white paper on sustainable jet fuel june 2012 faaij van dijk
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
1/18
White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Andr Faaij (Copernicus Institute, Utrecht University)
Maarten van Dijk (SkyNRG)
June 2012
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
2/18
1
Rationale for sustainable aviation fuel
Abstract
Air travel has become an integral part of everyday life. There will be air travel, now and in the future, asit fulfills an important social function in todays global society. The aviation industry acknowledges the
urgency for emission reduction and knows there is a need to switch to alternative, renewable and stable
priced resources as fossil fuel supply (and related prices) is getting increasingly volatile. In addressing the
challenge to replace fossil kerosene in a sustainable way, aviation has no alternative but liquid
hydrocarbons from bio-based (waste) sources. Renewable fuels for aviation are new for airlines, but can
have profound impact on lowering the carbon footprint of the industry (if produced in a sustainable
way), while reducing the dependency on fossil kerosene.
Current, first generation biofuels can play a role on short to medium term but are constrained in their
potential and outlook. What is essential is to walk down the learning curve to develop competitive
technologies for biomass conversion to high quality fuels and to build production capacity forsustainable biomass. Both will require time, in particular when 2nd
and 3rd
generation biofuels are
concerned. Potentials for those biofuels are large and they can become competitive with fossil fuels on
medium term (2020-2030) under the condition that technologies are scaled-up and optimized and
mature and sustainable markets for biomass supplies are developed.
Essential components to realize such a future vision are:
- Strong investment in Research, Demonstration and deployment of key
conversion technologies
- RDD&D on sustainable biomass production and supply systems for the coming
10-15 years.
- Gradual scale up of conversion capacity and biomass supplies over the coming
decades. Biomass production and supply capacity needs to be developed in
balance with improved agricultural management to avoid conflicts with food
supply and biodiversity.
- Internationally accepted and effective sustainability frameworks that are
enforced by legal requirements and backed by agro-ecological zoning by
governments to secure sustainable land-use.
In total, aviation can be a frontrunner in creating a sustainable demand for advanced biofuels in the
international market that can accelerate the development of sustainable biomass production, required
infrastructure and key technologies. By enforcing a demand for fully certified biofuels, their production
can deliver not only renewable and low GHG emission fuels, but also contribute to rural development
and better management of natural resources.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
3/18
2
Fig. 1 - Fossil CO2 emissions and global surface
warming (actual and forecasts)
Introduction
Air travel has become an integral part of
everyday life as an important mode of public
transport for the modern world. It fulfills an
important social function in todays global
society; it brings long-distance mobility to
people, makes remote regions accessible,
increases and connects business and markets
globally. Globally, over 2 billion passengers flew
in the course of 2007. The air transport industry
generates approximately 29 million jobs
worldwide and has an economic impact that is
estimated to be equivalent to 8% of the global
gross domestic product (GDP). Aviation is expected to be one of the strongest growing transport sectors
till 2050, with an estimated CAGR of 3%. (ACARE, 2010)
One of the main challenges for the industry is to preserve its societal benefits and maintaining its growthwhile minimizing the environmental impacts, of which CO2 emissions are likely the biggest. In 2005, 2.5
per cent of man-made CO2 emissions came from aviation. When taking into account non-CO2 effects,
estimates suggest aviation contributed about 3.5 per cent (excluding the effects on increased
cloudiness1) to the total climate warming from human activities in 2005, and this figure is expected to
rise to 4 to 4.7 per cent by 2050 (ATTICA, Lee et al.).
We acknowledge that man made green house gas
emissions are one of the main drivers for global
warming and climate change (Figure 1) and that there
is strong scientific evidence that indicates there is a
need to keep global temperature increase below 2degrees Celsius to avoid irreversible changes in global
ecosystems. To stay below this threshold, most recent
forecasts predict atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations should be kept below 450 ppm, which
translates into a reduction of manmade GHG
emissions by at least 80% in 2050, compared to 2005
levels (4th IPCC assessment, 2007).
We accept the fact that fossil (energy) resources are
finite (WEO, 2010; Global Energy Assessment, 2011).
The increasing scarcity of cheap oil resources brings
volatility to the market and is driving up prices. The
sustained high price levels and fluctuations as well as
supply disruptions are an existential risk for the
1Further work is needed to understand and quantify the effects of aviation on clouds, including contrails, increased
cirrus cloud development from spreading contrails and altered properties of clouds from soot emissions, which are
likely to have an overall warming impact on the climate.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
4/18
3
Fig.6 - World Energy Supply by Source; WWFs Energy Report
aviation industry. Another undesired mechanism of this situation is that fuels that are more difficult to
exploit (i.e. more energy intensive) become economically attractive; a visible trend is the increased
interest in alternative resources like tar sands, shale oil and (gas &) coal-to-liquids (Figure 2). More
energy use thus means more carbon intensive energy carriers (Figure 3) are used and consequently
accelerating GHG emissions of the transport sector (PARNTER, 2010).
