Policy Brief Issue 7 | October 2019

Why do Indonesian Men and Women Choose Undocumented Migration? Exploring Gender Differences in Labor Migration Patterns

KEY FINDINGS

• Onlyabout1in10Indonesiansaged18to40andinterestedinmigratingabroadknowtherequirementsfordocumentedmigration

• Genderdifferencesinthepropensitytobecomeundocumentedmigrantsmaybedrivenbytimeconstraintsduetohighercareburdenwomenface

CONTEXT

Migrant workers are a key part of Indonesia’s economy.Theequivalentofalmost7%ofIndonesia’slaborforce,anestimated9millionpeople,workoverseas.In2016,overIDR159trillion(US$11.2billion)wassentbacktoIndonesiaintheformofremittances1.Indonesiansworkingabroadearnonaverage4timestheirwagesfromthelastjobathome,whilereceivingremittancesfromoverseasworkersreducetheprobabilityofhouseholdsbeingpoorby27%2.

Undocumented migration increases risk and lowers returns to working abroad.3Onlyanestimatedone-thirdofcurrentIndonesianmigrantworkershavesignedacontractpriortodeparture,andmorethanhalfdonothavetherequireddocumentsformigration4.

EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC GENDER INNOVATION LAB

EAPGIL carries out

impact evaluations

and inferential

research to generate

evidence on what

works in closing

gender gaps in

assets, economic

opportunities, and

agency, and how

closing these gaps

can help achieve

other development

outcomes. Ultimately,

EAPGIL seeks to

increase the welfare

of women and men

in East Asia and the

Pacific by promoting

the uptake of

effective policies and

programs identified

based on evidence.

1 Formalremittancesconstituteaboutonepercentofthecountry’sGDP.Source:KNOMAD.2019.Migration and Development Brief 31. WashingtonDC:WorldBank.

2 Adams,R.,&Cuecuecha,A.(2011).TheEconomicImpactofInternationalMigrationandRemittancesonPovertyandHouseholdConsumptionandInvestmentinIndonesia.PolicyResearchWorkingPaper5433.

3 Tobeconsidereddocumented,orprocedural,aprospectivemigrantneedstohavepresentedtherequiredninedocuments(marriagecertificate[ifapplicable],permissionletterfromparent/spouse/guardian,passport,visa,skillsandhealthcertificates,migrantworkerplacementagreement,employmentagreementandBPJSsocialsecuritymembershipnumber)tothelocalofficeofthenationalagencyformigrantplacementandprotection.

4 WorldBankInternationalMigrationandRemittancesSurvey2014(WB-IMR2014).

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Consequently,theyfacemultiplerisks:fromphysicalviolencetounsafeworkplacesandeconomicexploitation5.Theyarealsolesslikelytoreapthefullbenefitsofmigration:ourdatasuggestthatundocumentedmigrantsearn24.9%lowerwagesabroadandsend43.6%lessmoneyhome.6

WHAT DID WE DO?

AteamofresearchersfromtheWorldBank,incooperationwithIndonesia’sMinistryofManpower(MoM),collecteddataonmigrationfrom13,372Indonesiansbetweentheagesof18and40in179villagesacrosssixprovincesbetweenJulyandOctoberin2018.7ThedataisfromthebaselinesurveyofanimpactevaluationoftheMoM’sDesmigratifprogram,whichfacilitatesdocumentedmigrationthroughasetofinnovativeoutreachmethods,fromnowonreferredtoasIndonesiaSafeMigrationSurvey.ThroughDesmigratif,MoMwillbuildMigrationInformationCenters(MICs)intargetvillagestomakeformalinformationmoreaccessibleforresidentsofruralareas.TwoexperimentalinterventionswillcomplementMICs:aSMS-basedapplication,whichmakesinformationonmigrationeasilyaccessibleand“edutainment”campaignswherevideosonmigrationwillbescreenedinaccessibleareas

intargetvillages.BuildingonthefindingsintherecentIndonesia’s Global Workersreport,weuseoursurveydatatoexploregenderdifferencesinthereasonswhypotentialmigrantsmaychooseundocumentedroutes.

