WHITE’S HANDBOOK OF CHLORINATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS

FIFTH EDITION

Black & Veatch Corporation

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

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WHITE’S HANDBOOK OF CHLORINATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS

WHITE’S HANDBOOK OF CHLORINATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS

FIFTH EDITION

Black & Veatch Corporation

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

White’s handbook of chlorination and alternative disinfectants. – 5th ed. / Black & Veatch Corporation. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Handbook of chlorination and alternative disinfectants / Geo. Clifford White. 4th ed. 1999. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-18098-3 (cloth) 1. Water–Purifi cation–Chlorination. 2. Sewage–Purifi cation–Chlorination. 3. Water–Purifi cation–Disinfection. I. White, George Clifford. Handbook of chlorination and alternative disinfectants. II. Black & Veatch. III. Title. IV. Title: Handbook of chlorination and alternative disinfectants. TD462.W47 2010 628.1'662–dc22 2009022484

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

http://www.copyright.comhttp://www.wiley.com/go/permissionhttp://www.wiley.com

This Fifth Edition of the Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants is dedicated to George Clifford White for his lifetime

commitment to the disinfection industry.

vii

CONTENTS

Preface xxvii

Authors xxix

List of Contributors and Reviewers xxxi

List of Abbreviations xxxiii

Acknowledgments xxxix

1 Chlorine: History, Manufacture, Properties, Hazards, and Uses 1

Historical Background 1Elemental Chlorine 1Chlorine Gas 1Chlorine Liquid 2

Manufacture of Chlorine 2History 2Electrolytic Processes 3

Electrolytic Cell Development 4The Ideal Electrochemical Cell 4Process Developments 5Membrane Cell 5Diaphragm Cells 8Mercury Cells 11Process Diagram for a Typical Chlor-Alkali Plant 15

Other Chlorine Manufacturing Processes 18Salt Process 18HCl Oxidation Processes 18Electrolysis of Hydrochloric Acid Solutions 20

Impurities in the Manufacture of Chlorine 20Historical Background 20Consequences of Impurities 22Nitrogen Trichloride in Liquid Chlorine 23Silica Contamination 24

viii CONTENTS

Physical and Chemical Properties of Chlorine 24

General 24Critical Properties 24Compressibility Coeffi cient 25Volume–Temperature Relationship 26Density of Chlorine Vapor 27Density of Liquid Chlorine 27Viscosity of Chlorine 27Latent Heat of Vaporization 27Vapor Pressure 27Specifi c Heat 27Solubility of Chlorine Gas in Water 27Solubility of Liquid Chlorine in Water 28Chemical Reactions 29

Hazards from Chlorine Vapor and Liquid 30

Toxic Effects 30First Aid 31Physiological Response 32Intentional Release 32

Chlorine Leaks 33

Defi nitions 33Fire and Building Codes 34Characteristics of a Major Liquid Chlorine Release 34

Calculating Chlorine Leak Rates 35

Liquid Release 35Vapor Release 35Tanker Truck Leak during Unloading 36Guillotine Break in a Pipeline: Ton Container Supply 36A Major Leak from PVC Header Failure 38Ton Container Flexible Connection Failure 39Fusible Plug Failure from Corrosion 39

Summary 41USEPA Risk Management Programs (RMPs) 41

OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) Regulations 45Worst-Case and Alternative Release Analyses 46

Chlorine Transport Accidents 47

Railroad Transportation 47Highway Transportation 51

Notable Consumer Accidents 52

General 52A Fatal 1-Ton Container Leak 53A Leak from Four 1-Ton Containers 54

CONTENTS ix

A Leak from a Buried Chlorine Pipe 54A 14,000-lb Liquid Leak 55A Tank Car Leak at a Chlorine Packager 57Brush Fire 59Frequency and Magnitude of Chlorine Leaks 59