The combination of strong growth of energy demand and increased carbon intensity of the transport
sector (Figure 4) conflicts directly to the required GHG emissions reductions in that sector. Most recent
insights (Figure 5) indicate that about a quarter of the global required GHG emission savings need to berealized in the transport sector, to achieve the 450 ppm concentration target (IEA BLUE map scenarios,
2011)
There is thus a strong need to
produce and utilize low carbon
fuels. Although a major challenge,
we believe that there are
possibilities to increase efficiency
and especially switch to alternative,
renewable energy sources during
the next decades to achieve that
(IPCC scenarios SRREN, 2011;
Greenpeace Energy [R]evolution,
2010; WWF Energy report, 2011).
Figure 6 shows a scenario for an
almost 100% transition to
renewable energy sources by 2050.
Fig. 2 - World oil production by type Fig.3 - Well to Wing emissions different (jet)
fuel production pathways (gCO2/MJ)
Fig.4 Baseline CO2 emissions per sector (Gton/year,
2010 & 2050), based on the IPCC 4th assessment report)
Fig.5 - CO2 emission reductions needed per sector (Gton/year)
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
5/18
4
Fig.7 - Breakdown of CO2 reduction options for aviation till 2050
Carbon emissions and Aviation
More than 99% of airline emissions and approximately 50% of airport emissions (through Landing &
Takeoff Cycles) result from the combustion of kerosene. Increased energy efficiency and energy demand
reduction is an effective way and first priority to reduce fuel consumption and related green house gas
emissions. But efficiency improvements does not offer a sole solution to aviation related emissions and
dependency on oil; only fuels from renewable biomass can also reduce the dependency on fossil
kerosene.
To further reduce green house gas
emissions in aviation, there are
currently three major options;
operational improvements (e.g.
improved routing, gliding), technical
improvements of the planes (e.g. wing
tips, fleet renewal, improved
turbines), and the use of fuels withlower life cycle green house gas
emissions (Figure 7). All three will play
an important role in the years to come
(IATA, 2010). And all three can (and
probably will) be driven by an
overarching reduction option: market
based measures. Technical and operational improvements have resulted in impressive reductions in fuel
consumption in the past and are expected to continue for years to come. Renewable fuels for aviation
are new for airlines, but can have profound impact on lowering the carbon footprint of the industry, if
produced in the right way.
There is not really a trade-off between the possibilities of efficiency improvement (aircraft and engine
design + improved air traffic control) and alternative fuels. Both elements are required. Aircraft
replacements and new aircraft & engine designs, together with operational improvements, are expected
to lead to a gain in fuel efficiency (and a net reduction in related emissions) of 40% by 2050 (SWAFEA,
2011). In addition, such efficiency improvements will, though very important, most likely not lead to an
absolute reduction in demand for fuels because global growth in demand for air transport will more
than compensate efficiency gains.
Currently no manufacturer of aircraft or engines is going to limit the use of their equipment to a
particular fuel or way of operating. In the short to medium term any alternative fuel for aviation must
therefore be a drop in replacement of fossil kerosene, as the development of new engines, aircraft
and infrastructure is incredibly complex and expensive. Although a new type of aircraft (andcorresponding engines) able to use a non drop in fuel, could enter the market in the future, it is not
likely to see this happening (at commercial scale) before 2050, mainly because of the slow rate of
replacement of current aircraft. Renewable aviation fuels must therefore have a similar technical
performance to fossil kerosene if to be used in the current generation of jet engines. This means that
some of the fuel alternatives considered for road transport (e.g. ethanol, hydrogen, electricity) do not
provide a viable alternative (SWAFEA, 2010). See Table 1 for a brief summary.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
6/18
5
Table 1 - Com arison on dro in ro erties di erent ener sources or aviation
Fig.8 - Well to Wing emissions different jet fuel production pathways (gCO2/MJ), including renewable options
Besides technical performance, these fuels must have a substantially better GHG balance than their
fossil alternative, whilst not causing other undesired social and ecological impacts. Today, renewable
fuels come from biomass resources. The sustainability of the biomass feedstock largely determines the
overall sustainability of the renewable fuel, including lifecycle GHG, as well as other impacts. A bio-
based fuel does not automatically mean: sustainable fuel with low GHG emissions. Although biofuels
can have a significant reduction in overall life cycle GHG emission, in some cases it can be shown (Figure
8) that the overall life cycle GHG emissions are even higher for biofuels than those of fossil based fuels
(PARNTER, 2010). The ecological and socio-economic impacts of biofuels may be positive or negative
depending on local conditions and the design and implementation of specific projects.
