Message From the DirectorTHE CENTER FOR NURSING

HISTORICAL INQUIRY STAFF

Barbara Brodie PhD, RN, FAANDirectorbb9w@virginia.edu

Arlene Keeling PhD, RNAssociate Directorawk2z@virginia.edu

John Kirchgessner, RN, MSN, PNPAssistant Directorjck2r@virginia.edu

Susan Swasta PhD, MILSArchivist(804) 924-0083sms4k@virginia.edu

Volunteer Archival Assistant:Aurelie Knapik, RN, MSN

EDITORIAL STAFF

Arlene Keeling PhD, RNEditor, WINDOWS IN TIME

Susan M. Swasta, PhD, MILSAssistant Editor

Web page:

http://www.nursing.virginia.edu/centers/cnhi/index.html

Window s in Tim eVolume 10, Issue 1, 2002 May, 2002

NURSING: CURING AND CARING For many decades the domain of nurses has been defined and extolled as oneof caring for the ill and suffering. The accepted vision of the abilities of earlygenerations of professional nurses is that they possessed excellent observationalskills to evaluate patients’ symptoms and manual skills to implement the medicalorders of physicians who were the true curers of illness. Frequently admonishednot to assume they possessed the knowledge and wisdom of physicians,professional nurses were expected, however, “to know and arrange thesignificant symptoms of their patients so that the physician could decide whatneeded to be done.” It is only recently that the role of nurses as active curers ofillness has begun to be studied by nurse historians interested in the developmentof the clinical advanced practice movement. The ability of nurse practitionersand critical care nurses to diagnose, treat, and prescribe medications, and toevaluate outcomes is treated as evidence of nurses’ ability to cure patients’medical problems. While not disagreeing with the conclusion that today’s nurses are educa-tionally prepared to assume more curing responsibilities, I believe, after years ofstudying the history of American nursing, that previous generations of profes-sional nurses were often the “silent” curers of patients’ illnesses. Although theywere discouraged from claiming curing power, examples abound of privateduty, staff, and community health nurses evaluating ill patients, diagnosing theirconditions, selecting and providing the type of medical care they needed, and/ordeciding whether a physician needed to be involved. One of the reasons theywere able and required to act in this manner was because physicians were notreadily available, and much of the medical therapy of the era was nursing care.For example, the treatment of patients with pneumonia was primarily symp-tomatic and administered by nurses. Caring for patients’ hygiene, providingcomfort measures including warmth, dealing withhigh temperatures, and sup-plying nutritional dietsand fluids and abundant fresh air was the standardtherapeutic regimen for most pneumonia patientsuntil the advent of antimicrobials. As medical knowledge and technology ad-vanced in the twentieth century, student andgraduate nurses kept abreast of it and workedclosely with physicians to implement advancesinto patient care,thus assuring nurses of curingability. In ad-dition, there is evidence that nursesactively contributed to the advancement of medicalknowledge. In the 1940s Evelyn Lundeen, RNjoined forces with Dr. Julian Hess in Chicago todevelop and write a text on the medical and

The Center for NursingHistorical Inquiry(CNHI), established atthe University ofVirginia in 1991 to sup-port historical scholar-ship in nursing, is dedi-cated to the preservationand study of nursinghistory in the U nitedStates. The history ofnursing in the South isespecially emphasizedas a focus of inquiry.The goals of the Centerinclude the collection ofmaterials, t he promo-tion of scholarship, andthe dissemination ofhistorical researchfindings.

Margarete Sandelowski Receives the Ninth AnnualAgnes Dillon Randolph Award

On March 21, 2002 Margarete Sandelowski, the ninth recipient of theAgnes Dillon Randolph award, spoke on “Paradox and Irony in theNursing/Technology Relationship.” Dr. Sandelowski, a professor at theUniversity of Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Nursing, provided apanoramic overview of twentieth century American nursing as shedescribed the complex interplay between evolving technology and thenurse clinicians who made use of it. She described nurses’ increasingambivalence toward technology, which was once unquestioninglychampioned as the key to gender equality and enhanced status fornurses within the health professions. Sandelowski noted that by the1970s nurses began to depict nursing and technology as in opposition toeach other, with nursing as the humane antidote to cold, impersonaltechnology. She concluded by pointing out that nurses wereindispensable to the early-twentieth-century scientific and technologicaltransformation of health care and medicine in the United States. Areception and book signing spon-sored by Beta Kappa Chapter ofSigma Theta Tau, Internationalfollowed the Randolph lecture. Theevent was a featured program in theVirginia Foundation for the Human-ities 2002 Festival of the Book.