Production and Uses of Chlorine 62

Annual Production 62End Uses of Chlorine 62Help in Chlorine Emergencies 64

References 65

2 Chemistry of Aqueous Chlorine 68

Dissolution and Hydrolysis of Chlorine 68Dissociation of Hypochlorous Acid 74

Effect of pH and Temperature 74Ionic Strength Effects 77

Chlorine Speciation in Concentrated Solutions 81Hypochlorite Solutions 82Oxidation States of Chlorine 85Free, Combined, and Available Chlorine 87Chlorine and Nitrogenous Compounds 91

Nitrogenous Compounds in Water and Wastewater 92Chlorination of Ammonia to Form Chloramines 94The Breakpoint Reaction 103The Organic Nitrogen Problem 116

The Chemistry of Chlorine in Seawater 122

Effect of Bromide 123Ionic Strength Effects 126Bromamine Formation and Decay 127

Oxidation–Reduction Reactions of Chlorine Compounds 129

Fundamental Considerations 129Practical Considerations 133

ORP Measurements 135

Practical Applications of ORP Measurements 139

Reactions of Chlorine with Selected Constituents 141

Alkalinity 142Arsenic 145Carbon 145Cyanide 146Hydrogen Sulfi de 146Iron and Manganese 147

x CONTENTS

Methane 148Nitrite 148

Chlorine Demand 149Germicidal Signifi cance of Chlorine Residuals 151

Mechanisms of Inactivation 152Hypochlorous Acid 153Hypochlorite Ion 154Chloramines 155

References 161

3 Determination of Chlorine Residuals in Water and Wastewater Treatment 174

Historical Background 174The Early Years 174Following Discovery of the Breakpoint Phenomenon 175Recent Developments 179

General Considerations 179Colorimetric and Titrimetric Methods 180Common Interferences 180Organic Nitrogen Interference 182Recommendations for Method Selection 184Detailed Descriptions of Individual Methods 187

Amperometric Titration 187Principles of Titrator Operation 188The Single-Indicator-Electrode Titrator 188The Dual-Indicator-Electrode Titrator 191Operating Characteristics 193Chemistry of the Amperometric Method 194Preparation and Procedures for Titration 195Precision and Detection Limits 200Low-Level Amperometric Titrations 200Free Chlorine Residuals at Short Contact Times 201Determination of Residual Chlorine in Wastewater Effl uents 202

DPD Method 208DPD Colorimetric Method 210DPD–FAS Titrimetric Method 211

FACTS (Syringaldazine) Method 214Iodometric Method I 215

Procedure for Standardizing Chlorine Solutions 217Iodometric Method II (Wastewater) 217Iodometric Electrode Method 218Leuco Crystal Violet (LCV) Method 219

CONTENTS xi

Methyl Orange (MO) Method 220Orthotolidine Method 221

Interfering Substances 221OTA Method 222Drop Dilution Method 222

References 223

4 Chlorination of Potable Water 230

Microbes in Water Supplies 230Surface Water and Springs 230Groundwater 230

Waterborne Diseases 231Chlorine as a Disinfectant 232

Use as a Biocide 232Use to Inactivate Protozoa 235Use as a Virucide 235Consensus Indicator Organism 236

Disinfection Requirements under (Provisions of the) Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 236SWTR 236Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) 238Stage 1 DBPR 239Long-Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule

(LT1ESWTR) 239Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule

(LT2ESWTR) 239GWR 240

Disinfection of Drinking Water with Clorine 240Historical Background 241Points of Application 242Types of Chemical 243DBP 243Trihalomethanes (THMs) 243Haloacetic Acids (HAAs) 244Total Organic Halides (TOX) 244Bromate 245Chlorine Demand 245Chlorination–Dechlorination 247

Disinfection with Chloramines 248Historical Background 248The Ammonia–Chlorine Process 250Basic Chemistry of Ammonia N Reactions with Chlorine 251

xii CONTENTS

Operation of the Chloramination Process 251Issues of Concern 253

Distribution System 262Regulatory Compliance for Distribution Systems 264Regrowth 264Explanation of Terms Involving Regrowth 266Factors Infl uencing Microbial Growth 269Operation of the Distribution System 271Monitoring 272Control of Water Age 274Secondary Disinfectant Residuals 275Flushing 277Treatment Plant Performance Impacts on Distribution System Water