It should be noted that direct engine emissions of alternative fuels (other than GHG emissions) are
generally positive compared to the fossil fuel based baseline. The most notable are fine particles (30-
90% reduction) and SOx emissions (>99% reduction). Other important emissions (NOx, CO and UHC) do
not seem to have a direct fuel quality related reduction. Possible fluctuations in emissions are mainly
caused by engine configurations (SWAFEA, 2011)
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
7/18
6
Fig.9 - Fossil kerosene demand and Biomass resource
potential (EJ/year, 2050)
Biomass resources for renewable aviation fuel
The expected growth aviation fuel demand, from 2010 to 2050, is expected to have a compounded
annual growth rate (CAGR) between 2.2% (IATA, 2010) and 3.0% (ACARE, 2010). This means an increase
from 215 million tonnes in 2010 to between 460 630 million tonnes in 2050 (which equals 20 27 EJ).
Including a conversion for biomass to fuel efficiency of some 60%, the primary biomass demand
amounts about 33-45 EJ.
The raw materials for future renewable aviation fuel can originate from various biomass resource
categories. Recent global assessments (IPCC-SRREN, 2011) suggest an upper-bound technical potential
of biomass resources of around 500 EJ (in 2050), covering the following resource categories:
Residues originating from forestry, agriculture and organic wastes (including the organic fraction
of MSW, dung, process residues etc.) Technical potential: 100 EJ/yr
Surplus forestry other than from forestry residues Technical potential: 60-80 EJ/yr
Biomass produced via cropping systems (for energy crop production) on possible surplus good
quality agricultural and pasture lands Technical potential: 120 EJ/yr
o Assuming strong learning in agricultural technology leading to improvements in
agricultural and livestock management would add an additional 140 EJ/yr Potential contribution of water-scarce, marginal and degraded lands could amount to an
additional 70 EJ/yr
Adding these categories together leads to a technical potential of up to about 500 EJ in 2050, with
temporal data on the development of biomass potential ramping from 290 to 320 EJ/yr in 2020 to 330
to 400 EJ/yr in 2030 (Hoogwijket al., 2005, 2009; Dornburget al., 2008, 2010). From the expert review
of available scientific literature potentialdeploymentlevels of biomass for energy by 2050 could be in
the range of 100 to 300 EJ. This takes into account that only part of the technical potential can be
mobilized due to economic, infrastructural and implementation constraints.
If it is assumed that all this biomass wouldbe converted with an overall efficiency of
60% to biofuels, this could deliver 60 180
EJ of liquid fuel. Logically, there will be
competition between different biomass
applications, which also include delivery of
heat, electricity and feedstock for materials.
However, long term energy scenarios
indicate that other key options (solar and
wind based, CCS with fossil fuels) to supply
low carbon electricity (and heat) may overall
become more effective and competitive over time than biomass. Furthermore, the biomass demand forbiomaterials is expected to be an order of magnitude smaller than for energy applications (just as about
10% of current oil is used for feedstock). In addition, to this, biomaterials will end up as (organic) waste
at some point in time and can than serve as fuel again for waste to energy facilities (including fuel
production). Overall, it is thought that biomass could in principle cover the larger part up to all of the
demand for liquid transport fuels halfway this century. The demand for aviation represents roughly 10-
20% of that total. The potential of biomass is thus in principle sufficient to provide a key alternative for
mineral oil based fuels (Figure 9).
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
8/18
7
Fig.10 - Energy potential (EJ/year, in 2050) of crop production on better quality land surpluses and of
(perennial) crop production on marginal and degraded lands; low & high scenario
In order to achieve the high biomass potential deployment levels, increases in competing food and fibre
demand must be moderate, land must be properly managed and agricultural and forestry yields must
increase substantially. Expansion of bioenergy in the absence of monitoring and good governance of
land use carries the risk of significant conflicts with respect to food supplies, water resources and
biodiversity, as well as a risk of low GHG benefits. Conversely, implementation that follows effective
sustainability frameworks could mitigate such conflicts and allow realization of positive outcomes. The
impacts and performance of biomass production and use are region- and site-specific. Therefore, as part
of good governance of land use and rural development, bioenergy policies need to consider regional
conditions and priorities along with the agricultural (crops and livestock) and forestry sectors. Securing
sustainable biofuel production and supply therefore generally means that investments in the larger
agricultural sector (of which biomass production is part) are required and combined with good
environmental policies as well as business models that secure a positive socio-economic impact on rural
economies and local producers. Fair trade like principles can play a positive role in securing the latter.