Windows in Time Volume 10, Issue 1, 2002 Page 2

nursing care of premature infants. After Hess’ death Lundeen, because ofher vast clinical knowledge and ability to care and feed prematures, andthus, to keep them alive, became the first author of the subsequent editionof this text. Her pioneering work earned her the title “mother of pre-mature care” among earlier neonatologists. It is clear that a closer examination of the caring and curing activities ofearlier nurses should be undertaken simply because it is neither honest norwise to separate the treatment of patients into two distinct dimensions.Patients have always needed the services of health professionals whopossess and use an intelligent blend of both skills. As a nurse historian andeducator, I believe the province of professional nurses has sometimes been tocure; often to delay death and relieve pain and suffering of patients and theirfamilies, and educate them in ways to remain healthy; but always to renderintelligent and compassion-ate care to those in need.

CNHI Director Dr. Barbara Brodie (left)presents the ninth annual Agnes DillonRandolph Award to Dr. MargareteSandelowski.

Windows in Time May, 2002 Page 3

FALL 2002 HISTORY FORUMS

McLeod Hall Room 504412:00 - 1:00 PMAll are welcome!

"Men Need Not Apply": Male Nurses in theU.S. Navy Before 1965

Richard Westphal, RN, MSNUVa Nursing Doctoral Student

Commander, U.S. Navy Nurse Corps

"From Caring Mother to Scientific Nurse:Psychiatric Nursing Between 1930- 1950"

Rebecca Harmon, MN, RN, CS PhD Student, UVa School of Nursing

"Securing a Better, Balanced Life”:Reduction of Working Hours for RNs, 1930-1950

Jean Whelan, PhD, RNPost-Doctoral Fellow, University of Pennsylvania

School of NursingRecipient of 2001 CNHI Research Fellowship

Barbra Mann Wall Awarded 2002 CNHIResearch Fellowship

From among a strong field of applicants, Dr.Barbra Mann Wall has been selected to receivethe Center’s fourth annual fellowship for herproposed study “Unlikely Entrepreneurs: NursingSisters and the Hospital Marketplace, 1965-1925.”Dr. Wall, assistant professor at PurdueUniversity’s Helen J. Johnson School of Nursing,won Notre Dame University’s John HighbargerMemorial Dissertation Award for exceptionaldoctoral dissertation by a graduate student inthe history department. She has researched,written, and lectured extensively on the uniquecontributions of Catholic nursing sisters to so-ciety and their profession.The Center is pleased to help fund Dr. Wall’sresearch, and we look forward to hearing theresults of her work in an upcoming lecture aspart of our regular History Forum series. Shejoins a special group of young nurse historianswho have established a tradition of excellence forthe award. We congratulate Barbra Mann Wallon being named the 2002 Center for NursingHistorical Inquiry Research Fellow!

Cynthia Connolly, 2000 CNHIFellowship Awardee, Presents Paper

As part of the Center’s Spring 2002 historyforum series, Dr. Cynthia Connolly, PostDoctoral Fellow in History and Public Policy atColumbia University, shared the results of herresearch on the work of nurses in early twentiethcentury pediatric convalescent hospitals. Inanalyzing the historical records of a New YorkCity pediatric convalescent program, Connollywas able to discern the central role of nurses, andespecially of the head nurse, in defining insti-tutional practices and policies that were con-cerned with the social welfare and education ofthe patients in addition to their physical care andrecovery. Dr. Connolly also discussed her workas a legislative Fellow for Minnesota SenatorPaul Wellstone. The lecture was videotaped forthe Center’s collections of presentations on thehistory of nursing.

SEPTEMBER 25

OCTOBER 16

NOVEMBER 13

THE CENTER’S

CALENDAR OFEVENTS

Windows in Time Volume 10, Issue 1, 2002 Page 4

CENTER ACTIVITIES AND AWARDS

Dr. Arlene Keeling BecomesCenter’s New Director

On June 1, 2002 Arlene Keeling PhD, RN stepsinto the directorship of the Center. One of theoriginal founders of the Center in 1991, Arlenehas served as an Associate Director for almost adozen years. During this time her leadershipand scholarly activities have helped shape theCenter and advanced the field of nursing his-tory. Currently engaged in a three-year feder-ally funded study of the history of coronarycare nursing units, Arlene has authored manyhistorical publications and been a frequent pre-senter at national and international conferences.In addition to directing the Center, Arlene willcontinue as the Director of the Acute CareNurse Practitioner Program in the School ofNursing’s Master’s program.Barbara Brodie PhD, RN, FAAN, who is retiringfrom the UVa School of Nursing faculty in De-cember 2002, will continue to be involved inCenter activities as the Associate Director. Withthe appointment of John Kirschgessner RN,MSN, PNP as an Assistant Director of the Cen-ter last year, the administrative team remainsintact and looking forward to another highlyproductive decade of activities.