Quality 278Disinfection of New Infrastructure 278

Typical Disinfection Chemicals 278Disinfectant Feed Systems 279Disinfection of Water Mains 280Procedures for Disinfecting Storage Tanks 281Procedure for Disinfecting Water Treatment Plants 281Disinfection of New Buildings 282Procedure for Disinfection of Wells 283Procedures for Maintaining Disinfection while Inspecting In-Service

Water Storage Facilities 284Other Uses of Chlorine in Water Treatment 285

Tastes and Odors 285Tastes and Odors from Algae and Actinomycetes 286

Synthetic Sources of Tastes and Odors 288Taste and Odor of Chlorine 289Iron and Manganese 289Oxidation of Iron 291Oxidation of Manganese 292Coagulation Aid 293Filtration Aid 293Control of Mollusca in Seawater 295Zebra Mussels 296Quagga Mussels 297Aquifer Recharge 299Hydrogen Sulfi de Control 299Color Removal 303Desalination 303Refl ecting Pools 304Restoration of Wells 304

CONTENTS xiii

Chlorination in the United Kingdom 306Chlorination in Germany 310Treatment Strategies 310

Disinfection of Coagulated Surface Water 310Disinfection of a Softened Surface Water 311Treatment and Disinfection of a Groundwater that Contains

Iron and Manganese 311Acknowledgments 311References 312

5 Chlorination of Wastewater 326

Introduction 326History 326Chlorine Chemistry in Wastewater 327

Odor Control 329Prechlorination of Wastewater 330Scrubbing of Foul Air 333

Chlorine and Biological Treatment 338Trickling Filters 338BOD Reduction 339Control of Sludge Bulking 340

Other Uses of Chlorine in Wastewater Treatment 345Septicity Control 345Removal of Oils and Grease 348Removal of Ammonia 349

Industrial Waste Treatment Applications Using Chlorine 352Free and Combined Cyanides 352Phenols 359Textile Wastes 360Applications to Other Industrial Waste 361

References 361

6 Disinfection of Wastewater 363

Introduction 363History 363The Coliform Standard 364

Viruses 368Virus Inactivation 370

Methods of Wastewater Disinfection 376

xiv CONTENTS

Chemistry of Wastewater Disinfection by Chlorine 379Reactions with Wastewater Constituents 379Chlorine Dose and Effl uent Quality 382Chlorination of Nitrifi ed Effl uents 384

Formation of DBPs 390Other Disinfection Considerations 394

Regrowth of Organisms 394Toxicity of Chlorine Residuals 395Need for Dechlorination 396

Wastewater Reuse 397References 400

7 Chlorine Contact Basin Design 404

Introduction 404Design Elements 405

Chlorination and Dechlorination Doses 405Dispersion of Chlorine 405Mixing Technologies 406Chlorine Contact Chamber Sizing 411Wastewater 413Reuse Water 413Potable Water 414No-Tracer Test Design 416Wet Weather Disinfection for Wastewater 416Chlorine Contact Basin Construction 417Disinfection By-products 417Sampling and Reporting 417

References 417

8 Chlorine Feed Systems 418

Cylinders 420Ton Containers 424Tank Trucks/Tank Cars 427Storage Tanks 430Liquid Chlorine Feed 431

Vaporizers 431

Appurtenances 436

Pressure-Reducing Valve 436Gas Filter 437Gas Chlorine Feed 438

CONTENTS xv

Chlorine Feeders and Eductors 442Chlorine Diffusers 444Pipe and Valve Systems 445Chlorine Scrubbers 450

Reference 451

9 Hypochlorination—Sodium Hypochlorite 452

Background and History of Hypochlorites 452Sodium Hypochlorite 454

Concentration Properties, Feed Calculations, Codes, and Hazards 455

Degradation 463Estimating the Degradation Rate 465Concentration Effects 466Temperature Effects 468pH Effects 469UV Light Effects 470Impurities 471Suspended Solids 473Settled Particulates 473Other Impurities 474