Biomass resource potentials are influenced by and interact with climate change impacts but the specific
impacts are still poorly understood; there will be strong regional differences in this respect. The current
debate on indirect land use change (iLUC), and the measures being implemented to account for some of
these iLUC effects is a recent example of the ongoing dynamics of concept of sustainability of bio-energy
resources. But, bio-energy and new (perennial) cropping systems also offer opportunities to combineadaptation measures (e.g., soil protection, water retention and modernization of agriculture) with
production of biomass resources.
Biomass feedstocks
Different regions have different opportunities for biomass production and supply. Future estimates
depend, as argued, on development of the agricultural system and governance of land use. Figure 10
gives an indicative breakdown of the future (technical) energy potential for biomass over different world
regions, divided over two (grouped) land categories. Regions that stand out for good production
potentials are Latin America, Sub Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe (including Russia). In addition to
possibilities for crop production, it is especially forest rich countries and key agricultural production
areas that can contribute supplies of forest and agricultural residues.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
9/18
8
A distinction can be made between so-called 1st
, 2nd
and 3rd
generation biofuels and related feedstocks
(see table 2). The performance and environmental impacts of feedstock production cover a wide range
for both annual and perennial crops (such as trees and grasses). For example sugar cane and palm oil
can be very productive crops that are commercial today. Overall though, lignocellulosic biomass
resources offer better environmental performance and the possibility to use lower quality lands for crop
production.
Biofuels and biomass feedstocks
1st
generation 2nd
generation 3rd
generation
Biomass type Annual crops = food crops.
Typical examples are corn,
rapeseed, cereals
Lignocellulosic materials,
including agricultural and
forestry residues, cultivated
trees and grasses
Micro & macro algae
produced in ponds and
bioreactors (in wastewater
or seawater)
Land type Production is limited to
arable land and competitionwith food markets direct
Arable, pasture as well as
marginal and degraded lands
Can be produced with
limited land use; does notrequire fertile land
Potential Constrained Large Very large (in principle)
Economics
(outlook)
Relatively high feedstock
costs, largely determined by
food markets
Currently more expensive
than 1st
generation, but robust
outlook for more competitive
production costs on medium
term (>2020)
Expectedly long
development time is needed;
uncertain outlook
Sustainability Modest GHG and
environmental
performance. Food versus
fuel conflict
Generally (very) good
environmental performance
and net GHG emission
reduction
In principle very sounds, but
Certain sustainability aspects
less understood
State of the art Relatively simple and
proven conversion
technologies
Range of technologies in
demonstration phase but not
commercial yet
Unproven technology;
competitive production is
uncertain and requires
fundamental breakthroughs
Lignocellulosic feedstocks can come from available residues and organic wastes and already utilized for
production of power and heat today. For example, wood pellets are increasingly used as a biomass fuel
to replace coal. In addition, trees and grasses can be grown on marginal and degraded lands and can
deliver additional ecosystem services, such as soil improvement and protection and when produced in
agroforestry systems lead to good biodiversity impacts. Large scale commercial production requiresmore investment and market development though, as well as effective sustainability frameworks to
secure responsible production.
Currently available, biomass residues and waste streams only, can be pinpointed now in specific regions.
Furthermore, often infrastructure around processing facilities and waste treatment is already available.
However, the supplies of such streams are often limited and demand is increasing in many regions.
Cultivated biomass (both food crops and perennial crops) is therefore becoming increasingly important
Table 2 - Com arison o di erent eneration bio uels and biomass eedstocks
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
10/18
9
Fig.11 - Key (potential) biomass resources and regions for energy use in relation to key settings and preconditions
already today to meet growing demand for biofuels and power and heat generation from biomass. This
is evident in the first generation biofuel markets (production of corn, sugar cane, rapeseed, soy beans
and palm oil) but this is also occurring in production of wood for energy. Figure 11 lists a number of key
biomass resources in relation to key settings and preconditions.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
11/18
10
Table 3 - Different production pathways for fossil jet fuel alternatives
Technology
Drop-in aviation fuels
Stringent fuel specifications apply to the aviation fuel infrastructure. To enable the use of any new
alternative aviation fuel in this infrastructure, a new specification needs to be developed or an existing
specification needs to be revised. If the alternative fuel is found to have essentially the same
performance properties as conventional jet fuel then there is no need to change ground and supply
infrastructure, airframe or engines (i.e. a drop-in fuel). The specifications of the new fuel may be
incorporated into the existing jet fuel specifications, and will therefore meet the established operating
limitations for the existing fleet of turbine engine powered aircraft.