UVa Doctoral Students to PresentPapers at AAHN Conference

Four University of Virginia School of Nursingdoctoral students have been invited topresent papers at the American Associationfor the History of Nursing conference in SaltLake City this September. Sandra Annan willspeak on the history of emergency nursing inthe United States during the 1960s-1970s.Richard Westphal will share the results of hisresearch on male nurses in the United StatesNavy Nurse Corps. Joy Buck will present apaper on Florence Wald and the develop-ment of the American hospice movement,and Victoria Menzies will discuss herresearch on the history of pain managementin American nursing.

Dr. Arlene Keeling, CNHI Fellows Speakat American Association for the History

of Medicine Conference

CNHI directors Barbara Brodie and ArleneKeeling joined other historians of medicalcare at the AAHM conference in Kansas City,which took place April 25-28, 2002. Dr.Keeling spoke on “Blurring the BoundariesBetween Medicine and Nursing: Coronary CareNursing in the 1960s.” She discussed thepreliminary findings of her National Instituteof Nursing-funded work on the history ofcoronary care nursing in the United States.The Center was also represented by twoformer research fellows, Cynthia Connollyand Jean Whelan, who presented papers onnursing in early twentieth century children’sconvalescent hospitals and on the 1930-1950campaign to reduce the working hours ofnurses.

New CNHI DirectorArlene Keeling, PhD,RN

Windows in Time May, 2002 Page 5

Introduction: The Medical Use of Addictive Substances:1850-1914 The power of substances to alter mood has beendocumented since the beginning of recorded history.In America, addiction became common during the latenineteenth century, an inevitable consequence of wide-spread use of opium, cocaine, and alcohol as part of alimited armamentarium of drugs used to treat illness.Mood-altering drugs were a part of everyday life ascommon medications used to cure almost all ills. Notjust pharmaceuticals, but soft drinks and spices oftencontained drugs. Products containing habit-formingsubstances were widely prescribed, available, adver-tised, and unregulated. The 1853 advent of the hypodermic intensified theproblem.1 Many physicians failed to predict that re-peated injections of narcotics or repeated use of alco-hol, cocaine, or opiates would lead to habituation. Theresult was substance abuse. People with substanceabuse problems were known as “habitués.” Becausethis condition was considered voluntary, habituéswere regarded as weak-willed, moral failures. Women were especially vulnerable to addiction. Inthe late 1800s women were considered fragile, over-excitable, and beset with nervous complaints and“female problems.” Dr. T. Gaillard Thomas, Presidentof the American Gynecological Society, wrote in 1879,“For the relief of pain, the treatment is all summed upin one word, and that is opium. This divine drugovershadows all other anodynes… you can easily edu-cate her to become an Opium-eater, and nothing shortof this should be aimed at by the medical attendant.”2

Over-prescribing of habit-forming drugs to womenwas the single most important reason for the increasein drug abuse. Women outnumbered men in addictionto narcotics by three to one.3 The general public toler-ated addicts, regarding them as weak, but harmless.

The Nurse Habitué

Professional nurse training in America began in1873, coinciding with the post-Civil War surge of diffi-culties with opium, alcohol and cocaine addiction.Nursing instruction followed the Florence Nightingalemodel, which insisted that nurses be professionallytrained and, just as important, that they be of goodcharacter. Society’s tolerance of the “harmless” addict

did not apply to the nursing profession, where Night-ingale’s strict standards held sway. Annie Hobbs, writ-ing in the 1907 The Nursing Times, described the exper-ience of six alcoholic colleagues, worn out from takingcare of patients, who used alcohol to aid sleep. Upondiscovery, the women were fired, with a “slur on[their] character” that meant professional disrepute.4 Nurses were seen to have developed the alcohol ornarcotic habit by inadvertently using the substances asmedication to treat insomnia, tension, or pain and thensuccumbing to their influence. Nursing leader LaviniaDock recognized these dangers, and strongly warnedagainst them:

The author feels impelled by the experience ofmany years to remind nurses of the subtledangers of many potent remedies with whichthey are entrusted, and to urge upon themmost gravely never to lose sight of the dreadfulpossibility of falling under the influence ofcertain drug habits unfortunately but too easilyacquired in accession to the relief offered bydrugs in moments of fatigue or nerveexhaustion. Not to prop her failing strength bystimulating drugs is imperative for the nurse.5

Dr. Perry Lichtenstein, physician for the City Prison inManhattan, noted in 1914 that many women habituéscame from the “better class,” including nurses andactresses. The American Medical Association’sCommittee on the Narcotic Situation in 1920 specifi-cally notes the overworked, over-stressed nurse asbeing at “high risk for addiction.”6

Despite an understanding of the profession’s risk forsubstance abuse, there was little sympathy or availabletreatment for the nurse habitué. In addition to the fact