Impact on Treatment Process 474Sodium Carbonate 474Sodium Bromate 475pH and Alkalinity Addition 475Scaling 475Chlorate/Perchlorates 476Recommendations 476

Tank Selection 477Lined Steel 479FRP 480HDPE 481Titanium 483Other Tank Materials 483Level Instrumentation 483Truck Unloading 484Top Access 485Underground Storage Tank (UST) 485

Transfer and Feed Equipment 486Transfer Pumps 486Diaphragm Metering Pumps 486Problems with Vapor Locking 490

xvi CONTENTS

Peristaltic Pumps 493Liquid Dosing Systems 498

Sodium Hypochlorite Piping 499Thermoplastic Piping (PVC and CPVC) 501Lined Steel 503FRP Piping 504FRP-Armored Piping 504Titanium 504HDPE 505PVDF 505Polypropylene (PP) 506Hastelloy 506Gaskets, Seals, and O-Rings 506

Sodium Hypochlorite Valves 507Ball Valves 508Diaphragm Valves 510

Sodium Hypochlorite Facility Layouts 513Elevation Differences 513Tank and Pump Bases 515Access and Clearances 517Control Panels 518

Calcium Hypochlorite 518History 518Manufacturing Process 520Properties 521Disinfection 521Solubility 522Hazards and Stability 523Tablet and Briquette Systems 523Applicable Standards 524

Lithium Hypochlorite 525References 526

10 On-Site Sodium Hypochlorite Generation System 528

Historical Background 528The Beginning 528Early Experience in the United States 529Current Interest 529

Raw Material Quality 530Salt and Brine Systems 530Impact of Salt Quality and Bromate Formation 530Seawater Systems 531

CONTENTS xvii

On-Site Generation of Sodium Hypochlorite 531Electrolytic Formation of Sodium Hypochlorite 531Process Overview 532

System Components 534Water Softener 534Brine Saturator Tank 537Soft-Water Heater 539Soft-Water Chiller 540Brine Metering 542Electrolytic Cell 542Brine Dilution 545Rectifi er 546Hydrogen Formation, Separation, and Safety 546Hydrogen Dilution Blowers 553Sodium Hypochlorite Storage Tank 556Sodium Hypochlorite Feed Equipment 556

On-Site Sodium Hypochlorite Generation System Design 557Equipment Sizing 557System Redundancy 558Amount of Sodium Hypochlorite Storage 559System Layout 559

System Manufacturers 565ClorTec 565Klorigen 566MIOX 567OSEC 567Process Solutions, Inc. (PSI) 568

References 571

11 Dechlorination 572

Introduction 572History 572Signifi cance of Chlorine Species 576

Sulfur Dioxide 577Chemical Properties 577Dechlorination Chemistry 579Contactor Design 580Chemical Dose Calculations 581

Sulfi te Compounds 581Chemical Properties 581Dechlorination Chemistry 582

xviii CONTENTS

Contactor Design 582Chemical Dose Calculation 583

Other Dechlorination Chemicals 583Dechlorination Facility Design 585

Design of Gaseous System Sulfur Dioxide 586Sulfur Dioxide Leak Detectors 589Liquid System Design for Sulfi tes 592

References 593

12 Process Controls for Chlorination and Dechlorination 594

Introduction 594Background 596Online Analytical Measurements 598

Amperometry 598Voltametry 599Polarography 599Membrane Cell 600Potentiometry 600ORP 602Colorimetry 606

Online Analyzers for Chlorination 607

Analytical Technology, Inc. 608Hach 611Capital Controls 614GLI International 619Orion Research, Inc. 620Wallace & Tiernan 621Stranco Products 622Field Comparison of Analyzers 629How to Select an Online Analyzer 631

Online Process Control Overview 633Chlorination Process Control 637

Manual Control 638Flow Pacing 641Feedback Control 644Compound Loop Control 647

Dechlorination 653

Flow Pacing 654Feedback Control 654Compound Loop Control 654Zero Residual Control 655