There are four main conversion pathways that have the potential to produce a drop in alternative for
fossil kerosene; Fischer-Tropsch, Hydro-processed Esters and Fatty Acids, Sugar Conversions, Direct
Liquefaction (table 3)
Technology Feedstock Products CertificationFischer-Tropsch
(also known as CtL, GtL,
BtL, WtL)
Any material containing
carbon (coal, gas,
biomass, waste)
Straight alkanes ASTM (2009)
DEFSTAN (2009)
NB: Max. 50% blend with fossil jet
HEFA
(also known as HRJ, HVO)
Vegetable (waste) oils
and animal fats
Straight alkanes ASTM (2011)
DEFSTAN (2011)
NB: Max. 50% blend with fossil jet
Sugar Conversion
(e.g. fermentation,
thermochemical)
C6 sugars (from starch or
cellulose)
Alcohols, alkanes
and other
hydrocarbons (e.g.
terpenes)
None
(Note: The Alcohol to Jet
pathway is currently in the
process of ASTM certification)
Direct Liquefaction
(of which pyrolysis ismost referred to)
Any solid material
containing carbon (coal,biomass, -plastic-waste)
Mainly naphtenic
compounds
None
(Note: Regarded as a blend stockfuel at best as upgrading poses
serious -cost- constraints )
Next to that there are several other production pathways that yield liquid fuels, although it is uncertain
to which extent these fuels can be used as drop in alternative to fossil jet fuel. These are:
- Fatty Acid Esters (of which FAME is best known)
- Alcohols (of which ethanol is best known)
- Furane derivatives
- Succinic acids derivatives
- Cryogenic fuels (LNG & liquid Hydrogen)
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
12/18
11
Technical certification
To be acceptable to Civil Aviation Authorities, aviation
turbine fuel must meet strict physical criteria. There exist
several specifications around the world that authorities
refer to when describing acceptable conventional jet fuel.
The ASTM D1655 and Def Stan 91-91 are recognized
globally. Other commonly used specifications are the Joint
Check List (AFQRJOS) and GOST 10227 TS-1.
Bio jet fuel produced through either the Fischer-Tropsch
or the HEFA production routes are currently accepted for
commercial use under the ASTM and Def Stan
specifications, but only in a blend with fossil jet fuel (with
a maximum bio-component of 50%)
Once the bio-component has been blended and complies
with the relevant ASTM product specifications, it isregarded as identical to conventional jet fuel (under both
ASTM and Def Stan). In this case no special handling
requirements apply and the fuel can be mixed with
conventional jet fuel along the supply chain; including
refineries, fuel storage depots, and at airports*.
*Note: Although most regional jet fuel specification follow the
ASTM standard, Europe follows the AFQRJOS (also known as JIG)
- a petroleum industry standard incorporating the strictest
specifications from ASTM D1655 and Def Stan 91-91
Current production options
The first hurdle for an alternative jet fuel
is to be accepted as a technically safe fuel
(regardless of the sustainability). In
general the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) is the official body
to give off technical certification for new
(production routes for) jet fuels.
Up to now ASTM and DEF-STAN only
approved the use of fuel (in a 50% blend
with fossil kerosene) produced by either
the FT or the HEFA production routes.
Fischer-Tropsch conversion (FT)
This technology makes use of gasification
and subsequent catalytic processing of
syngas and can use any type of organicmaterial as feedstock (coal, gas, and
biomass, waste). Depending on the
feedstock, FT is known as Coal-to-Liquid
(CtL), Gas-to-Liquid (CtL), Biomass-to-
Liquid (BtL) or Waste-to-Liquid (WtL).
Product of the process is FT wax
(regardless of the feedstock), that can be
converted into desired fractions of
straight hydrocarbons, kerosene being
one of them. To produce sustainable jet
fuel through the FT process, BtL and WtLare the only options.
Hydro-processed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA; also known as HRJ and Bio-SPK)
In this process, vegetable oils, organic greases and fats can be converted to hydrocarbons through
treatment with hydrogen and catalysis (i.e. isomerization). The product is a mix of so-called renewable
diesel (i.e. green diesel) and renewable kerosene (and a small amount of light hydrocarbons). It is
important to note that this is a completely different process than biodiesel (i.e. FAME) production. It is
technically impossible to get FAME production during the process.
Current market situation
Availability of production capacity makes the HEFA technology the only realistic option today to produce
significant volumes of sustainable jet fuel on commercial scale, although prices are still substantially
higher than fossil kerosene.