The Nurse Habitué:The History of Addiction in Nurses, 1850-1982

by Barbara Heise, RN, MSN, FNP

Windows in Time Volume 10, Issue 1, 2002 Page 6

that nurses had always been held to higher moral stan-dards, society as a whole was becoming less tolerant ofaddiction. During the late 1800s and early 1900s healthprofessionals, legislators, and reformers gradually be-came aware of the dangers of habit-forming drugs.Many newspapers and magazines took up the crusadeagainst addiction, joined by the influential Women’sChristian Temperance Union. Reformers gained increased support from this vocaltemperance movement. The linkage of opium, mor-phine, and cocaine to crime and immoral behavior ledto national legislative measures restricting their use. Nolonger available over the counter, proprietary medicinesnow required labeling of contents and a physicianprescription.7 At the same time, international pressureto control drug problems eventually led to the HarrisonNarcotic Act of 1914, which marked a pivotal change innarcotic regulation.8

Medicalization, then Criminalization of Addiction

Although addiction was now viewed negatively, theaddict was generally considered to be a victim of dis-ease rather than a criminal. Many physicians attemptedto provide treatment for opiate addicts. In 1920, Amer-ican Medicine confirmed that addiction was “a definitephysical disease, characterized by pathologic processesas real as those associated with any other bodily ill.” 9

But treatment of substance abuse as a disease still failedto solve the problem. Addiction was an enigma with noone cause or cure, and relapse was common. By the1930s and 1940s it became apparent that medicaltreatment of addiction often did not work. The responseshifted to keeping addicts away from drugs as theproblem was redefined as an enforcement issue ratherthan a medical one. As criminalization supersededmedicalization, control of addiction was attemptedthrough the legal system. The most severe law, theNarcotic Control Act of 1956, “combined the threat ofdeath with mandatory minimum sentences with thefirst conviction.”10 Not until the 1960’s would medical-ization of addiction regain prominence.

Nurses and the Conspiracy of Silence

Women, and especially nurses, continued to suffer.With the closure of drug maintenance clinics by 1923,there was essentially no treatment for addicted womenuntil 1941, when they were allowed to enter one of thetwo federal narcotic farms for addicted prisoners inLexington, Kentucky or Fort Worth, Texas. A 1955 studyof 120 women at the Lexington facility reported that 79

(69%) were registered nurses, with the remainder inrelated professions.11

The strong stigma attached to nurses and addictionpromoted concealment of any evidence of substanceabuse. The dichotomy between the ideal of thedisciplined, competent nurse and the old picture of theimmoral, untrained nurse led many healthprofessionals and their institutions to look the otherway. Solomon Garb, M.D. of Cornell University inNew York City studied the extent of addiction amongnurses and doctors in the mid-1960s. Contacting all fiftystate health departments, he found under-reporting ofaddiction in nurses and physicians. “We find that they(nurses) have been discharged from as many as six oreight positions for misuse of narcotics without anyreports being made to this agency or to the licensingboards.”12 Clearly, a conspiracy of silence existed. Several studies shed light on the special problem ofthe nurse addict. Jimmie Poplar, former director ofnursing at the Lexington facility, wrote of thecharacteristics of the nurse addict in 1969. Sheconcluded that the nurse addict used drugs alone ratherthan with others; started the addiction as an adult; useddrugs to escape pain rather than for “kicks;” and ob-tained drugs through work rather than through shop-lifting, prostitution, or the black market. In her study ofninety nurse addict prisoners, Poplar found three majorconcerns associated with the addicted nurse: whether toadvise their employers of their history of addiction, fearof their handling narcotic keys, and support in time ofpotential relapse.13 A 1974 study by Levine, Preston andLipscomb found that nurses attached degrees of accep-tability to drug abuse, from most acceptable (prescrip-tion drugs), to intermediate (alcohol, cigarettes), to leastacceptable (cocaine, heroin).14 In 1981 Bissell and Jonesfound that addicted nurses held responsible, advancedpositions and shared the self-medication practices ofnon-addicted nurses.15 The problem was one of degree. Major help for nurses with addictions started in 1980when the National Nurses Society on Addictions beganthe impaired nurse committee chaired by Pat Green.16

In 1982 the American Nurses Association, workingclosely with NNSA, passed a resolution calling foracknowedgement of the problem and establishment ofguidelines for impaired nurse programs.17 Before 1982,addicted nurses lost their licenses, their source ofincome, and often went to jail. Now, employersrefrained from punitive action and began to makeefforts at rehabilitating nurses suspected of addictionrather than firing them.18 The “throwaway nursesyndrome” had ended at last.

