Male, up to % in.

Mouthparts: Sucking.

Wings: 1 functional pair, with 1 pair

of halteres (balancers).

BREEDING

Breeding season: Spring (first gen­

eration) and late summer (second

generation).

Eggs: Up to 300 per adult female,

deposited in the ground.

Development time: From a few

weeks (first generation) to 7

months (second generation).

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Basically solitary, but often

hatches in large numbers.

Diet: Larva eats roots and stems.

Adult laps plant juices.

RELATED SPECIES

There are more than 3,300 species

of crane fly worldwide.

FEATURES OF CRANE FLIES

• Range of crane flies.

DISTRIBUTION

Species of crane flies are found worldwide except in polar and desert regions.

CONSERVATION

Crane fly larvae are regarded as pests by many farmers and

gardeners, but attempts to control them have had little effect on the population.

Legs: Brittle and very long, en­abling adu lt to cling to plants even in strong winds. Some species are called "daddy longlegs."

Wings: Like all members of the order Diptera, a crane fly has two pairs of wings in its adult form. The forewings are strikingly marked. The hind wings are small structures called halteres.

Larva: Often referred to as a "Ieatherjacket." Lives in water or damp soil. Has a huge appetite for plants.

© MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM

~----Halteres (above): Part of a sophisti-\ ~'. cated flight mechanism, these. tiny

. . hind wings are used for balance . when a crane fly is in

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

flight. These clublike structures vibrate when the forewings vibrate . The club

on the end of each haltere acts as a weighted balance, counter­

acting the motion of the fore­wings and enabling a crane

fly to control its flight.

0160200471 PACKET 47

A crane fly larva, or leather jacket, has an enormous

appetite for plant stems and roots. But an adult crane fly

hardly eats at all during its brief lifetime. Its sole purpose

is to breed, and the process takes up almost all of its

energy. As a result, the male dies shortly after mating. The

female lives a little longer-just until she lays all her eggs.

~ LlFECYCLE Crane flies produce two genera-tions each year. When the first­generation adults hatch in late April or May, they immediately search for mates.

Crane flies are most numerous near water, in damp, shady loca­tions with plenty of vegetation. Here, in moist ground near grasses or clovers, the female lays about 300 eggs. In a warm summer the eggs hatch after about two weeks, producing gray, maggotlike larvae that are called leather jackets because of their tough skin.

A crane fly larva feeds vora­ciously and grows fast. It sheds its skin several times before

wriggling up to the surface layer of soil to pupate. In this pupal stage the insect is developing into an adult inside a cocoon and does not feed. When the transformation is complete, the cocoon splits open, and an adult crane fly emerges.

A second generation of adult crane flies emerges in late sum­mer, often in huge numbers. After mating, the female lays eggs in a few days, and the cy­cle starts again, this time taking much longer. The larvae hatch in fall and spend all winter feed­ing underground. Surviving lar­vae pupate in spring, emerging as adults in April or May.

~ FLIGHT True flies have only one pair of wings, but most flying insects have two pairs. In the order Diptera, the second pair of wings has been modified into small structures called halteres. These tiny hind wings help crane flies keep their balance and fly in a straight line.

The halteres vibrate when a crane fly vibrates its wings. But the heavy "club" on the end of each haltere acts like a pendulum and keeps the hal-

Left: Adult crane flies are most often found near water or a good supply of vegetation.

I DID YOU KNOW? • A crane fly's legs are very long but surprisingly weak. The insect cannot run and uses its legs only to cling to vegetation. • The male adult crane fly often emerges before the female and may have a long

tere swinging in the same plane, even if the insect changes direction. Sensory cells at the base of each hal­tere register changes in orien­tation and send messages to the flight control center in the crane fly's nervous system. If necessary, a correction can be made to bring the insect back on course. The system actual­ly makes tiny corrections all the time so that the insect can fly in a straight line.

Right: An adult crane fly can sur­vive the loss of one or two of its brittle, spindly legs.

search before finding a mate. • Despite its sophisticated flight mechanism, a crane fly has little control in the air. It cannot fly in windy weather: it must remain on the ground in anything stronger than a gentle breeze.

Left: Crane fly larvae are con­sidered pests by farmers and gardeners. But they do major damage to veg­etation only in large numbers.

~ NATUREWATCH Adult crane flies are most nu­merous in late summer, when thousands may swarm over damp grasslands. The larvae are much less conspicuous, but they are found by birds such as starlings and crows.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The larvae, or leatherjackets, that hatch from crane fly eggs have bigger appetites than the adults. They spend most of their time tunneling through the earth searching for roots. They prefer the roots of grasses, including the roots of crops such as wheat and barley.

At night the larvae may come to the surface to gnaw at plant stems. They may even pull sev­ered plants underground. Where leatherjackets are numerous, they can kill enough plants to create large, bare patches of

Left: An adult crane fly's tubelike mouthparts are ideal for sucking nectar and plant fluids.

The birds can be seen mov­ing across a lawn, stopping at intervals to dig out the larvae. The birds eat more larvae in winter than in summer, when the insects are hard to dig up from the sun-baked earth.

soil. They are considered pests by gardeners and farmers, who try to eliminate them.

Like many insects, a crane fly is in the final phase of its life during the winged adult stage. It is no longer growing so it feeds very little. Its mouthparts form a fleshy tube so it can suck nectar and other plant fluids for sustenance.

A crane fly's only purpose is to breed, and that process takes nearly all its energy. As a result, the male dies shortly after mating. The female lasts longer, but only until she has laid all her eggs. Then she too dies, her job completed.