Part of the feedstock will come from waste streams (i.e. waste greases and fats). Other part will come
from oilseed crops (i.e. rapeseed, camelina, jatropha). Feedstock for the HEFA route should be selected
carefully to minimize negative ecological and social effects as much as possible.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
13/18
12
Fig.12 Projected production cost biofuels in 2030 ($/gallon)
Fig.13 IEA Advance biofuel roadmap, including schematic projections of
the bio jet cost curve
Economics
Production of 1st
as well as 2nd
generation biofuels is technically possible today and the future economic
performance of several different key biofuels production routes is promising. But for large scale use,
production costs must be reduced, especially for the so-called 2nd generation options. There is a need to
walk down the learning curve of different technologies to reduce costs. This will take investment, time
and development of the markets (key improvements include infrastructure, demand, scale, new
technologies, integrated production concepts, etc.).
There is solid evidence of substantial cost reductions in the past of currently commercial biomass and
biofuel technologies due to technological learning. Strong cost reductions have been achieved in the
past for supply of forest biomass supplies (factor 3 cost reduction in Scandinavia in the 80 - 90-ies),
combined heat and power production from biomass (factor of 4 cost reduction in Sweden in the 90-ies),
corn ethanol production in the United States and sugar cane based ethanol production in Brazil. These
experiences give confidence that similar cost reductions can be achieved in the future for new (and now
expensive) technologies and biomass supplies as well.
The combination of advanced,larger scale conversion and
optimized biomass supplies can
push down the costs of bio jet
fuel to fossil fuel levels over the
next 20 years. Figure 12 provides
cost projections for different
biofuel routes (based on
extensive literature review in the
IPCC-SRREN report, 2011).
Figure 13 is a simplified version of
the IEA advanced biofuels
roadmap which incorporates
comparable improvements in
(economic) performance. If such
improved performance would be
achieved, biofuel demand would
increasingly be driven by market
demand and no longer by
mandates or financial support.
The implications of such asituation on the future energy
market are profound; such
biofuels will most likely have a
moderating effect on oil prices as
well, therefore contributing to
lower costs and a more
diversified energy supply.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
14/18
13
Securing sustainability; governance and certification
Sustainable biomass feedstock is the key to sustainable biofuels. The potential for biomass production
on a global scale and the preconditions that must be fulfilled to reach the higher end of those estimates
in a sustainable way were discussed. Also, potential conflicts of uncontrolled expansion of biomass
production were highlighted. The challenge is to gracefully reconcile all legitimate claims on resource
usage (e.g. energy, land, water, raw materials). Biomass for material and fuel use will always displace
some other use. This should only be admissible if higher value applications (e.g. living, food/feed
production, high conservation areas, leisure) are not displaced, if the side effects are far less negative
than usage of fossil fuel and if food security and biodiversity are not sacrificed. We subscribe the
statement that sustainable biomass should primarily be used for those activities and sectors that have
no alternative for liquid fuels (WWF Energy Report, 2011) We believe in the notion that the impact of
bioenergy on social and environmental issues may be positive or negative depending on local conditions
and the design and implementation of specific projects (SRREN, 2011). That means we cannot say a
specific feedstock is always sustainable, or unsustainable, but that it depends on how and where the
feedstock is produced. Figure 14 (developed for IPCC-SRREN) illustrates the balance that needs to be
found between different objectives, scale levels and impacts.
Fig. 14 - Bioenergys complex, dynamic interactions
among society, energy and the environment include
climate change feedbacks, biomass production and land
use with direct and indirect impacts at various spatial and
temporal scales on all resource uses for food, fodder, fiber
and energy (Dale et al., 2011). Biomass resources must be
produced in a sustainable way as their impacts can be felt
from micro to macro scales. Risks are maintenance of
business-as-usual approaches with uncoordinated
production of food and fuel. Opportunities are many and
include good governance and sustainability frameworks
that generate strong policies that also lead to sustainable
ecosystem services (van Dam et al., 2010).