References on p. 7

May, 2002 Page 7Windows in Time

CNHI Historical Research FellowshipAward for 2003

The Center for Nursing Historical Inquiry ResearchFellowship is available for nurses engaged in historicalscholarship that opens new knowledge in nursinghistory. Applications for the $3,000 award are due onOctober 15, 2002, and the awardee will be announced inDecember.The fellowship award will be based on the scholarlyrigor of the investigator’s proposal, including clarity ofthe project’s purpose, its rationale and significance, thequality of methodology and questions posed, andpotential contribution to the field of nursing. Therecipient is required to present a paper based on theproject as part of the CNHI History Forum series.Application and curriculum vitae may be sent to:

Arlene Keeling, Director, CNHIUniversity of Virginia School of NursingMcLeod Hall, Box 800782,Charlottesville, Virginia 22908-0782

Questions should be directed to Dr. Keeling at 804-924-5906 or 924-0083, e-mail: awk2z@ virginia.edu or FAX(804) 924-1809. Applications and information areavailable on the Center’s Web page at: http://www.nursing.virginia.edu/centers/cnhi/index.html

References:“The Nurse Habitué”1 Howard-Jones, N. “The Origins of the HypodermicNeedle,” Scientific American Monthly 224:1 ( January1971), 96-102.2 Kandall, S. Substance and Shadow: Women and Addic-tion in the United States (Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniv. Press, 1996), 24.3 Earle, C. “The Opium Habit,” in Yesterday’sAddicts (Norman, OK: Univ. of OklahomaPress, 1974), 53-61.4 Hobbs, A. “The Drink Habit Among Nurses,”Nursing Times 1 (1907), 843-844.5 Lavinia Dock, Text Book of Materia Medica forNurses (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1908),iii.6 Kandall, 83, 1007 Musto, D. The American Disease: Origins ofNarcotic Control (New York: Oxford Univ.Press, 1999).8 McAllister, W. Drug Diplomacy in the Twen-tieth Century (New York: Routledge, 2000).9 Kandall, 86.10 Musto, 242.11 Rasor, R. & Crecraft, H. “ Addiction to Meperidine(Demerol) Hydrochloride” Journal of the AmericanMedical Association 157:8 (1955), 654-657.12 Garb, S. “ Narcotic Addiction in Nurses andDoctors” Nursing Outlook 13 (1965), 30-34.13Poplar, J. “Characteristics of Nurse Addicts”American Journal of Nursing 69:1 (1969), 117-119.14 Levine, D., Preston, P. and Lipscomb, S. “A HistoricalApproach to Understanding Drug Abuse AmongNurses,” American Journal of Psychiatry 131:9 (1974),1036-1037.15 Bissell, L. and Jones, R. “ The Alcoholic Nurse,”Nursing Outlook (February 1981), 96-101.16 Campbell, F., Jack, L., Pflum, S. & VehLeiker, T.“The National Nurses Society on Addictions: A 20-year History,” Journal of Addictions Nursing 6:2 (1996),52-62.17 Haack, M. & Hughes, T. (Eds.) Addiction in theNursing Profession (New York: Oxford Univ. Press,1984).18 Sullivan, E., Bissell, L. & Williams, E.Chemical Dependency in Nursing: The DeadlyDiversion (Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley,1988), 1-22.

CSHN History of Nursing Research Award

The Center for The Study of The History of Nursing at theUniversity of Pennsylvania offers two $2,500 fellow-ships for residential study using the Center's collec-tions. The Alice Fisher Society Scholarship is awardedfor evidence of, interest in, and aptitude for historicalresearch related to nursing. The scholarships are opento those with master’s and doctoral level preparation.The Lillian Sholits Brunner Fellowship award is basedon evidence of preparation and/or productivity inhistorical research related to nursing. Although doc-torally prepared candidates are preferred, the fellow-ships are open to those with pre-doctoral preparation.Applications for the 2003 Fisher and Brunner are dueby December 31, 2002, and the winners will be an-nounced on March 1, 2003. For information on how toapply, visit the CSHN Web site at http://www.nursing.upenn.edu/history/reearch. htm.

Windows in Time Volume 10, Issue 1, 2002 Page 8

PEDIATRIC NURSE PRACTITIONERS SHOW STRONG

SUPPORT FOR NURSING HISTORY

In the summer of 2001 the papers of the National Certification Board of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners and Nurseswere transported to their new home at the University of Virginia, to become part of a permanent archives ofthe organization administered by the Center for Nursing Historical Inquiry. Shortly afterward, a fund drive tosupport the expenses of processing and preserving the papers was begun. The response has been over-whelming, and the NCB archives fund is now over $11,000! The Center expresses sincere gratitude to all ofdonors listed below, not only for their financial support, but for the show of pride in their profession and ofcommitment to preserving its heritage. Thank you, one and all! Future generations of historians will reapthe benefits of your foresight and support.