CONTENTS xix

Online Analyzers for Dechlorination 657

Stranco HRR 657Wallace & Tiernan 658Capital Controls 662

Blending Chemistry with Process Control 663Control System O&M 670Record Keeping and Regulatory Issues 673References 676

13 Operation and Maintenance 678

General 678

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 679Maintenance Plan 680Residual Analyzer Maintenance and Calibration of Residual

Analyzer 681

Chlorine Gas Systems 682

Operation 682Chlorine Gas System Maintenance 684Chlorine Detection Systems and Emergency Scrubber 686

Sodium Hypochlorite Systems 687

Sodium Hypochlorite System Operation 687Sodium Hypochlorite System Maintenance 689

Dechlorination Gas Systems 690

Sulfonator Operation 690Sulfonator Maintenance 691

Dechlorination Liquid Systems 692

Operation of Liquid Dechlorination Systems 692Liquid Dechlorination Systems Maintenance 693

Operator Training and Safety 693Storage Systems 693

Small (100- and 150-lb) Gas Cylinders 693Ton Containers 694Rail Cars 695Liquid Chemical Storage 696

Regulatory Requirements 697

Risk Management Plan 697SDWA and State Testing and Reporting Requirements 698Wastewater Chlorine Use Reporting Requirements for

Wastewater Facilities 699

xx CONTENTS

14 Chlorine Dioxide 700

Introduction 700Historical Background 700European Practice 701Other Uses 702

Chemical and Biologic Properties 703Chemical Properties 703Chemistry in Potable Water Treatment 704Selectivity as an Oxidant 705Germicidal Effi ciency 705Inactivation of Viruses and Bacteria 706Encysted Parasites 711

Equipment and Generation 712Purity 713Commercial Generation Methods and Chemistry 713Acid–Chlorite Solution 714Chlorine Solution–Chlorite Solution 717Three-Chemical Systems (D. A. Gates, pers. comm.) 718Chlorine Gas–Chlorite Solution 719Chlorine Gas–Solid Chlorite 720Electrochemical 720Chlorate-Based Systems 722Chemical Feed Design Considerations 722Batch Tank 723Storage 723Purity Specifi cation 723Bench-Scale Generation of ClO2 724Potassium Persulfate–Chlorite Solution 724Sulfuric Acid–Chlorite Solution 725Sodium Hypochlorite–Hydrochloric Acid–

Chlorite Solution 725Chlorine Gas–Solid Chlorite 726

Use in Drinking Water and Wastewater Disinfection 727Drinking Water Primary Disinfection Application Points 727Contactor Design Criteria 728Diffusers and Injectors 728Exposure to Sunlight 728DBPs 729Chlorite 729Chlorate 731THMs and HAAs 734Secondary Disinfection 734Objectionable Taste and Odor Formation 734

CONTENTS xxi

Disinfection of Wastewater Effl uent 735Combined Sewer Overfl ow (CSO) 735

Other Disinfection Applications 736Medical Devices 736Food Processing 736Other Pathogens 737

Other Uses for Chlorine Dioxide in Water Treatment 738Taste and Odor Control 738Iron and Manganese Oxidation 739Algae Growth Control 740Zebra Mussels 740DBP Control 740

Analytic Methods for Chlorine Dioxide and its Oxychlorine By-Products 740Iodometry 742Amperometric Titration Methods 743Standard Methods 4500-ClO2-C, Amperometric Method I 743Standard Methods 4500-ClO2-E, Amperometric Method II 744Amperometric Titration Equivalence Point 744DPD Method 747LGB 748IC Methods 749Other Analytic Methods 749Spectrophotometry 749Flow Injection Analysis (FIA) 750Other Colorimetric Methods for Chlorine Dioxide

Analysis 751Health and Safety 752

Chlorine Dioxide 752Sodium Chlorite 752Chlorine 753Toxicity 753Workplace Monitoring 753

Regulatory Issues 754Drinking Water Regulations for Disinfection 754SWTR 754LT2ESWTR 754Chlorine Dioxide Residual Limits 754Related Disinfection By-Products 755Chlorite 755Chlorate 755ClO2 Use to Meet Wastewater Treatment Plant Regulatory