Sustainability certification
Especially since 2008, global action has been taken to develop and deploy sustainability frameworks and
certification initiatives (see van Dam et al., RSER, 2010; IEA Task 40). Today, there are many
governmental, non-governmental (NGO) and 3rd
party initiatives on all levels (international, national and
regional) supporting or actively working towards sustainability criteria, methodological frameworks,
requirements and standards for the assessment and development of bioenergy resources. These
initiatives include (but are not limited to) Global Bioenergy Partnership, OECD Roundtable on
Sustainable Development, European Committee for Standardization, International Organization for
Standardization, Renewable Energy Directive (EU), Renewable Fuel Standard (US), Renewable TransportFuel Obligation (UK), Biofuel Sustainability Ordinance (De), Cramer Criteria and NEN (NL), ISCC
(Germany), REDCert, Council for Sustainable Biomass Production, Sustainable Biomass Consortium,
Roundtable for Responsible Soy, Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil, Better Sugarcane Initiative,
Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels (RSB). Table 4 summarizes the main principles that are the basis for
the certification system of the RSB (RSB, 2009). There is strong convergence between different systems
on the type of principles that are the basis for sustainable biomass production.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
15/18
14
Table 4 - RSB Principles & Criteria for Sustainable Biofuel Production
These initiatives are not an end stadium; they are constantly evolving due to increased insights on both
production and demand side. The development and deployment of comprehensive sustainability
frameworks, certification and verification will thus take more time. The discussion on securing
sustainable biomass resources for energy is spilling over to agriculture and land-use at large. All if this,
we see them as very important steps in the right direction. What is also important in the coming years is
a gradual harmonization of standards and frameworks and incorporation of indicators that cover
sustainable land-use, food security and other main themes that relate to land use in general. Aviation
should therefore work with state-of-the-art certification systems and frameworks and remain open for
further sharpening and deepening of the requirements and guidelines. Also strong verification in the
field is needed to give teeth to the certification process.
Certification has the potential to influence direct, local impacts related to environmental and social
effects of direct bioenergy production. Considering the multiple spatial scales, certification should be
combined with additional measurements and tools on a regional, national and international level. The
role of bioenergy production on indirect land use change (iLUC) is still uncertain and current initiatives
have not fully captured impacts from iLUC in their standards. There are clear indications that with the
right strategies, undesired land use change can be avoided. Integrating iLUC in current discussions and
certification efforts can be an effective way to flush out specific issues and to come up with solutions
that can work in a broader context.
Principle 1 - Legality
Biofuel operations shall follow all applicable laws and
regulations.
Principle 2 Planning, Monitoring and Continuous improvement
Sustainable biofuel operations shall be planned, implemented,
and continuously improved through an open, transparent, and
consultative impact assessment and management process and
an economic viability analysis.
Principle 3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Biofuels shall contribute to climate change mitigation by
significantly reducing lifecycle GHG emissions as compared to
fossil fuels.
Principle 4 Human and Labor rights
Biofuel operations shall not violate human rights or labor rights,and shall promote decent work and the well-being of workers.
Principle 5 Rural ad Social Development
In regions of poverty, biofuel operations shall contribute to the
social and economic development of local, rural and indigenous
people and communities.
Principle 6 Local food security
Biofuel operations shall ensure the human right to adequate
food and improve food security in food insecure regions.
Principle 7 - Conservation
Biofuel operations shall avoid negative impacts on biodiversity,
ecosystems, and conservation values.
Principle 8 - Soil
Biofuel operations shall implement practices that seek to revers
soil degradation and/or maintain soil health.
Principle 9 Water
Biofuel operations shall maintain or enhance the quality and
quantity of surface and ground water resources, and respect
prior formal or customary water rights.
Principle 10 - Air
Air pollution from biofuel operations shall be minimized along
the supply chain.
Principle 11 - Use of technology, Inputs, and Management of
waste
The use of technologies in biofuel operations shall seek to
maximize production efficiency and social and environmental
performance, and minimize the risk of damages to the
environment and people.
Principle 12 Land rights
Biofuel operations shall respect land rights and land use rights.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
16/18
15
Outlook
Creating a long term and sustainable future for aviation during the first half of this century requires
major transitions. Increased efficiency in aircraft performance and responsible growth are key
components of such a transition. Nevertheless, even when all possibilities to reduce energy use, global
growth in demand is expected to lead to substantial increases in fuel demand. For aviation, liquid fuels
remain the energy carrier of choice and therefore sustainable (renewable) fuels from biomass are at the
heart of a transition strategy. Hydrogen (e.g. produced via renewable electricity or by conversion of
fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage) still meets fundamental technical difficulties.
Biofuels produced from sustainable feedstocks are essential. Current, first generation biofuels can
play a role on short to medium term but are constrained in their potential and outlook. What is essential
is to walk down the learning curve to develop competitive technologies for biomass conversion to
high quality fuels and to build production capacity for sustainable biomass. Both will require time, in
particular when 2nd
and 3rd
generation biofuels are concerned.
Potentials for those biofuels are large and they can become competitive with fossil fuels on medium
term (2020-2030) under the condition that technologies are scaled-up and optimized and mature and
sustainable markets for biomass supplies are developed. Proper governance of land use and effectivesustainability frameworks are an essential prerequisite to achieve that.