Adams, Sally StadlerAldridge, CherylAllman, Robin WalkerArvold, Mary EllenAudette, MarjorieAuerbach, EricaAustin, Cheryl BranchBakas-Allen, LorettaBalkam, Jane JohnstonBarilich, MargaretBarron, Kathy E.Bauman, Alice L.Beck-Gifford, MichaelBergman, RonniBillings, PatriciaBlick, Lynda JamesBonta, Catherine M.Boone, Alice L.Bottei, Kelly K.Brady, Margaret A.Bragg, Nila S.Brenkler, FainaBrennan, Christine S.Broach, DonnaBuchanan, Joan A.Buckley, KathleenBuckman, PenelopeBurke, KayBurns, CatherineBurt, PatriciaCalhoun, JanetCanary, Amy L.Carney, LorraineCastellanos, Ellen M.Chapman, MollyChico, Alice B.Clark, Dolores W.Clift, LindaClow, Toni J.Cobos, JudyColeman, BeverlyCook, V. ValerieCooper, Teresa P.Cosgrove, Rose M.Cramer, Carol

Dale, JuanitaDavis, Judith C.Dellert, Jane CerrutiDenis, Christine A.Dickenson Hazard,NancyDickerson, Marilyn M.Doll, SandiDonovan, Deborah L.Downs, Lorena F.Doyle, LynnDroske, Zoe AnnDuderstadt, KarenDuncan, NancyDunn, Barbara H.Eckhart, DonnaEriksen, JoyceEstep, SonjaEvans, JanetFay, Susan HelmerFeighner, Linda L.Fidanza, SaraFlanagan, Judith C.Fond, KarenFrantz, KittieFreer, Catherine A.Gallaway, KathleenGarcia, MinervaGaylord, NanGiannetta, TereaGibian, JeanneGibbs, Helen M.Gilman, LindaGingery, RoseGreene, JoanGuion, RobinGuravitz, LisaHallman, Margaret L.Hammond, Jean E.Harbin, RichardHarclerode, Bernice L.Heberle, Mary C.Hellings, Pamela J.Hellman, Harriet L.Herman, Paulette H.

Hoggard, GeriHolland, Mary LynnHolmgren, Theresa P.Hopkins, VeronicaHorn, MaryHornbeck, PamelaHosek, Nancy LynnHyde, DorothyIacobucci, Ann J.Imler, Nyla JuhlJacquard, KathleenJelmini, LindaJohnson, Christine K.Jones, CheryllJones, Elizabeth A.Jones, Judith E.Jones, KarlaJones, Mary ElaineJordan, CathyKacerek, Donna B.Ketchum, BeverlyKiefer, SharonKiekhaefer, RuthKonupek, Annette L.Kramer, Nancy S.Kritzer, NancyKunzman, Lucy A.Land, JudithLandes, Brenda H.Leigh, Mary AnnLiguori, RosemaryLiljeberg, BetsyMacCormac, CarolynManasse, ArlynnMarriner, JenniferMarsh, VandaMatlock, Norma IreneMcClellan, Carol Y.McCourt, MaryMcDonald, Mary B.McGill, Amy JoMcKnight, Kathryn MMcTernan, Sandra E.Menaker, FayMersereau, Patricia

Mickens, SusanMiller, Pamela Y.Mills, LeslieMing, JeanieMoore, Karen S.Moose, Paula K.Morris, Elmyra P.Mosher, Revonda B.Munn, NancyMyers, Judith A.Nawara, BonnaeNaylon, Stephen C.Neal, Allyson MatneyNemeth, Bari JoyNewman, RobinNichol, Martha E.Nitz, Barbara Ruth and Trevor WilliamNovak, Julie CowanObermark, KarenO'Connor, PatriciaPack, MaryannPahmier, MargaretPaine, BrigittePearson, IngridPence, DonnaPeterson, KathyPetraco, Mary KoslapPhillips, Susan S.Pietro, Helena WoodPluscht, ChristinePoorbaugh, Jayne M.Pope, Dianna L.Porricolo, Maura E.Pruett, ElizabethPurtee, JillQuinn, CatherineRichardson, DaphneRoach, JaneRoberson, L. CarolRothman, Sharon K.Russell, Jennifer M.St. Clair, Janet M.Samelak, DianeSargent, Barbara T.

Saunders, KarenScanlon, Elizabeth A.Schauer, Janet B.Sexton, RosemaryShapiro, Daryl SueShifrin, JillShipe, Beverly Ann G.Short, KimSizer, CathySmith, Jean C.Smith, Katherine D.Spencer, JaneStambolis, ElizabethStiggelbout, JoanSullivan, LorraineSweat, Mary T.Synhorst, Diane MattThibodeau, Alice K.Underland, PatriciaVan Buren, KathrynVan Cleve, Susan N.Vander Plaats, SharonVarnell, Gayle P.Vecchiariello, VictoriaVining, FlorenceVoeller, VirginiaWagner, PennyWard, InezWard, Jennie L.Watson, Susan M.Weiner, Susan ErnstWheeler, Jean S.Willis, CamilleWittekind, CharlotteWright, Diana C.Wyllie, Sarah M.Zickler, Candace F.