WHAT DID WE FIND?

Most Indonesians, including those interested in migrating, do not have accurate information about documented migration.Only10%ofIndonesianssurveyedcouldnamethefourprimarydocumentsrequiredtoworkabroad.Thenumbersdidnotgreatlyincreasewithinterestinmigration:12%ofrespondentswhoexpressedinterestinmigratingcouldnameallfourdocuments(Figure1).Menandwomenareequallypoorlyinformed.

Where people get their information is linked to how much they know and how they would migrate. Ifmostpotentialmigrantsareunawareoftherequirementsformigration,wheremighttheygotogetthatinformation?Thoserespondentswhointendtogetinformationfromformalsourcesaremoreknowledgeableaboutrequireddocuments.Forexample,only12%and13%ofthoserelyingonfriendsandonbrokers9,respectively,cannameallthedocumentsrequiredformigration.The

5 WorldBank.2016.Indonesia’s Global Workers: Juggling Opportunity & Risks. Jakarta:WorldBank.6 Anoteonthedataprovidedfurtheroninthebrief.7 ProvincessurveyedwereEastJava,WestJava,CentralJava,Yogyakarta,SouthSulawesi,andEastNusaTenggara.18to40isthemostcommonage

rangeforIndonesianforeignworkers.8 AsalldatapresentedinthisbriefarefromtheIndonesia’sSafeMigrationSurvey2018,referencetothesourcewillbeomittedhenceforth.9 Ourstudydefinesmigrationbrokersasindividualswhorecruitoverseasworkersandoftenassistwithjobplacementandpaperwork.UndertheLawofthe

RepublicofIndonesiaNumber18of2017onProtectionofIndonesianMigrantWorkers(e.g.Article69),brokersareprohibitedfrombeinginvolvedintheplacementprocess.Therefore,Indonesiansemployedandplacedusingtheassistanceofbrokersaremorelikelytonotberecognizedasdocumentedmigrants.

Yes No Men Women

FIGURE 1: MOST RESPONDENTS ARE UNAWARE OF THE DOCUMENTS NEEDED

TO REGISTER FOR MIGRATION

FIGURE 2: WHERE PEOPLE GET INFORMATION MATTERS

Figure 2: Share of respondents who are correct abou the documents needed for migration, by information source

0

35%

10%

30%

30%

20%

50%

10%

70%

0%

80% 100%90%20%

25%

40%

15%

60%

5%

Share of respondents interested in migration who could name four documents necessary to register

formally, among those interested in migration

Source: Authors’ calculation using Indonesia’s Safe Migration Survey (ISMS) 2018.8 Note: gender differences are not statistically significant

Female

Male

12.8% 87.2%

11.5% 88.5%

Friend InternetBroker Private Labor Placement

Agency

Government Office

fractionisabouttwiceashighamongthosewhorelyonprivatelaborplacementagencyorgovernmentagencies10:24%and26%respectively.Notably,genderdifferencesarewithinarangeof1percentagepointandnotstatisticallysignificant(Figure2).

Gender plays an important role in determining where migrants register to work abroad. Beyondsourcesofinformation,wealsoaskpotentialmigrantswheretheywouldlookforjobvacancies11.Womenaremorelikelytolookforjobsthroughbrokers,whilemenaremorelikelytorelyongovernmentagenciessuchaslaborofficesfortheirjobsearch(Figure3).Informationsourcesalsomatterforregistration:bothmenandwomenwhosaytheywouldgetinformationfrombrokersaremuchmorelikelytoregisterthroughthemaswell(Figure4).Notably,womenareonlymorelikelythanmentoregisterthroughbrokersiftheygetinformationfromthem(Figure4);amongrespondentswhosaytheywouldnotgetinformationwithabroker,menaremorelikelytosaytheywouldregisterwithone.