Assuming that such a pathway will be pursued by key sectors (such as aviation) energy companies, the
agricultural sector and governments, it is feasible to achieve large scale deployment of 2nd generation
capacity between 2020 and 2030 (e.g. covering 10-20% of fuel demand in aviation). When such a phase
is reached, market demand and improved capabilities in the agricultural and biofuel sector can turn such
fuels into sustainable commodities. Than the market can mature and between 2040 and 2050 the larger
share of fuel demand could be covered by sustainable biofuels. It is possible that sustained Research and
Development efforts result in successful large scale production of algae at attractive cost levels by that
time as well and thus 3rd
generation biofuels may contribute in addition to that.
Essential components to realize such a future vision are:
- Efficiency in aircraft, engines and flight planning should always be a priority; its potential is
however limited and to a large extent dependent and aircraft and engine manufacturers.
Sustained interest in and demand for high efficiency designs by airlines can support R&D and
market introduction.
- Strong investment in Research, Demonstration and deployment of key conversion technologies
- RDD&D on sustainable biomass production and supply systems for the coming 10-15 years. Set-
up full Field-to-Flight chains that have sound outlook for economic, sustainable production and
with significant potential for scale-up. This could include a limited number of distinctive andexemplary pilot chains that can dominate on shorter, medium and longer term with growing
level of sophistication in terms of technology and resource mobilization, but also with improved
perspectives in terms of volume and economics..
- Gradual scale up of conversion capacity and biomass supplies over the coming decades. Biomass
production and supply capacity needs to be developed in balance with improved agricultural
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
17/18
16
management to avoid conflicts with food supply and biodiversity. Pooling demand of different
airlines are at specific airports make an important contribution to achieving this.
- Internationally accepted and effective sustainability frameworks that are enforced by legal
requirements and backed by agro-ecological zoning by governments to secure sustainable land-
use.
In total, aviation can be a frontrunner in creating a sustainable demand for advanced biofuels in the
international market that can accelerate the development of sustainable biomass production, required
infrastructure and key technologies. By enforcing a demand for fully certified biofuels, their production
can deliver not only renewable and low GHG emission fuels, but also contribute to rural development
and better management of natural resources. Airlines and airports should get involved in upstream
activities for sustainable biofuel production. Airport could be a driving actor in themselves in the biofuel
market by pooling both supply of biofuel producers and the demand of different airlines. Long term
partnerships between airports and airlines on the one and frontrunner biomass and biofuel producers
on the other can be a key way to achieve that.
-
8/23/2019 White Paper on Sustainable Jet Fuel June 2012 Faaij Van Dijk
18/18
17
On the authors
Andr Faaij
Andr P.C. Faaij is Professor Energy System Analysis and Head of
Department at the Copernicus Institute of Utrecht University. He has a
background in chemistry and environmental sciences and holds a Ph.D. on
energy production from biomass and wastes. He worked as visiting
researcher at Princeton University and Kings College - London University.
He is a member of a variety of expert groups in bio-energy and energy policy,
research and strategic planning. He works as an advisor for governments, the
EC, IEA, the UN system, GEF, OECD, WEF, the energy sector & industry,
strategic consultancy, NGOs, etc. He is appointed Young Global Leader at the
World Economic Forum.
Since 2004 he is Task Leader of Task 40 under the Bio-energy Agreement of the International Energy
Agency on Sustainable International Bio-energy Trade securing supply & demand, a global network
with 14 countries.
In 2008, he joined the IPCC team as Convening Lead Author to draft the Special Report on Renewable
Energy as well as the new Global Energy Assessment (GEA). Currently, he is Lead Author on Energy
Systems for the IPCC 5th assessment report. He published over 600 titles in scientific journals, reports,
books and proceedings, qualifies as highly cited scientist (top 1%) of his field, is frequently visible in
media and lecturing across the globe.
Maarten van Dijk
Maarten van Dijk works for SkyNRG, the KLM Joint venture that has as
mission to make the market for sustainable jet fuel. At SkyNRG he isresponsible for Business Development and Sustainability. He focuses on
feedstock and technology development, upstream investments and
sustainability. He is SkyNRGs representative in their Independent
Sustainability Board, is in the Steering Board of the Roundtable on
Sustainable Biofuels and holds a seat in the Advisory Board for the
Renewable Jet Fuel Initiative of the Carbon War Room.
Maarten studied Chemistry at Utrecht University, focusing his second Master on Renewable Energy
Technologies. Before joining SkyNRG he worked for Spring Associates, dedicated to business
development, modeling and due diligence in the clean tech sector. In this function he was involved in
the development of the biofuel strategy for KLM Royal Dutch Airlines.