Requirements 755

xxii CONTENTS

Summary 755Advantages of Chlorine Dioxide 756Disadvantages of Chlorine Dioxide 756

Acknowledgments 756References 757

15 Ozone 767

Introduction 767History and Application 767Chemical Properties 768

Physical Properties 768Solubility of Ozone 768Ozone Reaction Pathways 769Ozone Demand 771Dissolved Ozone Decay 772

Inorganic Compound Treatment 773Iron and Manganese 773Sulfi des 775Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide, and Monochloramine 776

Organic Compounds 777Taste- and Odor-Causing Compounds 777Control of Chlorination By-Products 779TOC Oxidation 780Biological Filtration 780Removal of Particulates 781Color Removal 782Increase in UV Transmittance at 254 nm (UVT254) 782SOCs 783EDC and PPCP Treatment 784Cyanotoxins 785Treatment of Biological Solids in Wastewater 786

Disinfection 787Use in Drinking Water 787Use in Wastewater 790

Ozone DBPs 792Bromate Control 793Aldehydes, Carboxylic Acids, and Ketones 795

Use in Water and Wastewater Treatment 795Potable Water Installations 796Wastewater Installations 797

CONTENTS xxiii

Equipment and Generation 798Theory of O3 Generation 799Gas Source 800Generation 812Transfer 816Contactors 821Destruction Equipment 826Ancillary Equipment 829Cost Studies 831

Process Calculations 832Gas Flow 832Ozone Production 834Ozone Transfer Effi ciency 834Applied Ozone Dose 835Transferred Ozone Dose 835Specifi c Energy 835

Quench Chemicals 836Analytical Methods 836

Ozone Concentration in Gas 837Measuring Dissolved Ozone Residual in Water 839

Health and Safety 842Regulatory Issues 843References 844

16 Bromine, Bromine Chloride, BCDMH, and Iodine 848

Bromine (Br2) 848Physical and Chemical Properties 848Occurrence 849Bromine Production 849Chemistry of Bromine in Water and Wastewater Treatment 851Reactions with Chlorine 852

Use of Bromine in Water Treatment Processes 852Potable Water 852Wastewater 853Cooling Water 854Swimming Pools 854Br2 Facility Design 854

Bromides: On-Site Generation of Br2 855System Description 855Current U.S. Practices 857Comparison with Other Methods 857

xxiv CONTENTS

Bromine Chloride (BrCl) 858Physical and Chemical Properties 858Preparation of Bromine Chloride 859Chemistry of Bromine Chloride in Water 860Design of Bromine Chloride Facilities 861Comparison with Advantages of Other Methods 865

BCDMH 866

Physical and Chemical Properties 866Application and Production 866Chemistry of BCDMH in Water and Wastewater 866Application of BCDMH in Wastewater 867Comparison with Chlorination 867Germicidal Effi ciency (Br2 and BrCl) 869Bromo-Organic Compounds 871Measurement of Bromine Residuals 872Amperometric Method 873DPD Differentiation Method 873Effect of Seawater Chlorination 874Toxicity of Bromine Residuals 874Health and Safety Aspects of Bromine Compounds 874Regulatory Issues 875

Iodine (I2) 875

Physical and Chemical Characteristics 875Occurrence and Production 876Production from Chile Saltpeter 876Production from Brine 877Applications 877Uses in Water Treatment 878Chemistry of Iodination 879Germicidal Effi ciency 882Limitations of Iodination 883Comparison with Chlorination 884Iodination Facility 884Determination of Iodine Residuals 886Toxicity of Iodine Residuals 886Health and Safety Aspects of Iodine 886Regulatory Issues 887

Summary 887

Bromine 887Bromine Chloride 888BCDMH 888Iodine 889

References 889

CONTENTS xxv

17 Ultraviolet Light 893

Introduction 893Wastewater Applications in Europe 893UV Applications in North America 894Drinking Water Applications in the United States 896