May, 2002 Page 9Windows in Time

CENTER CONTRIBUTORS

October 2001 - April 2002

American Association for theHistory of Nursing Conference

The 19th annual AAHN conference, cosponsoredwith Brigham Young University College of Nurs-ing, will be held from September 27-29, 2002 in SaltLake City. Keynote speaker will be MargareteSandelowski, PhD, RN, FAAN. A preconferenceworkshop on “Doing History: Family History/Geneaology” is scheduled for Thursday, Septem-ber 26. Participants in this optional work-shop willwork with the resources of the renowned FamilyHistory Center. Other optional activities includeattending a rehearsal of the Mormon TabernacleChoir and taking part in a self-directed walkingtour of downtown Salt Lake City. For moreinformation please visit the AAHN Web site athttp://www.aahn.org/index. html.

Randolph Society

Lorraine & Bill AlbrechtBecky BowersBarbara BrodieSue & Dudley BryantPauline & Albert DessertineBarbara DunnJanet FickeissenMarilyn FloodAnnette GibbsMary & Robert GibsonMikel GrayJulie & Kal HowardArlene KeelingPamela KulbokJoAnne PeachRita PicklerPiedmont Council of Nurse PractiotionersDenise & Charles ShererUVa School of Nursing Alumni AssociationMr. & Mrs. Joseph VadenPatricia & Keith Woodard

Pember Society

Sara Jean Mapstone

Beazley Society

Alice AucielloPatricia ChamingsJanis ChildsJoseph Cragwall, Jr.Charles & Doris GreinerThetis GroupMarion B. HunterJim & Ellen PrinsGrayce SillsEllen Stout

Center Supporter

Ruth ManchesterTodd Savitt

Shelby F. ShiresMaude SmithPeter & Agnes Steenland

Friends of the Center

Nettie BirnbachCarol GleitGladys HarrisMargaret HughesMarguerite ManfredaNancy RockersMary SarneckyPatricia Wagner

The

Center

thanks

everyone

for their

continued

support!

Center Archivist Susan Swasta DepartsThe unsung hero of every history center is the archivist whoquietly and efficiently transforms boxes overflowing with old,often musty, and fragile documents and memorabilia into his-torical collections rich in information. Archivists organize andpreserve documents and create user-friendly guides that allowhistorians to explore the scope of a specific collection and focuson relevant information. In addition, young scholars and stu-dents quickly learn that archivists are wonderful allies in thesearch for historical information because of their knowledgeabout possible locations of other pertinent resources.

Susan Swasta has been the Center’s unsung hero archivistsince 1998, and because she leaves us this month it is impera-tive that we publicly acknowledge and thank her for her signif-icant contributions to the development of the Center! As ourfirst professional archivist, Susan created the basic substructureon which the Center now functions, and she organized andopened our collections and services to scholars, faculty, stu-dents, and visitors. Involved in almost every activity of theCenter, including its newsletter, Web page, countless historicaldisplays, correspondence, membership solicitations, and day-to-day management, Susan generously gave of her energy andtalents to build CNHI’s national reputation. We will sorelymiss her professional leadership, personal warmth, and quietefficiency, but we wish her much success in her newest adven-ture. In June, Susan joins her husband on a goat farm inMassachusetts. Here they will learn the art of raising a herd ofgoats and making delicious goat cheese. She promises notonly to send us some goat cheese but also recipes on how touse it in our favorite dishes. Good luck, Susan!

Windows in Time Volume 10, Issue 2, 2002 Page 10

First Accession of NAPNAP Papers,1973-1992, Ready for Researchers

After many months of work by the Center archivist,the first major segment of the NAPNAP Papers hasbeen fully processed for scholarly use. The papershave been arranged chronologically in series andplaced in archival containers. An extensive finding aidlists box and folder contents and characterizes thetypes of documents and the major subject areas cov-ered in the papers. This section of the NAPNAPPapers covers the founding and early development ofthe organization and its evolution into a strong voicefor pediatric nurse practitioners. The collection is par-ticularly notable for its information on early strugglesto define and to create credentialing for nurse practi-tioners, and on NAPNAP’s involvement in identify-ing, tracking, and influencing health policy and legis-lation affecting the welfare of children and the PNPprofession. The history of this organization forms avital part of the story of the nurse practitioner move-ment in America. The NAPNAP Papers have been,and will continue to be, an important resource forhistorians of nursing and health care, and scholarlyaccess is now enhanced by the completion of archivalprocessing.