Time constraints may play a role in making women more vulnerable to undocumented migration.Inouroverallsub-sampleofrespondentsinterestedinworkingabroad,womenare25%morelikelythanmentosaytheywouldregisterthroughabroker.Conversely,

menare47.5%morelikelythanwomentosaytheywouldregisterwithaformalagency12.However,thesedifferencesarealmostentirelydrivenbywomenwithchildrenundertheageof15:womenwithnoyoungchildrenshowmigrationpreferencesthatarenearlyidenticaltothoseofmen(Figure5).

Ifwomenwithoutyoungchildrenshowthesamepreferencesasmen,whatcouldbedrivingthesedifferencesforwomenwhoaretakingcareofchildren?Womenaremorelikelytobearthelion’sshareoftime-consumingchildcareresponsibilities.Laborofficesandothergovernmentagenciesoftenrequirelongtraveltimesastheycanbequitefarfromthoseinruralvillagesandoperateduringlimitednumberofhours13.Meanwhile,informalbrokersareoftenlocatedinpotentialmigrants’neighborhoodsandcantraveldirectlytotheirhousesforrecruitmentorassistancewithregistration.Oftherespondentsinoursamplewhowerecontactedbybrokers,47%werevisitedintheirownhomes,while34%visitedthebroker’shome.Inaddition,documentedmigrationinIndonesiaisacomplicatedprocess,requiringatleast17separatesteps14.ThetimeburdenduetogenderedresponsibilitiesmaybeasignificantfactorinelevatingtheriskofundocumentedmigrationamongIndonesianwomen.

10GovernmentagenciesincludelaborofficesoftheMinistryofManpowerandlocalofficesofNationalAgencyfortheProtectionandPlacementofInternationalMigrantWorkers(BNP2TKI).

11Tobecomeadocumentedmigrant,oneneedstoapplyforjobsthatareapprovedbyrelevantgovernmentagencies.Brokersmayhaveaccesstootherjobs,includingtheonesthatwerenotapprovedbybothlabor-demandingcountriesandtheIndonesianauthorities.

12Weconvertpercentagepointsfromfigure3intopercent.13Governmentmanaged,laborofficesaretypicallylocatedinthedistrictcapital.Theaveragedistancebetweenavillagehead’sofficeandthedistrictcapitalis

45.6km(PODES2014).14WorldBank.2019.Indonesia’s Migration System: Spotlight on the Documentation Process to Better Protect Overseas Workers. WashingtonD.C.:WorldBank.

Men Women Men Women

FIGURE 3: WOMEN ARE MORE VULNERABLE TO UNDOCUMENTED MIGRATION

FIGURE 4: PEOPLE WHO WOULD GET INFORMATION FROM BROKERS ARE

MORE LIKELY TO REGISTER WITH THEM

0 010% 20%30% 60%50% 100%20% 40%40% 80%

Places potential migrants would register for migration, by sexFraction of potential migrants who would register

for migration through brokers, by sex

Note: dark bars represent statistically significant differences between sexes. Note: dark bars represent statistically significant differences between sexes.

Government Agency

21.8%

15.1%

Internet7.1%

5.7%

Private Labor Placement

Office

Would get information from other

sources

27.1%

26.7%

Broker

Would get information

from a broker

36.2%

45.2%

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ThisbriefisaproductofcollaborationbetweenEAPGILandPovertyGP.ItwaspreparedbyForestJarvis,DanielHalimandElizavetaPerova,withinputsfromRirinPurnamasari,AviAstuti,AstridSavitri,SoonhwaYi,AneeshMannavaandGaneshSeshan.

WegratefullyacknowledgefundingfromtheUmbrellaFacilityforGenderEquality(UFGE)tocarryoutthiswork.EAPGILissupportedbyUFGEinpartnershipwiththeAustralianDepartmentofForeignAffairsandTrade.UFGEhasreceivedgenerouscontributionsfromAustralia,Bill&MelindaGatesFoundation,Canada,Denmark,Finland,Germany,Iceland,Latvia,Netherlands,Norway,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,UnitedKingdom,andtheUnitedStates.