Chemical and Biological Properties 897UV Light 897Microbial Inactivation Mechanisms 898Microbial UV Sensitivity 899Microbial Repair 899UV Dose 902

Guidelines 904USEPA’s Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidance Manual 904NWRI/AwwaRF’s Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines

for Drinking Water and Water Reuse 907USEPA’s Design Manual for Municipal Wastewater

Disinfection 908UV Equipment 910

UV Lamps 910UV Reactors 921Ballasts 924Lamp Sleeves 925UV Sensors 926Cleaning Systems 927Online UVT Monitors 928Temperature Sensors/Water Level Probes 928

Water Quality Issues 929UV Transmittance 929Particles/Suspended Solids 929Fouling 931

UV System Sizing Tools 932UV System Validation 932Nonbiological, Mathematical-Based Modeling 955Emerging Methods 959

Operation and Maintenance Activities 961Maintenance Activities 961Operational Issues 964

Troubleshooting Strategies 965Process Control Modifi cations 965Electrical System Modifi cations 965Mechanical System Modifi cations 966

xxvi CONTENTS

Health and Safety for Water And Wastewater UV Systems 966General 966UV Light Exposure 967Perform a UV Safety Audit 968Acute Health Effects of UV Exposure 968Chronic Health Effects of UV Exposure 969Engineering Controls 969Administrative Controls 969Personal Protection 969

References 970

18 Advanced Oxidation Processes 976

Introduction 976Historical Perspective 976Types of AOPs 977

Chemistry of AOPs 977Ozone Decomposition Initiated by Hydroxide 978O3/H2O2 979O3/UV 979H2O2/UV 979Fe(II)/H2O2 (Fenton Reaction) 980Fe(II)/H2O2/UV (Photo-Fenton Reaction) 980TiO2/UV 981TiO2/H2O2/UV 981

Uses in Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment 982Oxidation of VOCs 982Oxidation of Pesticides 985Oxidation of Taste and Odor Compounds 988Oxidation of Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Precursors 989

Factors Affecting System Performance 990O3/H2O2 990O3/UV 991H2O2/UV 992Fenton and Photo-Fenton Reactions 992TiO2/UV 993

Regulations 994Equipment and Generation 995References 997

Appendix 1003

Index 1009

PREFACE

Over the years, the science and practice of disinfection has provided innumer-able health benefi ts, although the general public is unaware of many of them. With the recognition of infectious organisms such as Cryptosporidium in our raw water supplies, along with the detrimental chronic health effects associ-ated with disinfection by - products, it is critical to balance the extent of their inactivation with the concentrations of disinfection by - products. Many water and wastewater utilities are implementing the use of multiple disinfectants in order to optimize the results while minimizing unwanted side effects.

The four previous editions of this handbook have proven to be a valuable resource to countless utilities, regulators, engineers, and operators for infor-mation on disinfection of potable water, wastewater, industrial water, and swimming pools. George Clifford White ’ s efforts in compiling these editions are invaluable; and much of the information he has gathered is included in this current edition; some of it is retained solely to provide a historical perspective.

Since the publication of the fourth edition, the water industry has gained a substantial amount of experience with chlorine, hypochlorite, and alternative disinfectants through research, development, and regulation. Consequently, this handbook has been extensively revised and updated to refl ect the most current understanding and practices. The reader will fi nd substantial and important information not only on chlorination but also on alternative disin-fectants such as ozone, chlorine dioxide, bromine - related products, and ultra-violet light. In addition, the global focus on reuse to address the issue of water scarcity has elevated the use of advanced oxidation practices, and that chapter has therefore been updated to refl ect today ’ s environment.

Each chapter has been prepared by experts and reviewed by their peers in an effort to impart accurate, complete, and current knowledge on the subject being discussed. Black & Veatch considers it a privilege to present this updated resource on chlorination and alternative disinfectants for the water and waste-water industries.

It is our intention that this handbook continue to be the disinfection refer-ence of choice for designers, operator, engineers, students, and regulators.

C indy W allis - L age Black & Veatch

Editor

xxvii