UVa’s Claude Moore Health SciencesLibrary Unveils Yellow Fever Web Site

Beginning in 1937, Philip S. Hench, MD spent overfifteen years accumulating thousands of documents,printed materials, photographs, and artifacts associ-ated with the work of Walter Reed and the US ArmyYellow Fever Commission in turn-of-the-centuryCuba. Hench intended to write the complete story ofthe Commission’s work, which had proved that themosquito Aedes aegypti was the vector for yellow fever.Although he never completed his book, Hench’s pa-pers themselves have a fascinating story to tell — astory now accessible to interested viewers all over theworld, thanks to the Health Science Library’s Histori-cal Collections and Services Department. In 2000 theInstitute for Museum and Library Services awarded$250,000 to the department to create a Hench/YellowFever Web site, and two years later some 5500 imagesand transcriptions of original documents are online,along with the story of the Yellow Fever Commissionand of Hench’s research. The site can be found athttp://yellowfever.lib.virginia.edu/ .

INTERNATIONAL NURSING NEWS

Celebration of British Midwives Act2002 marks the centenary of the first Mid-wives Act in England and Wales. A confer-ence to recognize this event, "Birthing andBureaucracy: The History of Childbirth and Mid-wifery,” will be held at the School of Nursingand Midwifery at the University of Sheffieldon October 11, 2002. For more informationcontact conference organizer Jane Durell ofthe University of Sheffield, at: j.durell@sheffield.ac.uk .

Conference Polish Nursing HistoryAn international conference entitled“Nursing in the Face of Endangered Values, theCentenary of Hanna Chrzanowska's Birth” willbe held in Krakow, Poland on October 11-12,2002 by the Institute of Nursing of the Jagiel-lonian University and the Polish Associationof Catholic Nurses. Hanna Chrzanowska(1902-1973) helped to professionalize nurs-ing in Poland in the 1920s. A nurse educa-tor, community nurse, and long-time editorof the major Polish nursing journal, she alsofounded the parish nursing movement inKrakow in 1958. Conference themes will be:threatened values and nursing humanism,professional ethics and nursing ethos, theorigins of community nursing, the history ofnurse education, and the life and times ofHanna Chrzanowska. More information canbe obtained at: instpiel@cm-uj.krakow.pl

Canadian Association for the Historyof Nursing Annual Conference

The CAHN will hold its annual meetingjointly with the Canadian Society for theHistory of Medicine at the University ofToronto on May 24-26 2002. Dr. KarenBuhler-Wilkerson, Director of the Center forNursing History at the University of Penn-sylvania will present the Hannah Lecture,speaking on the history of nursing and homecare in the United States. Her talk will befollowed by a short panel discussion withCandian scholars who specialize in publichealth and home care nursing.

May, 2002 Page 9Windows in Time

SNIPPETS FROM THE PAST

Excerpts from Charlotte Aiken (1930),Studies in Ethics for Nurses

Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders

Discreetness of speech. A large part of the training for which a nurse must be responsible in herself isthe training of her tongue, the cultivation in herself of habits of reticence, … of refraining fromdiscussing the affairs of patients with people who have no right to be told anything about them… .(p. 79)Lack of respect for authority. In a hospital a system of semi-military discipline prevails. The rules,regulations and orders are … passed to nurses through officers or workers higher in rank. The nurseis expected to observe the orders and rules given to those to whom authority has been delegated,whatever her personal feeling toward the individual might be. … Only thus can an institution achieveits highest success. (p. 87)Visitors and rules. Perhaps the most difficult part in the nurse’s dealings with friends of patients comeswhen rules have to be enforced regarding hours when [visitors] may come, or must leave, regardingdelicacies or foods forbidden, and necessary prohibitions. This is a point at which nurses need tact andjudgment and also a stiff spinal column. (p. 120)Nurse’s health. The turning of night into day, of working hours into sleeping hours, is never or rarelyaccomplished without some difficulty in regard to sleep and general health. The general experience ofnight duty is that it causes physical depression in a greater or lesser degree. For this reason a nurseneeds to guard her health even more than when on day duty. Out-of-door recreation taken during thehours of sunshine is imperative if general vitality is to be kept up… (p. 133.)Nursing instinct. What is it? It is that acute perception of the importance of small things in the comfortof a patient - that sense that prompts a nurse to see a hundred small things that would make him morecomfortable … while another nurse contents herself with doing only what she considers important,and sees nothing further which she might have done. (p. 143)Making a right start. There are several important ethical considerations which a nurse shouldespecially keep in mind ... (1) The public will judge trained nurses .. by the conduct and spirit ofindividual nurses in their work. (2) A nurse’s honor is at stake in many of the problems that willconfront her. (3) In her dealing with the sick, or with the public, there are always at least two sides toevery question… She must try to see these other sides. A nurse’s word should mean something if sheever hopes to attain to any position of trust. (p 259)Working with men. Whatever organizations a nurse belongs to she should become a member of anorganization in which men and women are working together towards a common end. The masculineviewpoint on many problems is well worth having: in many circumstances it is essential to a well-balanced judgment. (p. 329)

Windows In Time

Windows in Time Volume 10, Issue 1, 2002 Page 12

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