FOR MORE INFORMATION

Elizaveta Perova, EAPGIL eperova@worldbank.org

Ririn Salwa Purnamasari, EAP POV rpurnamasari@worldbank.org

www.worldbank.org/eapgil

WHAT ARE THE POLICY IMPLICATIONS?

1. There is a need for dissemination of information about migration with a gender focus. OurdatahighlightthecurrentlackofknowledgeaboutdocumentedmigrationamongpotentialmigrantsinIndonesia,aswellasthepropensityofbothmenandwomentobecomeundocumentedmigrants.Earlierstudiessuggestthatmenandwomenarevulnerableindifferentways.Whilemenarelesslikelytoexperienceemotionalandphysicalabuse,theyarestilllikelytobecomevictimsoffinancialexploitation.Topdestinationsformenandwomenalsovary:womenaremorelikelytogoasdomesticworkerstoMiddleEast,andmenasfarmandconstructionworkerstoMalaysia15.Informationshouldbetargetedtomenandwomenwithgender-specificvulnerabilitiesinmind.

2. Time constraints play an important role in increasing the risk of undocumented migration.Mostofthegendergapinintenttomigratethroughbrokersisexplainedbydifferencesbetweenmotherswithandwithoutchildren,suggestingatimeconstraint.Combinedwithlengthyandcomplicatedprocedures,thistimeconstraintmaypreventwomenfromfollowingdocumentedroute.Animportantfirststepissimplificationandshorteningofthedocumentationprocessforformalmigration16.Additionally,innovativemethodstoreachtime-constrainedpotentialmigrantsmaygoalongwayinreducingtheirpropensitytorelyoninformalsources.Oneoptioncouldbeinvestinginmakinginformationremotelyaccessible,forexample,throughdigitalmediaand/ormigrationinformationhotlines.DigitalaccesstoinformationcanbeusefulformigrantswhomaynotbeablesparethetimeorincurtravelcostsassociatedwithvisitingMICsorlaboroffices.Moreover,digitalmediaareacost-effectivewayofprovidingstandardizedinformationonmigration.

3. Information should be disseminated in more diverse ways.Ourdataunderscorethemanywaysinwhichpotentialmigrantsgettheirinformationaboutmigration,andthedifferentwaysinwhichtheymigrateabroad.Informationdisseminationshouldreflectthisdiversity.AsidefromsettingupMICsinmoreremoteareas,asiscurrentlybeingimplementedintheMinistryofManpower’sDesmigratifprogram,informationcouldalsobespreadthroughmoreinnovativemeasures.Thiswouldincludetechnology-basedmethodssuchaSMScampaignsonlegalmigrationandscreeningofmigration-relatedfilmsinaccessibleareas.17This“edutainment”interventioncanprovideinformationinamoreaccessibleformat,makerisksassociatedwithmigrationmoresalient,andhasbeenproventobeaneffectivewayofchangingbehaviorinothercontexts.18

15WorldBank.2016.Indonesia’s Global Workers: Juggling Opportunity & Risks.Jakarta:WorldBank.16WorldBank.2019.Indonesia’s Migration System: Spotlight on the Documentation Process to Better Protect Overseas

Workers. WashingtonD.C.:WorldBank17SeeWorldBank,2019,“Indonesia:InformationDisseminationtoAchieveSafeLaborMigration”,forfurtherdiscussions

onpromisinginformationdisseminationstrategies.18Banerjee,A.,LaFerrara,E.,Orozco,V.,2015.ChangingNormsandBehaviorofYoungPeopleinNigeria:AnEvaluation

ofEntertainmentTV.BocconiUniversity,Mimeo.

FIGURE 5: WOMEN’S MIGRATION PREFERENCES ONLY DIFFER FROM MEN’S WHEN THEY HAVE YOUNG CHILDREN

60%

50%

30%

10%

0%

40%

20%

Note: Dark bars show statistically significant differences between sexes.

MenRespondents with young children

Women

Broker Government Office

% who would register through brokers and labor offices

MenRespondents with no children

Women